AMBO UNIVERSITY

RESEARCH METHODS AND REPORT WRITING MODULE (ENLA 3111)

Compiled by Almaz Niguse

october, 2022

Ambo

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MODULE INTRODUCTION
In this module, you will be acquainted with research and how to conduct it. To begin with,
human beings’ desire to know more about their world and themselves has lead them from
primitive way of thinking and living to modern way of scientific living and thinking. From an
approach of life of mysticism, dogma, and the drawback of unsystematic observation based up
on personal experience, they have examined to think the process of thinking itself to develop the
method of deductive- inductive thinking which has become the root for the foundation of
scientific method. It was only when people began to think systematically about a phenomena
that the time of reasoning (logic) began. This helps them to know the emergence of the patterns
that are useful in identifying the elements of inductive-deductive method. This process includes
the concept of the research in modern sense such as avenue of quest, inquisition or
investigation, specific or well defined domain, and a well laid hypothesis, capable of being
based up on observable data, scientific techniques of analysis and logical interpretation of
results. On the other hand, conducting research is important to gain familiarity with a
phenomenon, to discover new facts, to verify and test facts, to develop new scientific tools, to
find solutions to scientific and social problems and to solve the problems occurring in everyday
life.

This module, therefore, tries to cover most areas related to research and writing the report. Thus,
it consists of four units. Unit one presents concepts of research. The second unit presents about
research design and systematic process of conducting research. Unit three focuses on sample,
sampling techniques and instruments of data collection briefly. Unit four deals with research
proposal and research report writing.

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UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
1.1 Meaning of Research

 Research is a search for knowledge.

 It is also known as a scientific and systematic search for information on a
particular topic or issue.

Even though scholars define the term research in various ways, here are some basic definitions.

According to Best and Kahn (2003), research can be defined as a systematic and scholarly
application of the scientific methods. It involves an intensive process of carrying on scientific
method of analysis and scientific structure of investigation.

Similarly, Mattix (2003) defines research as systematic and refined techniques of thinking,
employing standardized tools and procedures to get more adequate solution of a problem.
Sharma (2004) also defined research as a method of critical thinking. He states that research is a
method for the discovery of truth which can be seen as practical thinking. It comprises defining
and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggesting solutions, collecting, organizing
and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching at conclusions and at least carefully testing
and determining the hypothesis formulated.

On the other hand, Seliger and Shohamy (1989) tried to differentiate scientific research from
common sense knowledge by using expressive terms and concepts like ‘organized’, ‘structured’,
‘methodical’, ‘systematic’, ‘testable’, and by the notion of disciplined inquiry. Singh (2006) also
defined research as the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles or theories resulting
in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events.

In general, research is an original addition to the available knowledge which contributes to its
further advancement. Thus, research is the search for knowledge using objective and systematic
method to find solution to a problem.

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1.1 Quality Criteria

Good research is characterized by evidence that is trustworthy, applicable to practical settings,

consistent, and neutral (unbiased. A good research is characterized by the following traits-
validity and reliability.

1.1.1 Validity

Validity is a requirement for both quantitative and qualitative/naturalistic research. While earlier
versions of validity were based on the view that it was essentially a demonstration that a
particular instrument in fact measures what it purports to measure. More recently, validity has
taken many forms.

For example, in qualitative data, validity might be addressed through the honesty, depth, richness
and scope of the data achieved, the participants approached, the extent of triangulation and the
disinterestedness or objectivity of the researcher (Winter, 2000). In quantitative data, validity
might be improved through careful sampling, appropriate instrumentation and appropriate
statistical treatments of the data. It is impossible for research to be 100 percent valid.

Below are different kinds of validity:-

content validity, face validity, criterion-related validity, construct validity, internal validity,
external validity, descriptive validity, interpretive validity, theoretical validity, evaluative
validity

Triangulation:-Triangulation may be defined as the use of two or more methods of data

collection in the study of some aspect of human behavior. And in its original and literal sense,
triangulation is a technique of physical measurement: maritime navigators, military strategists
and may be surveyors.

1.2.2 Reliability
At its most general level, reliability refers to the consistency or dependability of a measurement
technique (Andrich, 1981; Leary, 2004).

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Reliability as Stability: - In this form reliability is a measure of consistency over time and over
similar samples. A reliable instrument for a piece of research will yield similar data from similar
respondents over time.

A leaking tap which each day leaks one liter is leaking reliably whereas a tap which leaks one
liter some days and two liters on other is not. In the experimental and survey models of research
this would mean that if a test and then a retest were undertaken with in an appropriate time span,
then similar results would be obtained.

Reliability as stability can also best ability over a similar sample. For example, we would assume
that if we were to administer a test or a questionnaire simultaneously to two groups of students
who were very closely matched on significant characteristics (e.g. age, gender, ability etc. –
whatever characteristics are deemed to have a significant bearing, on the responses), then similar
results (on a test) or responses (to a questionnaire) would be obtained.

1.2.3 Accuracy accuracy refers to whether the measurement is correct whereas reliability refers
to whether the measurement is consistent.

1.2.4 Replicablity
This last point refers to whether the results of the original study are generalizable to other
groups of research participants. If the results of a study are replicated, the researchers—and the
field in which the researchers work—can have greater confidence in the reliability and
generalizability of the original findings.

1.3 Qualities of a Good Research and a Researcher

1.3.1 Qualities of a Good Research

One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and the common concepts be
used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit
another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement keeping the
continuity of what has already been attained.

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 3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned yield results that
are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design
and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the
data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a
good reputation in research and is a person of integrity. In other words, we can state
the qualities of a good research as under:
1. Good research is systematic: - It means that research is structured with specified
steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of
rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but
it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: - this implies that research is guided by the rules of
logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are great value
in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the
whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a
conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes
research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: - It implies that research is related basically to one or
more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for
external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: - This characteristic allows research results to be
verified by replicating the study and there by building a sound basis for decisions.
5. Controlled: in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. So, you
attempt to quality their impact their impact to have confidence in your research out
comes.

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 6. Rigorous: - A research must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed
to find answers to questions are relevant appropriate and justified.
7. Valid and Verifiable: - whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is
correct and verified by you and others.
1.3.2 Qualities of a Good Researcher
A researcher should be firmly committed to ‘articles of faith’ of the scientific method of
conducting research. Creswell (2007).

Below are identified some good qualities of a true researcher:

1. A true researcher should possess an alert mind. The nature of conducting

research may be constantly changing and revolving itself through various ways. A
scientific researcher must be keen and watchful to notice such changes and grasp
hint that may culminate into significant research problems. It is a mark of scientific
genius to be sensitive to difficulties.
2. A true researcher is the one who learns and recognizes the art of enduring
intellectual hardship. Scientific inquiry is a presently an intellectual effort that
requires moral quality of courage.
3. The nature of the researcher must be of the personality that vibrates an
agreement with the theme which he/ she is searching, hence, must be truthful
with the truthfulness of nature.
Morrison et al (2007) also put two important qualities of a researcher.
1. A good researcher is the one who knows how to conduct research and 2. Introduces
a code of ethics.
Ethics is the systematic study of value, concept, good, bad, right, wrong, and the general
principles that justify applying these concepts.

Activity 6: Why is knowing research Ethics important? Discuss.

The codes of Ethics can be emanated from sources like theology, philosophy, culture, law,
science, sociology etc. It covers the following issues or aspects.

Anonymity:-You need to show that you are taking steps to ensure that what participants have
said cannot be traced back to them. I.e. how are you going to categories and store the

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information? How are you going to make sure it not easily accessible to anyone with
unscrupulous intention? Do you intend to change the names of people, towns and organizations?
If not, how will you ensure that what someone says cannot be used against them in the future?
However, you must be careful not to make promises that you cannot keep.
 Confidentiality:-You need to show that information supplied to you in confidence
will not be disclosed directly to third parties or to the third parties.
 Right to comment:- Some researchers believe that willing participants should be
consulted throughout the research process and that if someone is unhappy with the
emerging result, they have the right to comment and discuss alterations. Indeed, it
can also be seen as part of the research process itself.
 The final report: - It is useful for participants to know what is going to happen with
the results. Who receive free copy of the report? Will it be on public display?
 Data protection: - It covers issues such as acting fairly and lawfully; not keeping
the information longer necessary; making sure the data is accurate and kept secure.
 Personal data covers both facts and opinions about an individual.
2. A Good researcher is the one who is objective
According to Mattix (2003), researchers are still expected to step back from their own beliefs and
emotions to be objective and unbiased as much as possible. To maintain professional integrity,
they must be observant and open to new information, competent and honest, able to identify and
describe data accurately and able to understand what is occurring.

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 1.4 Classifications of Research

Research can be classified from different perspectives. These are: - goal/ application, objective,
types of information sought, types of data used and so on.
Classification of research from
the viewpoint of

Goal/ application Objectives Approaches Types of data

used

Design

Basic Applied Explanatory Exploratory Primary Secondary

Descriptive
research research research research research research
research

Action Ethnographi
research c research

Qualitative Quantitative
Experimental Non experimental research research
Quasi experimental

Chart 1: Classification of research (source: slightly adapted from Kumar, 1996)

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1.4. 1 Goal/ Application
The main goal of research is problem solving. The nature of problem that the research attempts
to solve could be theoretical or practical- building theory or solving immediate practical
problems. These two types of problems that the researcher tries to solve leads to two broad
classifications of research: namely basic research and applied research.

1.4.1.1 Basic research

Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and reasons for an occurrence of a

particular event or phenomenon. It is also called pure or fundamental or theoretical research. It is
conducted to add an organized body of scientific knowledge and doesn’t necessarily lead to
immediate use or application. It is not concerned with solving any practical problems of
immediate interest. But it is original or basic in character. It provides a systematic and deep
insight into a problem and it facilitates extraction of scientific and logical explanation and
conclusion on it helps build new frontiers of knowledge. The outcome of basic research forms
the bases for many applied research. The primary objective of basic research is invention or
discovery of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and formulation of theory.

1.4.1.2 Applied research

Applied research is conducted to solve immediate practical problems. For example research on
social problems has immediate use. It is helpful for basic research because in applied research
one solves certain problems by employing well known and accepted theories and principles.
Most of the experimental research, case studies, and interdisciplinary research are essentially
applied research.

Activity 2: Discuss about the differences between basic and applied researches.

In nut shell, the fundamental aim of applied research is to find the solution for a particular
problem which warrants solution for immediate use, whereas basic research is directed towards
finding information that has broad base of applications and thus add new information to the
already existing scientific knowledge.

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1.4.2 Objectives
Research addresses specific purposes. Therefore, research can be classified based on specific
objectives as:

 Descriptive research
 Explanatory research
 Exploratory research
 Ethnographic research
 Action Research

1.4.2.1 Descriptive Research

A study classified as descriptive attempts to describe and interpret what is. It looks at
individuals, groups, institutions, methods and materials in order to describe, compare, contrast,
classify, analyze and interpret the entities and the events that constitute the various fields of
inquiry. It aims to describe the state of affairs as it exists. It involves a variety of research
methods to achieve its goal. These methods are:

 Survey
 Co relational studies
 Observational studies
1.4.2.2 Explanatory or logical Research
The desire to know "why," to explain, is the purpose of explanatory research. It is a continuation
of descriptive research and builds on exploratory and descriptive research and goes on to identify
the reasons for something that occurs. The researcher explains why something is happening. So
an explanatory research looks for causes and reasons. For example, it is one thing to describe the
crime rate in a country, to examine trends over time or to compare the rates in different
countries. It is quite a different thing to develop explanations about why the crime rate is as high
as it is why some types of crime are increasing or why the rate is higher in some countries than in
others.
Explanatory research involves:
 Explaining things not just reporting. Why? Elaborating and enriching a theory's
explanation.

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  Determining which of several explanations is best.
 Determining the accuracy of the theory; test a theory's predictions or principle.
 Providing evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction.
 Testing a theory's predictions or principles.
There are two types of explanatory research:
I. Experimental research
II. Ex post facto research
I. Experimental Research
An experiment can in fact be defined as an attempt, within artificial conditions established by an
investigator, to test the influence of one or more variables upon others. In an experimental
situation, the researcher directly controls the relevant variables. Hence, in this respect,
experiments offer major advantages over other research procedures. Experiment as a mode of
scientific observation involves two major steps. (1) Taking action, and (2) observing the
consequences of that action. Social researchers using the experimental method typically select a
group of subjects, do something to them, and observe the effects of what was done.
It is worth noting that experiments also are used often in non-scientific human inquiry. In
preparing a stew, for example, we add salt, taste, add more salt, and taste again. In defusing a
bomb we clip a wire, observe whether the bomb explodes, and clip another. Experimentation is
better suited to explanatory than descriptive and exploratory purposes.
Types of Experiment
There are three kinds of experiments: (1) true experiments, (2) quasi-experiments, and (3) natural
experiments, the difference is in how much control you have over the design of the intervention
and the assignment of individuals to groups.
1. True Experiments
True experiments are again divided into three sub-types, namely, true experiments with people,
true experiments in the lab and true experiments in the field let us look at the two for time being.
(1) True experiments with people: are common in laboratory psychology and in the testing of
new medicines. In this type of experiment people with the same profile, for example, the same
age, gender, and level of education are selected and exposed to the same stimulus.

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(2) True experiments in the lab: Laboratory experiments often produce results that beg to be
tested in the natural world. Thus, lab experiments can test things in the real world and can
generate things to test in the real world.
2. Quasi-Experiments
Quasi-Experiments are more often used in evaluating social programs. Suppose a researcher has
invented a technique for improving reading comprehension among third graders. She selects two
third-grade classes in a school district. One of them gets the intervention and the other doesn’t.
Students are measured before and after the intervention to see whether their reading scores
improve. This design contains many of the elements of true experiment.
3. Natural Experiments
Whereas true experiments and quasi-experiments are conducted, and the results are evaluated,
natural experiments, by contrast, are not conducted by the researcher at all but are simply
evaluated — as they are going on around us all the time. The trick is to ask, "What hypothesis is
being tested by what's going on here?" To evaluate natural experiments — that is, to figure out
what hypothesis is being tested – one need to be alert to the possibilities and collect the right
data.
Example of Natural Experiments: An Irrigation Scheme in Mexico: There was a really
important natural experiment going in an area of Mexico. A major irrigation system had been
installed over a 30 years period in parts of a valley. Some of the villages affected by the
irrigation system were populated entirely by Ñahñu Indians; other villages were entirely mestizo.
Some of the Indian villages in the area were too high up the valley slope for the irrigation system
to reach.
The researcher, who finally studied the impacts of the intervention, could not have decided to run
this multimillion dollar irrigation system through certain villages and bypass others, but the
instant the decision was made by others, a natural experiment on the effects of a particular
intervention was set in motion. There was a treatment/intervention (irrigation), there were
treatment/intervention groups, and there were control groups.
Although this natural experiment was not conducted by the researcher, he could still evaluate this
natural experiment because he saw the possibilities early enough. He could undertake the
necessary pre-testing ahead of the intervention on a variety of dependent variables (village and
personal wealth, migration rates, alcoholism, etc.) that he believed would be affected by the

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coming of irrigation. Since he did so, he had baseline data and therefore was in a position to
assess the impacts of the treatment/intervention, namely the coming of the irrigation with
confidence.
In general, experimental research involves comparing two groups on one outcome measure to
test some hypothesis regarding causation. The key element in true experimental research is
scientific control and the ability to rule out alternative explanations. An experimenter interferes
with the natural course of events, in order to construct a situation in which competing theories
can be tested. It is the best method when the purpose of research is to determine causal
influences between variables. In experimental research, the researcher intentionally manipulates
one variable to measure its effect on the other.
II. Ex Post Facto Research
Ex post facto research is a method of teasing out possible antecedents of events that have
happened and cannot, therefore, be engineered or manipulated by the investigator. Ex post facto
in research means after the fact or retrospectively and refers to those studies which investigate
possible cause-and-effect relationships by observing an existing condition or state of affairs and
searching back in time for plausible causal factors.
If a researcher is interested in investigating the reasons why fatal traffic accident is increasing in
Ethiopia, he/she cannot do it by randomly assigning research participants into experimental and
control group. There is no way in which a researcher can study the actual accidents because they
have happened. What a researcher can do, however, is to attempt to reconstruct the causal link by
studying the statistics, examining the accident spots, and taking note of the statements given by
victims and witnesses. This means that a researcher is studying the independent variable or
variables in retrospect for their possible relationship to, and effects on, the dependent variable or
variables.
1.4.2.3 Exploratory Research

This research conducted to study the possibility of understanding a particular research study. It is
also called feasibility or pilot study. It is usually carried out when a researcher wants to explore
areas about which he or she has little or no knowledge. Its purpose is to gain background
information and better understanding a problem understudy. This type of research helps to:

 Determine the best research design,

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  Develop hypothesis,
 Develop questions to be answered,
 Understand how to measure a variable,
 Determine data collection techniques/tools,
 Determine the selection of subjects.

The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but
they can provide significant insight into a given situation. To put it in nut shell, exploratory
research is a precursor to a more formal study. It helps to save time and resources.

1.4.2.4 Ethnography

Ethnography is the work of describing a culture. The essential core of this activity aims to
understand another way of life from the native point of view. "Ethnography is one of the most
popular approaches to qualitative research in education. The word ethnography literally means
“writing about people.” When ethnographers conduct research, they are interested in describing
the culture of a group of people and learning what it is like to be a member of the group from the
perspective of the members of that group. Ethnographers try to use holistic descriptions; that is,
they try to describe how the members of a group interact and how they come together to make up
the group as a whole. The main research method associated with ethnography, is participant
observation.

1.4.2.5 Action Research

AR is a practical way of looking at your practice to check whether it is as you feel it should be. If
you feel that your practice needs attention in some way you will be able to take action to improve
it, and then produce evidence to show in what way the practice has improved. It is done by you,
the practitioner. It is a form of research which can be undertaken by people in any context,
regardless of their status or position. It involves you thinking carefully about what you are
doing, it is self-reflective practice. Action research involves learning through action and
reflection: Action research:
• involves researching your own practice – it is not about people out there;
• is emergent/developing; facilitates changes
• is participatory;

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 • constructs theory from practice;
• is situation-based;
• can be useful in real problem-solving;
• deals with individuals or groups with a common purpose of improving practice, &
• involves analysis, reflection and evaluation

1.5 Research Approaches (Classification Based on Information Sought)

Quantitative and qualitative methods raise a number of fundamental epistemological issues and
visions of what science is. Each method derives from contrasting academic and philosophical
traditions. Quantitative methods are identified with the so-called ‘‘hard science’’ disciplines
whereas qualitative methods with the social sciences.

1.5.1 Qualitative Research

Qualitative research involves studies that do not attempt to quantify their results through
statistical summary or analysis. It seeks to describe various aspects about behavior and other
factors studied in the social sciences and humanities. In qualitative research, data are often in the
form of descriptions, not numbers. But sometimes, results of it are subjected to relatively less
rigorous quantitative treatment. Often the goal of qualitative research is to look for meaning.
That is, stress is laid on the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship
between the research and researched and situational constraints that shape the enquiry.
It is characterized by loyalty to diverse array of orientations and strategies for maximizing the
validity of trustworthiness of study procedures and results. It is thus a type of empirical enquiry
that entails purposive sampling for gathering data. It typically involves in-depth interviews,
group discussions, artifact studies, projective techniques, and observations without formal
measurement. A case study, which is an in-depth examination of one person, is a form of
qualitative research. It is much more time consuming but provides more richness to the data.

1.5.2 Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is the systematic and scientific investigation of quantitative properties and
phenomena and their relationships. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and
employ mathematical models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to natural phenomena. The
process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental
connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of an attribute.

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It usually starts with a theory or a general statement proposing a general relationship between
variables. With this approach, it is likely that the researchers will take an objective position and
their approach will be to treat phenomena as hard and real. As a result proponents of such studies
claim that quantitative research is undertaken in a value free framework. Quantitative researchers
favor methods such as surveys and experiments, and will attempt to test hypotheses or statements
with a view to infer from the particular to the general. This approach typically concentrates on
measuring or counting and involves collecting and analyzing numerical data and applying
statistical tests.
The differences between the two approaches are summarized as follows:
1. They differ in terms of the nature of reality. Quantitative researchers believe that there are
human characteristics and processes that constitute a form of reality in that they occur under a
wide variety of conditions and thus can be generalized to some degree. On the other hand,
qualitative researchers believe that there are no human characteristics and processes from which
generalizations can emerge. Instead, each subject or phenomenon is different and can only be
studied holistically.
2. They also differ in terms of the relationship of the researcher to the research participants. In
quantitative research, the researcher can function independently of the participants of the
research to a major degree, although some interaction is probably inevitable whereas in
qualitative research the researcher and the research participant interact to influence one another
and are inseparably interconnected. In addition, in qualitative research the research participants
play a role in interpreting the outcomes of the study.
3. Qualitative research often does not know what it is looking for whereas quantitative research
does - designs and measurements decisions are made prior to conducting the research. In
qualitative research the design of the research emerges as the research progresses. That is, in
qualitative inquiry the investigator starts with a very tentative design and develops the design as
the inquiry progresses.
4. Qualitative researchers are often immersed in the data and look at it more subjectively whereas
quantitative research demands objectivity.
5. Qualitative research typically employs small samples than quantitative research.

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6. The ultimate goal of research in quantitative research is to develop a body of knowledge in the
form of generalization that will hold at least to some degree over time and in contexts similar to
those in which the generalizations were developed.
In Qualitative research the aim of inquiry is to develop a body of knowledge that is unique to the
individual being studied, and that can be used to develop hypotheses about the individual.
7. Qualitative research describes meaning or discovery whereas quantitative establishes
relationship or causation. That is, in quantitative research, given sufficient research with valid
measures, every action or effect can be explained by a cause or combination of causes that
precede the effect in time. In qualitative research all elements in the situation are in a state of
mutual simultaneous interaction so it is impossible to distinguish causes from effects.
8. Quantitative inquiry should be made as value-free as possible through the use of sound
research design and objective data collection procedures. Qualitative research, on the other hand,
is value-bound because inquiries are inevitably influenced by the values of the researcher, the
choice of theory, the methodology employed, and the values inherent in the context of the
inquiry.
9. Qualitative research uses unstructured data collection whereas quantitative research uses
structured data collection methods. In qualitative research, humans are the primary data-
gathering instrument. Non-human instruments – measurement instruments are the data gathering
tools in quantitative research (AAU preparatory module, 2009).

1.6 Data Types

The decision of your research approach and design affects every details of your research. Data is
the basis of every research, as it is based on data that conclusions are made, connections are
discovered, theories are constructed, and problems are solved.

1.6.1 Primary and Secondary Data

Data that have been observed, experienced or recorded close to the event are the nearest one can
get to the truth are called primary data. Written sources that interpret or record primarily are
called secondary data.

1.6.2 Qualitative Data

Qualitative data cannot be measured and counted, and are generally expressed in words rather
than numbers. The study of human beings and their societies and cultures requires many

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observations to be made that are to do with identifying, understanding and interpreting ideas,
customs, beliefs and other essentially human activities and attributes. These kinds of data are
therefore descriptive in character, and rarely go beyond the nominal and ordinal levels of
measurement. This does not mean that they are any less valuable than quantitative data; in fact
their richness and subtlety lead to great insights into human society. Qualitative data are
collected using flexible manner. Flexible designs evolve during these data collection. The
designs employ, among other things, case study, ethnographic and grounded theory methods.

1.6.3 Quantitative Data

Much information about science and society is recorded in the form of numbers (e.g.
temperatures, bending forces, population densities, cost indices, etc.). The nature of numbers
allows them to be manipulated by the techniques of statistical analysis. This type of data is called
quantitative data. Fixed designs call for a tight pre-specification at the outset, and are commonly
equated with a quantitative approach. The designs employ experimental and non-experimental
research methods. Quantitative data is collected in fixed and already structured manner.

1.7 Designing Research problems

1.7.1 Research Problems

In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting and properly
defining a research problem. A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it
becomes susceptible to research. A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which
a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to
obtain a solution for it.
We can, thus, state the components of a research problem as under:
(i) There must be something that has some difficulty or the problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained.
(iv) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

1.7.2 Selecting a Problem

The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. A problem must spring
from the researcher’s mind like a plant springing from its own seed. However, the following
points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject for research:

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 (i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
(iv)The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.

1.7.3 Necessity of Defining a Problem

Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement
signifies the need for defining a research problem. A proper definition of research problem will
enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
Thus, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the
highest importance. The definition of the research problem serves the following purposes:
 The definition of the problem sets the direction of the study
 It reveals the methodology procedure of the study
 It helps the researcher to control subjectivity or biases of the researcher
Statement of the Problem in a General way:
First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way. For this purpose, the researcher
must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a
problem. Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of the
guide or the subject expert in accomplishing this task. The problem stated in a broad general way
may contain various ambiguities which must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over
the problem.

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UNIT TWO : RESEARCH DESIGN

2. Meaning of Research Design

Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a
research study constitute a research design. A research design is the arrangement of conditions
for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure. As such the design includes an outline of what the
researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final
analysis of data. More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data are found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?

2.2 Need for Research Design

Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Thoughtlessness in designing the research
project may result in rendering the research exercise futile. The design which gives the smallest
experimental error is supposed to be the best design in many investigations. Similarly, a design
which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many different
aspects of a problem is considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many
research problems.
Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem
and also with the nature of the problem to be studied.

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2.3 Important Concepts Related to Variables
A) Dependent and Independent Variables: A concept which can take on different quantitative
values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of
variables. If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a
dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an
independent variable. For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then height is a
dependent variable and age is an independent variable.
B) Extraneous Variables: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study,
but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.
C) Research Hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by
scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive
statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research
hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable.
F) Experimental and Control Groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a
group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is
exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’.

UNIT THREE: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

3.1. Literature and Hypotheses
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Definitions of Important Terms
• Theory is ‘a set of tentative explanations’ with which to justify diverse observations. We need
a theory to have some justification for expecting a relationship to exist.
• Hypotheses are supposed relationships, possibly causal links, between two or more concepts or
variables. A hypothesis should be testable, but it may not be directly so if it comprises a number
of abstract concepts.
• Concepts are abstract ideas, not directly observable or measurable, which must first be
‘operationalized’ in some way to provide measurable indicators.
This will be achieved either by identifying a variable that is an adequate substitute for the
concept or by developing a construct to provide a new measure of the concept.
• Constructs are indirect measures of concepts usually generated in the form of multi-item
questions. The sum of a set of valid and reliable responses to the construct provides a measure of
the concept.

3.2. Developing the Hypotheses

Hypothesis is described as best guess statements drivable from variables and evidences. Sharma
(2004) defines hypothesis as any supposition which we make in order to endeavor to deduce
conclusions in accordance with facts which are known to be real.
Sources of Hypothesis
The hypothesis actually emerges from the theory it is generalization from the theory itself and
when it has been tested and found correct, it becomes a part to the theory itself. Thus, theory in
its early form is only a hypothesis and the two are interdependent upon each other.
Sources of hypothesis, Sharma (2004, p153)
 General culture.
 Scientific theory.
 Analogues.
 Personal experience of the researcher.

Importance of Hypothesis in Scientific Research

The advantages of hypothesis in any scientific enquiry are:

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  It gives point to enquiry.
 It helps in deciding the direction of research.
 It helps in selecting required facts.
 It helps the researcher to draw certain conclusion.
2.3 Searching the Literature
Literature review helps us delimiting research problem, seeking new lines of inquiry, avoiding
fruitless approaches, gaining methodological insights, identifying further recommendations for
further research, and seeking support for grounded theory. Quite often you are required to
incorporate others’ work into your own writing for three main reasons that are not mutually
exclusive. One is to refer to earlier work that can be used as springboard for understanding novel
ideas. The other is to cite different views by different authorities and provide balanced view. The
third is to provide support. Take care to preserve the meaning of the original passage as you
take notes, summarize paraphrase and quote. Distinguish fact from opinion. Transcribe numbers
and other figures correctly. Quotations are exactly identical to the original; paraphrases are
usually shorter; and summaries are significantly shorter than the original. Quoting is taking
verbatim (word for word) , paraphrasing is restating using one’s own words , and summarizing is
putting only the main idea or ideas. Whatever you decide to employ when incorporating
someone else’s idea, have a good reason for doing so and attribute to the original source.
Using Quotations

Quotation is the respected practice that is used by educators, researchers and other writers.
Appropriate quotation in a research paper indicates responsible writing (Mattix, 2003). Use
quotations to a purpose. Keep most quotations brief, according to the work and the difficulty of
the material. Quote others’ work for the following reasons.

1. To present technical words for which there is no accurate paraphrase.

2. Accuracy is essential. By giving the exact words, you indicate the writers’ exact
position that you want to discuss.
3. To capture the flavor of the original. Paraphrase will often not do justice to a
passage that is vivid and unusual.
4. To avoid an awkward or wordy paraphrase.

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 5. To enhance your credibility as a writer. By including quotations appropriately, you
demonstrate professionalism.
When others’ work is incorporated in this way, it must be identified in your paper with quotation
marks and parenthetical documentation, in addition to indicating the name of authors and year of
publication. However, it is advisable not to overuse this method and cite readily available info
(e.g. well known dates, familiar sayings, events, celebrities etc.)

A. Short Quotations
Short quotations (fewer than 30 words) should:
• be incorporated into your sentence without disrupting the flow of your paragraph
• have single quotation marks
• have the full stop after the citation
• keep the same font size.
B. Long quotations
Long quotations (more than 30 words) should:
• be introduced in your own words
• begin on a new line
• be fully indented by default (i.e. 1.27 cm) from the left margin
Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing (indirect referencing) is smoothly integrating someone else’s thought using your
own style and words with the purpose usually of clarifying it. A paraphrase contains all of the
details and is about the same length as the original.

Why and when to paraphrase? Paraphrase when:

 The ideas are more important than the author’s authority or style.
 The original language is not particularly memorable, but the ideas are.
 The original language is too difficult restating it makes it clearer and easier.

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Summarizing

Summarizing is putting writer’s ideas in to your own words. A summary is much shorter than the
original text as it leaves out many of the supporting details. You can summarize an entire article
in just a few sentences. In this sense, it is very different from paraphrasing, because you omit
many of the details. On the other hand, it is similar to paraphrasing because you use your own
words to convey the same meaning as the original, summaries can be used as notes to understand
and remember the main points of text. You can also use summaries to community information,
i.e. by sharing your summary with those who have not had to read for themselves.

The length of a summary depends on the length of the original place and the purpose of the
summary. Typically, a complete paragraph can be summarized in a single sentence, a three-/four
–paragraph-essays are summarized in one paragraph. Longer passages may require summaries of
two or more paragraphs. An effective summary is just long enough to present the main idea or
originals text clearly and short enough to include all the details.

A. Why or when to summarize:

Summarize a text (portion of another’s explanation, argument, or narrative) when your

purpose is to:

 Discuss someone’s argument or text directly without the details;

 Give example of several differing points of view;
 Supply context for a specific point in another’s text that you are discussing;
 Use as expert evidence for a point or a claim you are making in your own
argumentative text; or
 Present an opposing point of view that you wish to refute
B. How to include or incorporate summaries
 Introduce the topic in your own words, but make it clear that you are presenting
someone else’s idea with wording like Smith (2002) argues that…or...(Smith, 2002)
or according to Smith (2002)…” or” smith (2002) also claims that….
 A good way to make sure you have completely represented the author’s ideas is to
write down the key points of the original text. Then, delete ideas that do not seem to

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 be central to the argument. Next expand each idea in to a sentence or two that
restates the author’s point using your own sentence structure as well as your own
word choice. Finally put the sentences together into smoothly written paragraph.
 Make sure that you have identified the main ideas of each paragraph. If the authors
constantly use topic sentences, use them as clues to the structure of his/her argument
as a whole.
The topic sentence of your paragraph should be a restatement of the overall main idea of a piece
you are summarizing, supporting sentences should be restatement of main supporting points of
the original. The concluding sentence should reflect the concluding idea of the original.

C. Errors in Summarizing

If your summary is as long as the original text, it is not a summary. It is important to notice that
it accurately represents the text; don’t change the ideas of the original text by leaving out
significant points.

Referencing

When you write an assignment at university, you are required to refer to the work of other
authors. Each time you do so, it is necessary to identify their work by making reference to it—
both in the text of your assignment and in a list at the end of your assignment. This practice of
acknowledging authors is known as referencing.
References must be provided whenever you use someone else’s opinions, theories, data or
organization of material. In general, reference is required if you: quote (use someone else’s exact
words); Copy (use figures, tables or structure); Paraphrase (convert someone else’s ideas into
your own words; summarize (use a brief account of someone else’s ideas).

References enhance your writing and assist your reader by: showing the breadth of your
research; strengthening your academic argument; showing the reader the source of your
information; allowing the reader to consult your sources independently; allowing the reader to
verify your data. There are a number of different referencing systems used in academic writing.
Author-date systems commonly are known as Harvard and APA (American Psychological
Association), and footnoting or end noting systems commonly are used in History and Law.

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Unit summary

Literature review is a description of the literature relevant to a particular field. It helps us in

identifying further recommendation and seeking support for grounded theory. Only important
literature works should be added to the research. There are three methods of incorporating
others’ literature works to our own materials from different materials. Those are quoting (taking
a verbatim or word for word of the original), paragraphing (changing the style and words of the
original) and summarizing (putting only the main ideas of the original). But try to have a good
reason to select and use one or the combination of the above. Finally, to avoid plagiarism, all the
materials used in the work should be in- text-cited and should also appear at the end of the work
appropriately.

UNIT FOUR: SAMPLES AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Unit Introduction

4. 1. Sampling
Research work cannot be undertaken without use of sampling. The study of total population is
not possible and it is also impracticable. The practical limitation: cost, time and other factors
which are usually operative in the situation stand in the way of studying the total population. The
concept of sampling has been introduced with a view to making the research findings economical
and accurate.

The research design is based on the sampling of the study. A good research design provides
information concerning with the selection of the sample population treatments and controls to be
imposed. In social sciences, it is not possible to collect data from every respondent relevant to
our study but only from some fractional part of the respondents. The process of selecting the
fractional part is called Sampling. Sample is an estimate of the population characteristics or a
fraction of the population who are assigned as respondents through different ways/methods of
sampling.

4.2 Types of Sampling Designs

Several methods have been devised to select representative samples. In general, two types of
sampling are commonly used: probability sampling and non-probability sampling.

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4.2.1 Probability Sampling

Probability sampling is a method which gives the probability that our sample is representative of
population. A probability sample is one that has been selected in such a way that every element
chosen has a known probability of being included.

Characteristics of Probability Sampling

 Every individual of the population has equal probability to be taken into the sample.
 It may be representative of the sample
 The observations /data/ of the probability sample is used for the inferential purpose.
 Inferential/parametric statics are used for probability sample.
 There is a risk of drawing conclusions from probability sample.
 The probability is comprehensive: - representativeness refers to characteristics;
comprehensiveness refers to size and area.

Types of probability sampling

A. Simple random sampling, B. Systematic sampling, and C. Stratified sampling

A. Simple Random Sampling: - is a method in which each element of the
population has an equal and independent chance of being included in the sample.
This method uses a number of different techniques such as:
 Tossing coin, throwing a dice, lottery method, and blind folded method.

Advantages of Simple Random Sampling

 Requires a minimum knowledge of population.

 Free from subjectivity and free from personal error.
 Provides appropriate data for our purpose.
 The observations of the sample can be used for inferential purpose.

Disadvantages

 The representativeness of a sample cannot be ensured by this method.

 This method does not use the knowledge about the population.

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  The inferential accuracy of the finding depends upon the size of the sample.
B. Systematic Sampling

This is an improvement over the simple random sampling. It requires the complete information
about the population. There should be a list of information of all the individuals of the population
in any systematic way and then decide the size of the sample.

Let sample size =n

Population size = N

Then we select each N/nth individual from the list to have the desired size of the sample. Thus,
for this technique the population should be arranged in any systematic way.

Advantages of Systematic Sampling

 It is very simple method of sample selection.

 It reduces the field coast.
 Inferential statistics may be used.
 The sample may be comprehensive and representative of population.
 Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions and
generalizations.

Disadvantages

 It is not free from error since there is subjectivity due to different ways of systematic
list by different individuals. Knowledge of population is essential.
 Information of each individual is needed /essential.
 It cannot fully ensure representativeness.
 There is a risk in drawing conclusions.
C. Stratified Sampling

This is a method in which the researcher divides his/her population in strata on the basis of some
characteristics. Then, from this smaller homogenous group (strata), a predetermined number of
units will be drawn to be used as a sample. Here, the researcher has to choose the characteristic
or criterion which seems to be more relevant in his research work.

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Advantages of Stratified Sampling

 It is a good representative of the population.

 It is an objective method of sampling
 Observations can be used for inferential purpose.

Disadvantage

 It is difficult for the researcher to decide the relevant criterion for stratification.
 Only one criterion can be used for stratification but there might be more than one
criterion relevant for stratification.
 It is costly and time consuming.
 Selected sample may be representative with reference to the used criterion but not
for the other.
 There is a risk in generalization.
4.2. 2 Non-Probability Sampling
This is a type of sampling in which there is no such an idea of probability. It is generally
used in action research since in action research we study a class without any generalization
purpose.

Characteristics of Non-Probability Sampling

The following are the main characteristics of non-probability sample.

 There is no idea of population in non-probability sampling.

 There is no probability of selecting any individual.
 Non-probability sample has free distribution.
 The observations of non-probability sample are not used for generalization purpose.
 Non-parametric/non-inferential statistics are used.
 There is no risk for drawing conclusions from non-probability sample.

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Types of Non-Probability Sample

a) Incidental/accidental sample
The term incidental/accidental is applied to those samples taken because they are most
frequently available or because they are readily available or because the researcher is
unable to employ more acceptable sampling methods.

Advantages

 Very easy method of sampling.

 Frequently used in behavioral sciences.
 Reduces time, money and energy- economical.

Disadvantages

 Not a representative of the population.

 Not free from error.
 Parametric statistics cannot be used.
b) Judgment Sampling

This involves the selection of the group on the basis of available information thought/known by
the researcher. Or the selection of a group by intuition on the basis of criterion deemed to be self-
evident. It is highly risky since the investigator should take the judgment sample.

Advantages

 Knowledge of the investigator is best used in this technique

 It is economical.

Disadvantage

 Not free from error.

 Includes uncontrolled variations.
 Inferential statistics cannot be used and hence generalization nor possible.

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 c) Purposive sampling

It is selected by some arbitrary method because it is known to be representative of the total

population, or it is known that it will produce well matched groups. The idea is to pick out the
sample in relation to some criteria, which are considered important for the particular study. This
method is appropriate when the study places special emphasis up on the control of certain
specific variables.

Advantages

 Use of the knowledge concerning the sample subjects.

 Better control of significant variables.
 Sample groups data can be easily matched.
 Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.

Disadvantages

 Reliability of the criterion is questionable.

 Knowledge of population is needed /essential.
 Errors in classifying sampling subjects.
 Inability to utilize the inferential parametric statistics.
 Inability to make generalization.
d) Quota Sampling

In this type of sampling the population is classified into several categories on the basis of
judgment or assumption or the previous knowledge and the proportion of population falling into
each category is decided. Then, a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the observer is allowed
to sample as he/she likes. Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to figure in Municipal
surveys.

Advantages: it is easy and most frequently used sampling technique in social surveys

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Disadvantages: it is not a representative sample and not free from error. It has also the influence
of regional, geographical and social factors.

UNIT FIVE: DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENTS

5.1. Data collection Tools

Collection of data is an essential part of a research. There is no hard and fast rule to which type
of data collection tools to be used for any kind of research. The choice depends up on the nature,
the purpose and the scope of the research. In addition to these three, availability of time and
finance also affect the collection of research data.

5.2. Types of Data Collection Tools

A. Questionnaires

There are many types of questionnaires. They can vary enormously in terms of their purpose,
their size, and their appearance. To qualify as a research questionnaire, they should be
appropriate for the topic, for the situation and for the audience.

Guidelines for Constructing Questionnaires

1. Phrase questions clearly in neutral words. Be specific

2. Ask for information that is easily recalled.
3. Keep the questions as short and straight forward as possible.
4. Ask only one question to a sentence.
5. Provide spaces, checklists and multiple choices for ease in answering.
6. Plan equal ranges: 1-10, 11-20, 21-30 - - - Error – 1-10, 10-20, 20-30.
7. Use scale items (with a key) to circle for opinion.
1) SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree, N= Neutral, D= Disagree, and SD= Strongly
Disagree (Degree of Agreement and Disagreement: known as Likert Seale)

8. Avoid the use of leading questions. These are questions which suggest an answer or
which prompt the respondent to give a particular kind of answer.
9. Avoid asking the same question twice in a different fashion.

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 10. Avoid vague questions. The more specific and concrete the question, the easier it is
to give a precise answer.
11. Use only the minimum amount of technical jargon. In questionnaire, the aim is not to
see how clever people are.
12. Arrange questions in a logical order.
13. Place sensitive questions (age, salary ……) near the end. Word them carefully.
14. Place any open ended questions at the end for additional comments.
15. If space allows, add a one-line thank you.

Activity 2:

In your field of study, construct a questionnaire with not more than ten questions. Consider the
guidelines and the example provided above.

When is it appropriate to use questionnaire for research?

Although different methods are better suited to different circumstances, questionnaires are at
their most productive when:

 used with large numbers of respondents in many locations, e.g. the postal
questionnaire;
 what is required tends to be fairly straight forward information- relatively brief and
uncontroversial.
 the social climate is open enough to allow full and honest answers;
 there is a need for standardized data from identical questions -without requiring
personal fact- to- face interaction;
 time allows for delays caused by production, piloting, posting and procrastination
before receipt of a response;
 resources allow for the costs of printing, postage, and data preparation;
 the respondents can be expected to be able to read and understand the questions the
implications of age intellect and eyesight need to be considered.

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Types of Questions

The commonly/widely used question types are two.

i. Open questions

Open questions are those that allow the respondents to decide the wording of the answer, the
length of the answer and the matters to be raised in the answer. The questions tend to be short
and the answers tend to be long.

Example: How do you feel about the inclusion of nuclear arm as part of Britain’s defense
capability?

The advantage of open questions is that the information gathered is more likely to reflect the full
richness and complexity of the views hold by the respondent. On the other hand, this type of
question has also got two disadvantages. The first one is the questions demand more effort on the
part of the respondents. This might reduce the willingness to take part in the research. Secondly,
the questions leave the researcher with data which is quite raw and require a lot of time
consuming analysis before they can be used.

ii. Closed questions

These questions allow only answers which fit into categories that have been established in
advance by the researcher. The researcher in this case instructs the respondent to answer by
selecting from a range of two or more options supplied on the questionnaire. The options can be
restricted to as few as two (example, “Yes” or “No”, “Male” or “Female”) or can include quite
complex lists of alternatives from which the respondent can choose. The advantages and
disadvantages of the closed questions are more or less a mirror image of those connected with
the open, unstructured questions.

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To sum up the types of questions used by social researchers in a questionnaire, it is better to
observe the following example questions and their types with their specific examples.

B. Interviews

An interview is sometimes defined as a conversation with a purpose. And they are generally
conducted with fewer numbers of respondents than would be the case with questionnaires.
Consecutively, the selection is more likely to be based on non-probability sampling i.e. people
tend to be chosen deliberately because they have some special contribution to make, because
they have some unique insight or because of the position they hold.

Types of Interviews

Structured, Semi- Structured and Unstructured Interviews

Structured interview: tights control over the format of the questions and answers. The
researcher has a pre-determined list of questions, to which the respondent is invited to offer
limited option responses. The tight controls over the wording of the questions, the order in which
the questions occur and the range of answers that are on offer have the advantage of
standardization. Each respondent is faced with identical questions and the range of pre-coded
answers on offer to respondents ensures that data analysis is easy.

Semi –structured interview: lay in between the structured and the unstructured interview. Here,
the researcher has a clear list of issues to be addressed and questions to be answered. However,
the interviewee will be flexible in terms of the order in which the topics are considered, by
letting the interviewee develop ideas and speak more widely on the issues raised by the
researcher. The answers are open-ended and there is more emphasis on the interviewee
elaborating points of interest.

Unstructured interviews: are casual with not set format. The emphasis is placed on the
interviewee’s thoughts. The researcher’s role is to be as un intrusive as possible- to start the ball

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rolling by introducing a theme or topic and then letting the interviewee develop his or her ideas
and pursue his/her train of thought.

What Skills are expected from Good Interviewer?

 Good interviewer needs to be attentive.

 Good interviewer is sensitive to the feelings of the informant.
 Good interviewer tolerates silences during the talk and knows when to shut up and
say nothing.
 Good interviewer is adept at using prompts
 Good interviewer is adept at using probes.
 Good interviewer is adept at using checks

The difference between prompts, probes and checks can be more visible in the following
examples when used as tactics for interviews.

Repeating the question __________________________________ Prompt

Offering some examples __________________________________ Prompt

Asking for an example ___________________________________ Probe

Asking for clarification ___________________________________ Probe

Asking for more details ___________________________________ Probe

Summarizing informant’s thoughts __________________________ Check

e.g. (So, if I understand you correctly what this means is that ------) check

C. Observation

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Observation, as data collection tool, draws on the direct evidence of the eye to witness events
first hand based what actually happens. There are two kinds of observation in a research i.e.
Systematic and participant observation. Systematic observation has its origin in social
psychology, particularly in the study of interaction in settings like school classrooms. Participant
observation is mainly associated with sociology and anthropology and is used to filtrate
situations sometimes as an undercover operation, to understand the culture sometimes as an
undercover operation, to understand the culture and process of the groups being investigated.

Advantages of Systematic Observation

 Direct data collection:- It directly records what people do, not what they say they do.
 Systematic and rigorous:- The use of observation schedule provides an answer to the
problems associated with the selective perception of observers, and it appears to
produce objective observations.
 Efficient:- It provides a means for collecting substantial amounts of data in a
relatively short time span.
 Reliability:-When properly established, it should achieve high levels of inter-
observer reliability in the sense that two or more observers using a schedule should
record very similar data.

Disadvantages of Systematic Observation

 Behavior not intentions:- Its focus on overt behavior describes what happens but not
why it happens. It does not deal with the intentions that motivated the behavior.
 Oversimplifies:- Over behaviors can be measured in terms of categories that are
fairly straight forward and unproblematic. But the behavior might have double and
hidden meaning which can distort the meaning of the research.

Participant Observation

By participant observation ,we mean the method in which observer participates in the daily life
of the people understudy, either openly in the role of the researcher or covertly in some disguised
role, observing things that happen, listening to what is said, and questioning people over some
length of time.(Becker and Geer 1957:28)

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The essential notion of participant observation revolves around the following three possibilities.

 Total participation, where the researcher’s role is kept secret. The researcher
assumes the role of someone who normally participates in the setting. Consent
cannot be gained for the researcher, which poses ethical problems.
 Participations in the normal setting, where the researcher role may be known to
certain “gate keepers” but may be hidden from most of those in the setting. The role
adopted in this type of participant observation is chosen deliberately to permit
observation without affecting the naturalness of the setting, but it also allows the
researcher to keep a distance from the key group under study.
 Participation as observer, where the researcher’s identity as a researcher is openly
recognized- thus having the advantages of gaining informed consent from those
involved- and takes the form of “Shadowing” a person or a group through normal
life, witnessing first hand and in intimate detail the culture/events of interest.

Advantages of Participant Observations

 Basic Equipment: - Participant observation uses the researcher’s self as the main
instrument of research and therefore requires little by way of technical/statistical
support.
 Non inference: - It stands a better chance of retaining the naturalness of the setting
than other social research methods.
 Insights: - It provides a good platform for gaining rich insights into social processes
and is suited to dealing with complex realities.
 Ecological Validity: - The data produced by participant observation has the potential
to be particularly context sensitive and ecologically valid.
 Holistic: - Participant observation studies offer holistic explanations incorporating
the relationships between various factors.
 Subjects’ points of view: - As a method of social research, participant Observation is
good for getting at actors’ meanings as they seem.

Disadvantages of Participant Observation

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  Access: - There are limited options open to the researcher about which roles to adopt
or settings to participate in.
 Commitment: - participant observation can be a very demanding method in terms of
personal commitment and personal resources.
 Danger: - Participant observation can be potentially hazardous for the researcher,
physically, legally, socially and psychologically risky.
 Reliability: - Dependence on the “Self” of the researcher leads to lack of verifiable
data, hence reliability is open to doubt.

UNIT SIX: COMMUNICATING RESEARCH RESULT

Introduction
This unit provides you with some concepts of research proposal, research report writing and oral
report/presentation of research.

6.1 Research Proposal

6.1.1. Definition of Research Proposal
The research proposal is the detailed plan of study. The term research proposal indicates that a
specific course of action will be followed. It is a document which sets out your ideas in an easily
accessible way. The intent of the written research proposal is to present a focused and scholarly
presentation of a research problem and plan. The objective in writing a proposal is to describe
what you will do, why it should be done, how you will do it and what you expect will result. A
vague, weak or fuzzy proposal can lead to a long, painful, and often unsuccessful research
writing exercise. A clean, well thought-out, proposal forms the backbone for the research itself.
To write a good research proposal read everything that you can in your area of interest. Find out
what are the important and missing parts of your understanding. Find out how to build/discover
what you miss. Live and breathe the topic. Talk about it with anyone who is interested. Then just
write the important parts as the proposal. Violations of the proposal can discredit the whole
study.
A well-thought out and well-written proposal can be judged according to the following three
main criteria:
 Is it adequate to answer the research question(s), and achieve the study objective?

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  Is it feasible in the particular set-up for the study?
 Does it provide enough detail that can allow another investigator to do the study and
arrive at comparable results?

6.2. Components of a Research Proposal

1. Title page: - Title is a label: it is not a sentence. Titles should almost never
contain abbreviations.
2. Background of the study: - this part should contain a rationale for your research
which answers the following questions.
 Why are you undertaking the project?
 Why is the research needed?
3. Statement of the problem: - Effective problem statements answer the question
“Why does this research need to be conducted.”
4. Objective of the study: - The objectives of a research project summarize what is
to be achieved by the study. Objectives should be closely related to the statement
of the problem.
Objectives should be: simple (not complex), and specific (not vague). They should also be
stated in advance (not after the research is done), and should stated using action verbs that are
specific enough to be measured. It is important to ascertain that the general objective is closely
related to the statement of the problem. In short: General objective is: What exactly will be
studied?
Specific objectives:
 Specific statements summarizing the proposed activities and including description of
the outcomes and their assessment in measurable terms
 They identify in greater detail the specific purpose of the research project, often
breaking down what is to be accomplished into smaller logical components.
 They should specify what you will do in your study, where and for what purpose.
Why should research objectives be developed?
The formulation of objectives will help you to:
 Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials)
 Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding and
solving the problem you have identified and

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  Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases.
5. Research Questions: - The term question implies an interrogative statement that can
be answered by data.
6. Significance of the study: - the researcher should justify the importance and
urgency of the study, as to how the results of his/her study will be useful to the
beneficiaries.
7. Delimitation /Scope of the study your study should be delimited to the manageable
size. Delimitation indicates scope of the study. It has to indicate both the area and
conclusion of the study will be confined and depth and breadth of your study.
8. Review of Related Literature (optional):- A brief resume of related studies found
in Journals, magazines, abstracts and reports should be made. This provides evidence
that the researcher is familiar with what is already known and also with unknown or
unproved.
9. Research Methodology: - The methods or procedures section is really the heart
of the research proposal. You must decide exactly how you are going to achieve
your stated objectives i.e. what new data you need in order to shed light on the
problem you have selected and how you are going to collect and process this data.
Methods/procedures show how you will achieve the objectives and/or answer the
questions.
10. Study area
11. Sample size
12. Sampling techniques
13. Tools of data collection
14. Plan of data analysis
15. Work plan/work schedule
16. Budget breakdown
17. References/Bibliography

6.3. Characteristics of Good Proposal

Good research proposal has the following characteristics:
 Relevance, either to the work of the funding body or to the student’s course.
 The research is unique, or offers new insight or development.

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  The title, aims and objectives are all clear and succinct.
 Comprehensive and thorough background research and literature review has been
undertaken.
 There is a good match between the issues to be addressed and the approach being
adopted.
 The researcher demonstrates relevant background knowledge and/or experience.
Reasons Why a Research Proposal Fail
A Research Proposal Fail when:
 Aims and objectives are unclear or vague.
 There is a mismatch between the approach being adopted and the issues to be
addressed.
 The overall plan is too ambitious and difficult to achieve in the timescale.
 The researcher does not seem to have conducted enough in-depth background
research.
 Problem is of insufficient importance.
 Information about the data collection method is insufficiently detailed.
 Timescale is inappropriate or unrealistic.
 Resources and budget have not been carefully thought out.
 This topic has been done too many times before indicates a lack in background
research
6.4. Research Report Writing
Research reporting is an oral or a written presentation of important and useful aspects of the
research work done. Scientific writing, a thesis or a paper, is intended to present clearly the
purpose and outcome of a specific research investigation. It is the last but a major part of the
research study. A report helps the researcher get feedback from other researchers and experts
working in the same field. It also evaluates the success and originality of the researcher’s work.
Without a report, a research study is incomplete and of no use. A report essentially conveys the
outcome of a research work to interested persons. Brilliant work and most striking findings are of
little value if they are not effectively communicated to the scientific world.
6.4.1. Importance of Reporting Research Findings

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Writing a research report is very challenging task for the researcher. A good research report
requires sufficient-experience and insight about his research activities. A research report is
needed due to the following reasons:
 The research must be reported in full and its results should be subjected to a
criticism and verification.
 The research work is done for the benefit of human being; therefore, it must be
communicable to the general public for the practical use.
 The research should be considered to be the culminating act for reflective thinking. It
encourages other persons to take up some problem for further investigation.
 The research report requires the creative thinking of a researcher to review the
related studies and discussing the result of the study and also suggest some new
problems for further studies.
 The research report is also necessary for giving shape and form to the investigation
and solidifying it.
 It is needed for providing a clear picture of research method, sample and techniques
used in conducting the research work.
 The research report is meant for popularizing the new contributions in the discipline.

6.4.2. Characteristics of a Good Research Report Writing

A good report results from slow, pain taking and accurate inductive work. To attract a reader, the
reading matter of a report should be clear and interesting. It should not be obscure and dull. The
write-up should be logical, clear and concise. The basic quality or characteristics of a good
scientific report/paper and thesis are the following:
 Good presentation,
 Good organization of various chapters/sections,
 Accuracy,
 Clarity,
 Free from contradictions and confusion.

6.4.3. Steps in Research Report Writing

 First, an outline of a report has to be prepared.
 A sketch of what information to be conveyed must be made.

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  Then, one can write down various topics, subtopics to be considered and what points
to be presented in them.
 The sentences which are to be expanded reworded and verified for its validity can be
marked.
The outline of the report helps us concentrate on:
 What is to be presented?
 logical relationships between different parts of the report,
 smooth flow of the content and
 Continuity in the presentation.
Generally, three stage preparation of a report is done by a researcher. They are:
A. First draft – Rough draft.
B. Second draft – Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft.
C. Third draft – Writing the final draft.
Conclusion should be precise, clear and objective. By reading the abstract a reader would
decide whether the content of the paper is useful to him/her. Therefore, the abstract should have
positive information about the content of the paper and summary of the work reported in it.
Further, if the abstract has final results and main conclusion of the paper, then a reader who has a
general interest in the subject can know the outcome of the paper without reading the entire text
by referring the abstract itself.
Attention must be paid to the arguments made, logical flow of work presented, the quality of
supporting evidences and conclusions drawn. More importantly, grammar must be checked. A
careful spelling check must be made. Indecisive words such as perhaps, somewhat; rather, etc.
should be avoided. Usage of some particular words repeatedly, for example, ‘very’,
‘extraordinary’, ‘invariably’ should be avoided. Expressions such as ‘it seems’, ‘there may be’,
‘since’, ‘putting’, etc. should be replaced by appropriate equivalent words.
Proper references of related work should be included. Make sure that the script clearly shows
the originality of the author and importance of the outcome of the study performed. It is better to
avoid the use of personal pronoun. Use of “I” and “the author” should be avoided. Both active
and passive voice should be used wherever necessary or appropriate. Care must be taken in using
present and past tenses. Use past tense to describe the data collection and work done by others
and you. For interpretation, assessments and discussions, present tense is appropriate.

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6.5. Interpretation and Report Writing
After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing
inferences followed by report writing. This has to be done very carefully, otherwise misleading
conclusions may be drawn and the whole purpose of doing research may get vitiated. It is only
through interpretation that the researcher can expose relations and processes that underlie his
findings. In case of hypotheses testing studies, if hypotheses are tested and upheld several times,
the researcher may arrive at generalizations. But in case the researcher had no hypothesis to start
with, he would try to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. This may at times result in
new questions, leading to further researches. All this analytical information and consequential
inference(s) may well be communicated, preferably through research report, to the consumers of
research results.
6.6. Meaning of Interpretation
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical
and/or experimental study. Interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected
data, partially overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to
include the results of other research, theory and hypotheses.” Thus, interpretation is the device
through which the factors that seem to explain what have been observed by researcher.
Why Interpretation?
Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness and utility of research findings
lie in proper interpretation. It is being considered a basic component of research process because
of the following reasons:
(i) It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract
principle that works beneath his findings. Through this he can link up his findings
with those of other studies, having the same abstract principle, and thereby can
predict about the concrete world of events.
(ii) Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a
guide for future research studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and
stimulates the quest for more knowledge.

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 (iii) Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are
what they are and can make others to understand the real significance of his research
findings.
(iv) The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into
hypotheses for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the
transition from exploratory to experimental research.

Precautions in Interpretation
The task of interpretation is not an easy job rather it requires a great skill. One should always
remember that even if the data are properly collected and analyzed, wrong interpretation would
lead to inaccurate conclusions. It is, therefore, absolutely essential that the task of interpretation
be accomplished with patience in an impartial manner and also in correct perspective. Researcher
must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation:
(i) At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that the data are appropriate,
trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences;
(ii) The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the
process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization and/or due
to wrong interpretation of statistical measures, such as the application of findings
beyond the range of observations, identification of correlation with causation and the
like.
(iii) Broad generalization should be avoided as most research is not amenable to it
because the coverage may be restricted to a particular time, a particular area and
particular conditions. Such restrictions, if any, must invariably be specified and the
results must be framed within their limits.
(iv) The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research study, there
should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and
theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical

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 orientation and empirical observation that opportunities for originality and creativity
lie.
Significance of Report Writing
The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others. There
are people who do not consider writing of report as an integral part of the research process. But
the general opinion is in favor of treating the presentation of research results or the writing of
report as part and parcel of the research project. Writing of report is the last step in a research
study and requires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for in respect of the earlier
stages of research. This task should be accomplished by the researcher with utmost care.

6.2.3 Layout of Research Report Writing

The layout of a research report is the list of various parts of the report. Generally, a research
report should consist of the following three components:
A. Preliminary pages
B. Main body/textual body
C. End matters
Each category has been outlined further as follows
A. Preliminary Pages
 Title page
 Acknowledgement
 Abstract
 Table of content
 List of tables (if any)
 List of figures (if any).
B. Main Body/Textual Body
1. Introduction
 Background of the study
 Statement of the problem
 Objectives of the study
 Research questions or hypotheses
 Significance of the problem

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  Delimitation or scope the study
 Limitation of the study
 Definitions of Important terms used.
2. Review of Related Literature.
3. Research Methodology
 Research design
 Subjects of the study
 Sample size and sample techniques
 Tools of data collection
 Description of tools used
 Data collection procedure
4. Data presentation, Analysis and Interpretation
 Presentation and analysis of data
 Tables and interpretation (if any)
 Figures and interpretation (if any).
5. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
 Discussion of results,
 Main Findings and inferences,
 Implication of the findings and limitations,
 Suggestions for further studies,
C. End Matters
 Bibliography/ references
 Appendices (if any)
 Glossary (if any).
Mechanics of Research Report Writing
Research report writing is a highly technical activity. It includes various mechanics for a smooth
flow of the research. The mechanical aspect has been standardized which must be followed by
researcher in preparing a research. Such mechanics involve the following issues:
 Bibliography and References,
 Style of Writing,
 Headings,

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  Tables,
 Figures,
 Pagination,
 Proof Reading, and
 Binding and Submission.

Style of Preparing Research Report

The research report should be written in a style that it is creative, clear and concise. Therefore
the following considerations should be kept in view in writing a research report.
 The research must be reported in full and its results are subjected to criticism and
verification.
 A research report is always written in third person i.e. he, she or the investigator. I,
we, you, my, our and us should not be used.
 It is prepared and written in past tense and present-prefect tense because it is
reported usually after completion of the work.
 The scientific language is used rather than literary language. The British-English
pattern is followed in writing a research report. The spellings of the words are
employed of the British English.
 It is typed, printed/cyclostyled on 11" 9" size (paper size) sunlit bond papers. There
should be left a margin of 1-1/2,right margin one inch, top and bottom margin should
be 1-1/4inch. The same machine of typing must be used for typing research report.
 The presentation of matter should be in floating sequence. There should be
consistency in the form and content organization.
 An appropriate and proper format of research report should be used.
 The references, tables, figures, heading, subheading and bibliography references
should be provided in its standard form.

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  It should be typed in double space, quotations or citation should be given in single
space. A word should not be split in two aspects due to the shortage of space in a
line. A table, figure and diagram should always be given on a single pace. If table
size is large, a large size paper should be used. It should not continue on the next
page.
 A research paper should be typed in proper form.
Good research reports are not written hurriedly. Even an expert and experienced researcher
revise many times before he/she submits a manuscript for typing.
Remember that your outline is your report in a skeletal form.

Pagination
Assigning page numbers of the report is very essential. The title page or initial page of any
section does not have a page number typed on it. Page numbers are typed in the center, one inch
below the bottom edge of the page. The small or lower Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv...) are
assigned for the pages of preliminary section. The serial Arabic numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4…..so on are
assigned for the pages of textual body or main body of the report. The lower Roman numerals
are assigned for the pages of appendices.

As a mechanical structure, an outline is an arrangement of words, phrases or sentences which

indicate the nature and sequence of topics and sub-topics to be discussed in your report.

Principles of Organization

While constructing your outline, keep the audience in mind. The following principles will help
you to decide what to include, what to reject, and how to organize the selected material into the
form of an outline.

1. Logical ordering

Weigh and consider which ideas or pieces of information are more important than others, and in
what order should you present them to achieve your goal. One obvious method is to order the
material from the least important to the most important or vice versa. It is argued that the reader

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of an interpretive report likes first to go through the material on which you base your
interpretation and recommendations. On the other hand, the reader of an informational report
wants to gather of the most important piece of information first and sometimes they are not
interested in unimportant details at all.

Other methods of ordering are categorical, comparative and chronological. If you use the first of
these, you will start with a general statement and then discuss particulars. For example, if you are
writing a report on ‘International Airports for description and discussion. Very often, you may
like or be required to compare a procedure, a process or a system operating in your organization
with those in other similar organizations. Then you will use the comparative method, usually in
conjunction with another method of ordering. The last, is the chronological method is most
convenient to follow because all you have to do is to go on describing, discussing, or analyzing
the events as they occur or the action as it takes place. The circumstance of the situation will tell
you which one to use for your purpose.

Technical and structure of the report

Technical Language

Effective use of technical language is a critical part of report writing. The important aspects of
technical language to be considered are structure, grammar, vocabulary and punctuation. A
report must be written appropriately for its audience. The purpose of a report must be decided
before the writing begins. Once it is clear why a report is being written, then how to write will
become more evident. A quality report exhibits these characteristics:

• Clear statement of aim or purpose,

• Concise and precise presentation of detail,

• Cohesive and logical development of data and ideas,

• Considered objective separation of fact and opinion and

• Categorized layout of well-spaced headings, paragraphs and visuals

Structuring Writing

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Information in a technical report is systematically developed at several levels: sections,
paragraphs and sentences. The organization of this information can be controlled using various
techniques including:

• Different levels of headings

• Summary, overview or key statements indicating purpose

• Visual aids such as tables and figures

• Bullet points (dots •), dashes and lists and

• Linking sentences between sections and paragraphs

Basic Principles of Technical Writing

A. Use good Grammar

In order to produce an effective technical writing, having knowledge of grammar is very crucial.
English grammar can be detailed and complex, but strong writers command the major points
after many years of study and practice. Readers expect technical documents to be written in the
Standard English. Certain grammatical errors can actually cause readers to misinterpret the
information. However, because technical report must be precise and accurate, readers expect
documents to be professional, polished, and flawless.

B. Writing concisely

In technical writing, clarity and brevity are your goal. Thus, facts and figures have to be given
precisely. The writing style should be precise, clear and scientific.

C. Using the Passive Voice

technical writers often turn to the passive voice when writing technical documents. One of the
main reasons to use the passive voice rather than the technical one in writing is the active voice
more closely resembles the way people remember and process information. Scientific articles
and books are usually written in impersonal styles as these give a modest and objective (natural)
impression. For example, it is a common practice not to use “I”, and rarely “we.”

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E. Avoiding Long Sentences

Short sentences are easy to understand than long sentences. For this reason, it is best to write
your technical documents in short sentences. If you are asking your readers to perform several
actions, begin the step with an active verb. This highlights the action itself.

F. Use Standard Punctuation because creative punctuation will confuse the reader to
understand the information.

Oral Report

Definition of Oral Report

Presentation of one’s research work in a scientific meeting is an oral report. Scientific meetings
include conference, seminar, symposium, workshop, departmental weekly seminar, etc.
Researchers in certain research institutions not only discuss their own work but also have
discussions on very recently reported work of other scientists. An oral report provides a bridge
between the researcher and audience and offers greater scope to the researcher for explaining the
actual work performed its outcome and significance. It also leads to a better understanding of the
findings and their implications. In an oral report, the researcher can present the results and
interpretations which are not clearly understood by him and may request the experts in the
audience to give their opinions and suggestions. Oral reporting at a conference or a seminar
requires more elaborate preparation than the written report.

Points to be considered in Preparing Oral Research Report

Before starting the preparation of an oral report, an outline can be drawn based on the time
duration of the report and the quality of the audience. Departmental seminar is usually 45
minutes duration. In other meetings time duration is fixed by the organizer based on the number
of days of the meeting, number of speakers and the status of a speaker. For a long time report
presentation one may have enough time to:
 introduce the topic,
 discuss the definition of the problem,
 describe the method and technique employed,
 give technical details, and
 present results and conclusion and another content of the study.

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Oral presentation can be made effective and attractive by using modern visual devises, power-
points, slides and transparency sheets. Title of the report, author’s name, plan of the presentation,
very important content of it and conclusion can be printed in the slides or sheets possibly point
by point with bold and sufficiently large size letters. Important formulas, equations, tables,
figures and photographs can be prepared using transparency sheets or slides. Slides and
transparency sheets should not contain running matters. Researcher should not simply read the
content in the sheets. That is, the descriptive portion of the report should not be prepared on the
sheets. An abstract or a short write-up of the presentation may be circulated to the participants of
the meeting.
One could use the audio aspects also to facilitate his presentation in a better way.
During a long presentation, the speaker can stop the presentation at various stages, seek
comments and questions from the audience and then proceed. This will make the presentation
attractive, interesting and also allow the audience to clarify their doubts so that they can follow
the work.
Unit summary
A research proposal deals with problem or topic that is to be investigated. It has a variety of
formats which vary in their length. It is written in present or future tense. It covers four to ten
pages. It is submitted for the final approval before starting the actual research work. The
preparation of research proposal is significant in the development and pursuit of a research
project. It is planning phase of a research work which is produced in the written form to judge its
worth. Writing a research proposal includes: title page, background of the study, statement of the
problem, objective of the study, hypotheses / questions, significance of the study, delimitation
/scope of the study, research methodology, operational definitions, work plan/timetable, budget
breakdown and references/bibliography.
A research report deals with results of completed research work. After completing a research
work, it is generally produced in the written form and is called research report. A detailed
description of research activities are provided in it. It has a variety of formats and varies as to its
length. It is written in past tense and in third person. It is the final form of the research work. A
research report includes: title page, acknowledgement, abstract, table of content, list of tables (if
any), list of figures (if any), introduction, and review of related literature, research methodology,

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data presentation, analysis and interpretation, summary, conclusions and recommendations, and
bibliography/ reference list, appendices and glossary (if any)

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