Analytics of air samples collected with an apparatus
coupled to UAV in air quality monitoring
Michał Adamski, Agata Dąbrowska
Adam Mickiewicz University, Faculty of Chemistry,
Department of Trace Analysis, Poznań, Poland
{michal.adamski, agatadab}@amu.edu.pl
Abstract —One of the greatest challenges of modern civilization
has become the reduction of human impact on climate change.
The main factor in the occurrence of disturbing phenomena re-
lated to global warming is atmospheric pollution. Emissions of
toxic gases also directly affect human and animal health. There-
fore, new precise, flexible, and versatile methods for real-time
and off-line measurements and monitoring of the air quality are
developed. In this paper effective analytical methods for deter-
mining air samples collected using unmanned aerial vehicles is
presented. With the measurement apparatus coupled with UAV
it is possible to collect samples from chosen places including those
which are dangerous or hard to reach.
Keywords — air pollution; air quality index (AQI); air quality
monitoring; chromatographic analysis; unmanned aerial vehicle
I. INTRODUCTION
Air pollution is a major global problem, affecting both hu-
man and animal health and directly affecting the climate situa-
tion on our planet. [1] Undesirable chemicals released into the
atmosphere include nitrogen oxides (NxOy), sulfur dioxide
(SO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon monoxide and dioxide
(CO, CO2), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The
emission of toxic gases into the atmosphere contributes, among
other things, to upper respiratory diseases such as chronic
bronchitis, respiratory failure, allergic diseases, and can also
lead to the development of cardiovascular diseases and even
cancer because some of the compounds emitted into the atmos-
phere have carcinogenic properties, such as benzene and ben-
zo(α)pyrene from the group of polycyclic aromatic hydrocar-
bons (PAHs) [2]. Nowadays, we are also increasingly observ-
ing side effects, for example, in the form of prolonged periods
of drought or violent atmospheric phenomena. Considering the
above, it is important to immediately minimize the human im-
pact on the emission of harmful chemicals into the atmosphere,
on the other hand, to develop effective methods of monitoring
the state of air quality. Monitoring the concentration of harmful
chemical compounds makes it possible, among other things, to
react early, to develop effective procedures to reduce pollution
in vulnerable areas, and to locate potential sources of emis-
sions. The European Union has set the daily limit value for par-
ticulate matter of up to 10 µm diameter (PM10) in the air as
50 µg/m3 (for maximum of 35 days per year) and the annual
average of maximum of 40 µg/m3 [3].
Adam Dąbrowski, Adam Konieczka
Division of Signal Processing and Electronic Systems,
Institute of Automation and Robotics,
Poznan University of Technology, Poznań, Poland
{adam.dabrowski, adam.konieczka}@put.poznan.pl
At present, there are a number of solutions for monitoring
the quality of the environment with particular emphasis on air
pollution. One way of monitoring is the real-time determina-
tion of selected toxic compounds using specialized electro-
chemical sensors. Depending on the methods used to detect
harmful chemicals, specifically electrochemical sensors, we
can divide them into two basic groups: methods using highly
specialized, precise and very expensive measuring devices
(e.g., measuring stations of provincial environmental inspec-
torates) and comprehensively available, low-cost but low-
precision electrochemical sensors (e.g., Airly or LookO2 air
quality monitoring systems) [4, 5]. The main disadvantage of
devices from the first group is their very high cost, limiting
versatile use. The second issue is related to the possibility of
performing measurements only in a specific location due to
their stationary nature, so that the measurement data obtained
covers only a small, selected part of the agglomeration. In con-
trast, comprehensively available, inexpensive solutions are
characterized by a low degree of precision, which is not veri-
fied in any way during operation. For this reason, the results
obtained are used only for indicative determination of the threat
of environmental (air) pollution by harmful chemical com-
pounds.
A third approach, which perfectly complements the above
two, is the use of apparatus to take air samples from selected
areas, characterized by, for example, particularly high concen-
trations of pollutants, for further analysis in a stationary labora-
tory. Laboratory analyses are most often performed based on
chromatographic analysis techniques, allowing the determina-
tion of selected chemical compounds at very low concentration
levels (<10 ppt) [6, 7]. For this purpose, commercially availa-
ble sorbent tubes containing a suitable sorbent selected for the
compound or group of compounds to be determined and the
method of their determination (GC or HPLC) are mostly used.
The two methods of monitoring the air quality index (AQI),
both with apparatus providing real-time data and allowing
sampling for further analysis in a stationary laboratory, can be
supported by the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) [8–
16]. Unmanned aerial vehicles can be small, mobile, and have
the ability to hover at a selected point, which makes them an
ideal platform for carrying specialized control and measure-
ment apparatus. Due to their characteristics, they can also be
used to monitor or obtain samples from places that are difficult
to access and have a high degree of danger, such as the outlet
of industrial chimneys, volcanic craters, etc.
This article focuses on the chemical analytical determina-
tion of air samples obtained using an apparatus which can be
coupled to an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) that allows aspi-
ration of compounds onto a sorption bed inside sorption tubes.
II. SOURCES AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution can be caused both by the occurrence of nat-
ural phenomena such as forest fires and volcanic eruptions as
well as by human impact. Unfortunately, with the increase in
pollution, we are also observing the phenomenon of the so-
called feedback loop, i.e. the intensification of the occurrence
of the problem of adverse phenomena associated with climate
change (droughts, fires, release of methane from permafrost
areas in the Siberian area), which accelerate and exacerbate
the climate crisis [17].
Within natural emissions, abiotic, or non-living, sources
are distinguished. Among them can be identified, among oth-
ers, the blowing of matter from desert areas, volcanic erup-
tions and rock erosion. A different type of natural emission is
the formation of marine and oceanic aerosols, which contain
large amounts of mineral salts, most often soluble in water.
They are often characterized by health-promoting properties.
However, salt aerosols also accelerate corrosion of any matter
susceptible to it. In addition, their presence causes rapid sedi-
mentation of other, usually harmful, dust pollutants. Another
source of dust emission is forest fires generated both by spon-
taneous ignition of dry ground and by volcanic eruption. This
source generates large amounts of suspended matter, formed
by the compaction of tree minerals and their emissions into the
atmosphere. Consequently, even if these emissions are short-
lived, they cause significant atmospheric pollution analogous
to that caused by household heating with wood. Natural dust
pollutants originating from biological processes include pollen
from grasses, flowers, cereals, bacteria, fungal spores or, even-
tually, epidermis. These elements can be a significant compo-
nent of pollution in the immediate human environment and
cause allergies. In addition to abiotic sources, a huge contribu-
tion to the emission of harmful gases comes from animal hus-
bandry, on an unprecedented scale. Methane emitted from an-
imals is an accelerator of global warming [18].
There are many sources of emissions of pollutants directly
related to human activity, and we can divide them into four
main categories: energy, industrial, communications and mu-
nicipal/commercial [19]. However, it should be noted that in
recent years, environmental regulations have significantly re-
duced or eliminated dust emissions from industry, including
thermal power plants using solid fuels. This has been followed
by the obligation to reduce dust emissions, through the instal-
lation of electrostatic precipitators, cyclones or water curtains,
by industries producing construction materials, including ce-
ment plants. This has eliminated the problem of mineral emis-
sions from this source. The situation is similar in the chemical
and metallurgical industries. A separate issue is the emissions
caused by agricultural activities. It consists of two different
sources: soil erosion caused by soil disturbance and fertiliza-
tion, and dust emissions emitted by the mature crop. The char-
acteristics of these emissions vary and depend on the seasons.
Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that the contribution of
agriculture to the emission of suspended matter and its envi-
ronmental effects is much smaller than the consequences of
so-called low emissions, which is today the largest anthropo-
genic source of particulate air pollution. Today, the largest
source of toxic chemical emissions into the atmosphere is the
so-called low emission, which poses a threat to the residents of
most localities, especially those located in areas with terrain
unfavorable to the exchange of air masses, and is generated by
diffuse sources – stationary (mainly household stoves and lo-
cal solid-fuel-fired boiler plants) and mobile (related to trans-
portation). Sources of low emissions primarily include domes-
tic solid-fuel furnaces and vehicles moving due to fuel com-
bustion. One definition defines low emissions as a source of
pollution located up to a height of 40 meters. In practice, seri-
ous exceedances of atmospheric air parameters caused by low
emissions are observed during the heating season – autumn
and winter. The low quality of fossil fuels used and the burn-
ing of waste also contribute significantly to air pollution.
Anthropogenic emissions, despite their smaller contribu-
tion to total suspended matter emissions than natural emis-
sions, pose a significant threat to humans and the environment
mainly due to the chemical composition of pollutants from
low emissions [2]. Dust emitted from low emissions contains a
relatively high amount of sulfur, which is part of fossil fuels
and organic matter and enters the air as a result of combustion.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and volatile organic com-
pounds are formed under conditions of improper fuel combus-
tion and waste incineration. These compounds are hazardous
to health and potentially considered carcinogenic. The com-
bustion of municipal waste (containing PVC) in domestic fire-
places is also accompanied by the formation of chlorinated ar-
omatic compounds. The occurrence of such substances is not
found in pollution from natural emissions. As a result, emis-
sions of suspended matter associated with human activity pol-
lute the atmosphere with compounds that are not formed under
natural conditions or have never been emitted over the course
of history.
The sources of dust emissions, although they can be sepa-
rated into natural and those associated with human activity, are
both an economic and social problem, not to mention the health
consequences. There is no denying that most emission sources
cannot be eliminated from the human environment. What is
worth considering is the question of how emissions can be re-
duced or how to protect oneself from them. To cope with such
a task, monitoring and analytical methods are needed to esti-
mate emissions, study the chemical composition and physical
properties of particles of suspended matter emitted into the at-
mosphere.
III. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF AIR SAMPLES
One way to monitor air quality is to take samples for fur-
ther analysis in a stationary laboratory [8–11, 15, 16]. For this
purpose, the most common equipment used is an apparatus
that allows air samples to be collected on sorption tubes filled
with a suitable bed, on which the analyzed chemical com-
pounds are absorbed. Samples delivered to the laboratory are
then analyzed using chromatographic techniques: gas chroma-
tography coupled with mass detection (GC/MS), electron cap-
ture detector (GC/ECD) and flame ionization detector
(GC/FID) and high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC) most often in configuration with UV-VIS or DAD de-
tector. These techniques allow to obtain very precise results of
a wide range of chemical compounds, which translates into in-
formation on the concentration of contaminants at a given time
in a specific area where sampling was performed. The results
of chemical analysis can also provide possible confirmation of
data on the contamination obtained by online (real-time)
measurement techniques. The entire analytical method in-
cludes several important steps, which will be presented later in
the article.
3.1. Selection of sorption tubes. Air samples are taken us-
ing sorption tubes (e.g., from SKC) filled with a deposit se-
lected for the compound or group of compounds to be deter-
mined and the method of determination (GC or HPLC) [20].
The most commonly used beds: silica gel, activated carbon,
Anasorb, Tenax, XAD, Chromosorb, Porapak. For example,
Tenax is a relatively weak sorbent that collects components
with volatility lower than benzene (e.g., >C6), including mon-
oterpenes, C10, and sesquiterpenes, C15, while Chromosorb is
used to capture low-boiling hydrocarbons, benzene, labile
compounds and volatile oxygen compounds. Silica gel is an
adsorbent material for sampling polar hydrocarbons, low mo-
lecular weight mercaptans, methanol, amines and inorganic
acids. Tubes with silica gel treated with, for example, 2,4-
dinitrophenylhydrazine for sampling aldehydes are also used.
Both ends of the sorption tube are factory sealed through a
glass sinter, ensuring that any potential contamination of the
bed is avoided before use (Figure 1). The glass sinter is re- Figure 1. Sorption tube (SKC) filled with deposit (silica gel, activated
moved when the tubes are placed in the apparatus. The sample carbon, glass wool) [21]
volume (depending on the expected concentration of the com-
pounds to be determined) is regulated by the precise sampling 3.2. Extraction of analytes from the sorption bed. There
time of the air stream, with a constant flow rate. are two methods for desorption of analytes from the bed:
thermal (usually using a thermal desorber) or with organic
In order to investigate sampling artifacts, such as passive
solvents. In the case of liquid desorption, a sorbent bed con-
diffusion of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into the tube,
taining analytes is placed in a beaker containing 5 ml or 10 ml
blanks (sorption tubes on which analytes were not absorbed)
of solvent (e.g., methanol), after the extraction time (desorp-
are also determined in the lab. After the sampling is complet-
tion of analytes from the bed), usually determined experimen-
ed, absorbing a certain volume of the air sample onto the bed
tally, about 1–2h, the sample is filtered through filter paper for
(including the analytes of interest), the tubes are disassembled
further preparation for analysis. After the initial extraction of
from the apparatus, secured with leak-proof plugs and trans-
compounds from the bed, some of them are subjected to direct
ported to the stationary laboratory as soon as possible.
chromatographic analysis to determine the concentration in the
sample. In the case of higher concentrations of selected com-
pounds (samples taken directly from above point emission
sources, such as chimneys), additional dilution of the sample
is applied before analysis, if necessary.
3.3. Derivatization. In the case of the analysis of some
compounds (especially aldehydes – formaldehyde, which are
polar, volatile, easily soluble in water), occurring at low con-
centrations, a special sample preparation step is required to
convert them into more stable forms. For this purpose, a
method related to the preliminary derivatization with a deri-
vatizing reagent is used. PFBOA (O - (2, 3, 4, 5, 6 - pen-
tafluorobenzyl) - hydroxylamine) is most commonly used for
this purpose [22]. The derivatization method consists in trans-
forming the analytes into suitable derivatives with the desired
properties that allow their determination. The timing of the
derivatization process and the concentration of the derivatizing
reagent are chosen experimentally.
3.4. Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME)
technique. Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME)
was introduced in 2006 by Rezaee et al. [23] for preconcentra-
tion of organic analytes from aqueous matrices, so for samples
absorbed onto sorption tubes, pre-extraction of the analytes
with an organic solvent (e.g., methanol) is required. Important
parameters of the DLLME method are the selection of the ap-
propriate extracting and dispersing solvent and their volumes.
Methanol, acetonitrile or acetone are most commonly used as
the dispersing solvent. Ideally, it should be the same as that
used in the initial extraction of analytes from the deposit. The
second important factor is the selection of a suitable extract-
ant, which should have a chemical structure that ensures a
high partition coefficient of the analyte between water and the
extractant.
This method involves the rapid introduction of a mixture
of appropriately selected extractant and dispersing solvent into
an aqueous sample containing analytes using a microliter sy-
ringe. This results in the formation of small droplets that are
dispersed in the aqueous sample. Once a cloudy solution is
formed, the surface area between the extractant and the aque-
ous sample becomes very large due to the increase in interfa-
cial area. The equilibrium state of the reaction is reached rela-
tively quickly, so the extraction time is short. The turbid solu-
tion is centrifuged and the extractant, which is denser than wa-
ter, is deposited at the bottom of the tube. The bottom phase is
then collected for determination by gas or liquid chromatog-
raphy, for example. A schematic representation of the
DLLME method is shown in Figure 2.
The method can also be modified using a freezing process
of an appropriately selected extractant in terms of polarity,
density and melting point, the so-called floating organic drop-
let freezing process (dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction
based on solidification of floating organic droplet DLLME-
SFO) [24]. Cyclohexane was used as the extractant (the most
favorable recoveries were achieved at a volume of 200 µl). It
is easy to freeze it after centrifugation (centrifugation time 3
min, 4000 rpm) and separate it from the matrix as frozen drop-
lets for further analysis. As a dispersing solvent, for example,
methanol can be used in this case.
Figure 2. Schematic flow of the DLLME method: 1. aqueous sample to be
tested, prior to injection of extractant-dispersant solvent; 2. injection of
solvent mixture into the sample; 3. cloudy sample after injection of the
mixture; 4. centrifuged sample, sedimentation phase; 5. collection of
sedimentation phase
3.5. Chromatographic determination of samples. After
preparing the samples, they are subjected to chromatographic
analysis on an appropriately selected chromatographic column
and with the setting of the correct parameters of the device
(carrier gas flow, temperature, time).
Considering the characteristics of the chemical compounds
under study, various chromatographic configurations differing
in the choice of detection method can be used for their separa-
tion and proper identification. For example, a gas chromato-
graph coupled to a mass spectrometry detector (GC/MS), is a
universal detector with a wide range of applications, a flame
ionization detector (FID) is used mainly for the determination
of compounds containing carbon (e.g., hydrocarbons) Electron
capture detector (ECD) is a selective detector for compounds
containing atoms from the group of halogens (e.g. organochlo-
rine compounds, after derivatization). Gas chromatography
coupled with thermal conductivity detector (TCD, catharome-
ter) is also universal type suitable for detection of e.g. ammo-
nia (NH3), NOx, CO, CO2 (with methanizer). High perfor-
mance liquid chromatography (HPLC) most often in configu-
ration with UV-VIS or DAD detector is also a frequently cho-
sen solution for air samples determination.
The final choice of configuration depends on type, the
range of compounds to be tested and the availability of analyt-
ical equipment.
IV. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Air pollution is becoming a growing global problem, so
more and more new methods of monitoring air quality are be-
ing developed. Unmanned aerial vehicles are becoming an im-
portant tool in the fight for cleaner air. They are relatively in-
expensive and easy to use, allow sampling from hard-to-reach
places also close to ground level, the ability to hover makes
them ideal for point source pollution analysis.
A wide range of sensors can be attached to UAVs, which
provide continuous monitoring of various parameters such as
temperature, humidity, pressure, CO2, CO, NO2, NO content,
number of particles, their size and distribution or even total
concentration of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Howev-
er, a wide range of active sampling systems, including those
based on air sampling onto sorption tubes for further analysis
in stationary laboratories, are still commonly used to analyze
individual compounds in samples. Off-line techniques are an
excellent complement to real-time air pollution monitoring.
This article presents an example of an analytical method
that can be successfully used to analyze air samples without
the need for expensive solutions such as thermal desorbers.
The future of UAVs in air quality applications is promis-
ing, but there are still some challenges that need to be solved
for widespread use of UAVs for air quality measurements.
One of them is the standardization of analytical methods used
in stationary laboratories, which will certainly have an impact
on the validation of the data obtained and the possibility of
further use.
The work was supported with the research subsidy 0211/SBAD/0222.
 REFERENCES
[1] W. Urbaniak, “Problems of monitoring air pollution”, Polish Association
of Sanitary Engineers and Technicians, ISBN 978-83-64959-00-4,
Poznań 2017.
[2] P. Kleczkowski, “Smog w Polsce. Przyczyny, skutki, przeciwdziałanie”
(“Smog in Poland. Causes, effects, prevention”), PWN, Warszawa 2019.
[3] “Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on
air quality and clean air for Europe”, 21st May 2008, https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32008L0050&
from=en (accessed on July 1, 2022).
[4] airly, https://airly.org/pl (accessed on July 1, 2022).
[5] Sensor.Community, https://sensor.community/en/ (accessed on July 1,
2022).
[6] J.F. Pankow, W. Luo, A.N. Melnychenko, K.C. Barsanti, L.M. Isabelle,
C. Chen, A.B. Guenther, and T.N. Rosenstiel, “Volatilizable Biogenic
Organic Compounds (VBOCs) with two dimensional Gas
Chromatography-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (GC × GC-TOFMS):
sampling methods, VBOC complexity, and chromatographic retention
data”, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 5, pp. 345–361, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-
5-345-2012, 2012.
[7] J. Hoker, F. Obersteiner, H. Bönisch, and A. Engel, “Comparison of
GC/time-of-flight MS with GC/quadrupole MS for halocarbon trace gas
analysis”, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 8, pp. 2195–2206, https://doi.org/10.
5194/amt-8-2195-2015, 2015.
[8] J. Chen, A. Scircle, O. Black, J. V. Cizdziel, N. Watson, D. Wevill, and Y.
Zhou, “On the use of multicopters for sampling and analysis of volatile or-
ganic compounds in the air by adsorption/thermal desorption GC-MS”, Air
Quality, Atmosphere & Health (2018), pp. 11:835–842, doi.org/10.1007/
s11869-018-0588-y.
[9] O. Black, J. Chen, A. Scircle, Y. Zhou, and J. V. Cizdziel, “Adaption and
use of a quadcopter for targeted sampling of gaseous mercury in the at-
mosphere”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2018), pp.
25:13195–13202, doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-1775-y.
[10] J. Ruiz-Jimenez, N. Zanca, H. Lan, M. Jussila, K. Hartonen, and M-L.
Riekkola, “Aerial drone as a carrier for miniaturized air sampling sys-
tems”, Journal of Chromatography A, 1597 (2019), pp. 202–208, doi.org/
10.1016/j.chroma.2019.04.009.
[11] C-C. Chang, J.-L. Wang, C-Y. Chang, M-C. Liang, M-R. Lin, and “Devel-
opment of a multicopter carried whole air sampling apparatus and its ap-
plications in environmental studies”, Chemosphere 144 (2016), pp. 484–
492, doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.08.028.
[12] S. Beryozkina, N. Al-Shakhs, “Real-life Application of the Emission Mon-
itoring System by Using a Drone”, 2020 IEEE International Conference on
Environment and Electrical Engineering and 2020 IEEE Industrial and
Commercial Power Systems Europe (EEEIC / I&CPS Europe), 2020, pp.
1–6, doi: 10.1109/EEEIC/ICPSEurope49358.2020.9160738.
[13] J. Wivou, L. Udawatta, A. Alshehhi, E. Alzaabi, A. Albeloshi, and S. Al-
falasi, “Air quality monitoring for sustainable systems via drone-based
technology”, 2016 IEEE International Conference on Information and Au-
tomation for Sustainability (ICIAfS), 2016, pp. 1–5, doi: 10.1109/ICIAFS.
2016.7946542.
[14] A.J. Alabdullah, B. I. Farhat, and S. Chtourou, “Air Quality Arduino
Based Monitoring System”, 2019 2nd International Conference on Com-
puter Applications & Information Security (ICCAIS), 2019, pp. 1–5, doi:
10.1109/CAIS.2019.8769529.
[15] M. Adamski, W. Urbaniak, A. Dąbrowska, and A. Dąbrowski, “Unmanned
aircraft testing for monitoring of pollution in the environment”, Electrical
Review, Vol. 94, No. 9, 2018, pp. 14–17.
[16] K.A. McKinney et al., “A sampler for atmospheric volatile organic com-
pounds by copter unmanned aerial vehicles”, Atmospheric Measurement
Techniques, 12(6), pp. 3123–3135. doi:10.5194/amt-12-3123-2019.
[17] T. Sachs, M. Giebels, J. Book, and L. Kutzbach, “Environmental controls
on CH4emission frompolygonal tundra on the microsite scale in the Lena
river delta, Siberia”, Global Change Biology (2010)16, pp. 3096–3110,
Blackwell Publishing Ltd., doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02232.x3096r
2010.
[18] A.-I. Totolici, S. Mitrea, A.T. Cioloca, A. Lupu, P.M. Móricz, D.
Muntean, R. Negre, A. Topîrceanu, M.Ț., and D. Iordache, “Breathing
chemicals: a review of air pollution over the years”, Studia Universitatis
Babeş-Bolyai Biologia, 67, 1, 2022, pp. 177–198, doi:10.24193/subbbiol.
2022.1.10.
[19] M. Li, H. Liu, G. Geng, C. Hong, F. Liu, Y. Song, D. Tong, B. Zheng, H.
Cui, H. Man, Q. Zhang, and K. He, “Anthropogenic emission inventories
in China: a review”, National Science Review 4, pp. 834–866, 2017, doi:
10.1093/nsr/nwx150.
[20] SKC Ltd – Workplace/Environmental Air Sampling Equipment & Acce-
ssories, https://www.skcltd.com/products-category/101-sorbent-tubes.
html (accessed on July 1, 2022).
[21] SKC Ltd – Workplace/Environmental Air Sampling Equipment & Acce-
ssories, https://www.skcltd.com/index.php/sorbent-tubes/9-uncategorised/
167-silica-gel-tubes (accessed on July 1, 2022).
[22] M. Bao, F. Pantani, O. Griffini, D. Burrini, D. Santianni, and K. Barbieri,
“Determination of carbonyl compounds in water by derivatization–solid-
phase microextraction and gas chromatographic analysis”, Journal of
Chromatography A, 1998, Vol. 809, pp. 75–87.
[23] M. Rezaee, Y. Assadi, M.R. Milani Hosseini, E. Aghaee, F. Ahmadi, and
S. Berijani, “Determination of organic compounds in water using
dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction”, J. Chromatogr. A 1116 (2006)
pp. 1–9.
[24] L. Lili, H. Xu, D. Song, Y. Cui, S. Hu, and G. Zhang, “Analysis of
volatile aldehyde biomarkers in human blood by derivatization and
dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction based on solidification of
floating organic droplet method by high performance liquid
chromatography”, Journal of Chromatography A, 1217 (2010) pp. 2365–
2370.