SOCI142 Introductory Sociology

VALLEY VIEW UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF NURSING & MIDWIFERY
HAC/NAC – BSC. NURSING PROGRAMME
SOCIO142: INTRODUCTORY SOCIOLOGY
(2 CREDITS)
WEEK ONE: INTRODUCTION TO OF SOCIOLOGY
BY: KWABENA BOATENG (PhD)

Objectives
 Understand the meaning and subject matter of

sociology.
Distinguish Sociology from the other disciplines in the

Social Science
Trace the historical antecedents leading to the birth of

sociology.
Defining Sociology
Auguste Comte (1798-1857) coined the word Sociology in
1838.
Sociology is derived from the Latin word socius (companion)
and a Greek word logos (doctrine).
It is defined as the scientific and systematic study of society

and social interactions (Nukunya, 2016).
Sociology is the systematic study of human society and

social interaction (Kendall, 2006).
Defining Sociology
 The study of society consists of the
 Structures and social interactions
and relationships
 Factors social cohesion and
 Social change and the
consequences of such changes
What makes a relationship social?
A reciprocal awareness of each other within a
given context.
Reciprocal relationship - either direct or

indirect.
A sense of bond or something in common

with each other.
What is Society
Society is a large social grouping that shares the same
geographical territory and is subject to the same political
authority and dominant cultural expectations (Kendall,
2006:2).
It is also defined as a group of interacting individuals who
live in a clearly defined territory, consider themselves as
one and have a distinct identity that distinguishes them
from other groups, share a more or less common culture
and are organized under a common authority (Dzorgbo,
2013).
Features of Society
Unity of purpose
Stability
Community or belongingness
Possess all social institutions.
Diversity or variation: Differentiation based on
sex/gender, etc.
Reciprocal relationship/mutual interdependence
Cooperation and conflict
The Subject matter of Sociology
 Sociologists are concerned about everything considered “social” (Mills,
1959).
Man as a social being is the subject matter of sociology.
Man is social due to the fact that:

Our lives are interwoven with others;
What we do; What we think;
What we say and how we say it; How we behave in a social context (a
gathering); Future aspirations, etc. are influenced by others (Stark,
1996).
Activity: How did you end up at VVU?
Social interactions is the basis of social groups such as the family,
communities, associations and societies man create (Dzorgbo, 2013).
The Science of Society
Science is a body of knowledge produced
systematically by answering logically deduced
questions about certain aspects of the world
(natural and social) with evidence gathered
through empirical observations, experimentation,
surveys and fieldwork (Dzorgbo, 2013).
Sociology is scientific because it applies laid down
scientific methods and process in studying man.
The Scientific nature of sociology
The discipline is scientific as a result of the
following factors:
Empirical: The use of scientific methods.
Theoretical: Utilize theories to explain social

problems or phenomenon.
Non-ethical: Sociology is not judgmental.

Sociological Method
 Method is derived from the Greek words meta (with, after) and
hodos (way).
 It means the appropriate way of doing something, teaching or

investigating with thoroughness regarding the results to be
attained (Gisbert, 2004).
 Method is the entire process or procedure to be followed while a

technique is the means or mode through which the method or
stage of it is to be pursued.
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
Commonsense Knowledge:
Generally accepted wisdom and
beliefs.
Philosophical Knowledge: It is built

on speculations.
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
Authoritative Knowledge: Knowledge
derived from people knowledgeable in
area of study.
Sociological knowledge: Knowledge

established through systematic
procedures.
Sociology and other Disciplines
Sociology is not the only subject that studies social
interactions.
Sociology is part of the wider network of disciplines that
studies human society (Social science).
Anthropology:
 According to Kendall (2006:7) Anthropology seeks to
understand human existence over geographic space and
evolutionary time, whereas sociology seeks to understand
contemporary social organization, relations and change.
Social work: It is the professional discipline
while sociology is theoretical.
Psychology: It is the systematic study of

behavior and mental processes. Sociological
research examines the effects of groups,
organizations and social institutions on social
life.
Economics: Economics attempts to explain how
limited resources of a society are allocated
among competing demands whereas
sociologists focus on one institution which is
the economy.
Political science: Political scientists concentrate
on political institutions whereas sociologists
study these institutions within the larger
context.
The Birth Of Sociology: Attributable Factors
The major factors that led to the birth of sociology
are:
The French Political Revolution of 1789
The Growth of Science and Technology
The Industrial Revolution and Urbanization
Growth of Cities and Social Problems
The Reformation (Decline of Religion)
The Enlightenment Ideas
Colonialism
FACULTY OF SCIENCE

(2 CREDITS)
WEEK TWO: OVERVIEW OF SOCIOLOGICAL
THEORIES
KWABENA BOATENG (DR.)
Goals and Objectives
By the end of this lecture, students should be able
to:
 know what a “sociological perspective or theory
is,
 identify and explain the three major perspectives
in sociology,
 compare and contrast these perspectives
 apply them to understand aspects of society and
human behavior
Introduction
Sociology as science employs perspectives or
theories to understand and interpret social
phenomena.
To interpret social facts, they must be subjected
to a theoretical framework.
Sociologists study social events, interactions,
and patterns.
They then develop theories to explain why these
occur and what can result from them.
What is a theory
A theory may be defined as a general statement about
how some parts of the world fit together and how
they work (Macionis, 1997).
A theory is a way to explain different aspects of social
interactions and to create testable propositions about
society (Allan 2006).
It should also be noted that the terms “perspectives”
and “schools of thought” are often used
interchangeably with the term “theory”.
Variations of Theories
Theories vary in scope depending on the
scale of the issues they explain.
Grand theories (macro-level), attempt to
explain large-scale relationships.
Micro-level theories are at the other end of
the scale and cover very specific
relationships between individuals or small
groups.
Introduction
There are three major theoretical
perspectives in sociology that have provided
an overall framework for sociological
studies.
These are:
 Structural functionalism,
 Social conflict theory and
 Symbolic interactionism
Sociological Theories
Sociological Level of Focus
Paradigm Analysis
Structural Macro or mid How each part of society
Functionalism functions together to contribute
to the whole
Conflict Theory Macro How inequalities contribute to
social differences and
perpetuate differences in power
Symbolic Micro One-to-one interactions and
Interactionism communications
What is a sociological Perspective?
A perspective could be defined as a way of
looking at things, a view point and an approach.
A sociological perspective is a sociological way
of viewing social phenomena, social issues and
human behaviour.
Sociology offers multiple perspectives
sometimes different or conflicting but other
times complementing for viewing social
phenomena.
The Functionalist Perspective
Structural Functionalism (functionalism) is distinctively
American sociological theory.
It is associated with Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton.
Its roots can be found in the works of Comte Spencer,
Durkheim.
For instance:
 Comte’s contribution: Society has structure
 Spencer’s contribution: society is like a living organism
 Durkheim’s contribution: social institutions has function for
society.
Functionalism views society as a
structure with interrelated parts.
The parts are designed to meet the
biological and social needs of people.
In fact, its origins began before
sociology emerged as a formal
discipline.
Herbert Spencer compared
societies to living organisms.
Living organisms have structures- a
set of interrelated parts.
By parts of society, Spencer was
referring to such social institutions.
Each part has a function or has a
consequence for the survival of the
whole system.
It is through these structures that
society maintains itself.
The Functionalist Perspective - Emile Durkheim
Durkheim believed sociologists have to look
beyond individuals to social facts.
Social facts are the laws and all of the
cultural rules that govern social life
(Durkheim 1895).
Each of these social facts serves one or more
functions within a society.
Emile Durkheim -Suicide
 Durkheim identified about four types of suicide –
egoistic, altruistic, anomic and fatalistic.
These types were linked with the degree of
integration into or regulation by society.
Integration refers to the degree to which collective
sentiments are shared and
Regulation refers to the degree of external
constraints on people.
Emile Durkheim -Suicide
The Functionalist Perspective – Robert K. Merton
(1910-2003)
 Robert Merton (1910–2003)
noted that social processes often
have many functions namely
Manifest and Latent Functions.
 Manifest functions:
consequences of a social process
that are sought or anticipated.
 Latent functions are the
unsought consequences of a
social process.
Strengths & Criticism The Functionalist Perspective
Strengths of functionalism:
It explains how societies manage to be stable and orderly.
It helps to understand why social life is orderly and
predictable
Criticisms of functionalism
It explains society as always stable and orderly, which is not
always the case.
It is a conservative perspective and seems apologetic to the
status quo.
It neglects the usefulness and benefits of conflict to society.
Conflict Theory
Conflict theory looks at society as an arena for competition
for resources.
Conflict theory sees society as being made up of individuals
who must compete for:
 political power, leisure time, money, housing, and
entertainment.
Social structures and organizations reflect this competition.
Some individuals and organizations are able to obtain and
keep more resources than others.
These "winners" use their power and influence to maintain
Conflict Theory
Conflict Theory
Karl Marx is most closely identified with this theory.
In the Communist Manifesto, Marx and Fredrick Engels
argued that “the history of all hitherto existing society
is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave,
patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and
journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed”
(1848).
Conflict between owners of means of production and
wage earners
 Who benefits? Who loses? Who suffers?
Strengths & Criticism of conflict theory
Criticism
It focuses on conflict and fails to appreciate that social
life is orderly/ stable.
Conflict theory to focus on conflict to the exclusion of
recognizing stability.
Praises for conflict theory:
It highlights aspects of society that functionalism
glosses over
It shows that conflict is a reality of society which
sociologists should also pay attention too.
Symbolic Interactionism Theory (S.I)
S.I helps scholars examine the relationship of individuals
within their society.
It is centered on the notion that communication/exchange
of meaning through language and symbols—is how people
make sense of their social worlds.
It looks at society and people from a micro-level
perspective.
George H. Mead (1863–1931) is considered one of the
founders of symbolic interactionism (LaRossa & Reitzes
1993).
Symbolic Interactionist Theory (S.I)
Herbert Blumer (1900–1987) popularize the theory.
Blumer coined the term “symbolic interactionism” and
identified its three basic premises:
1. Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they
ascribe to those things.
2. The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of,
the social interaction that one has with others and the society.
3. These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an
interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the
things he/she encounters (Blumer 1969).
The Dramaturgical Approach (Erving Goffman)
Society is a form of theatre where individuals in their
interaction perform for them to make good impressions
on others.
In the theatre, we have the front and back stage
 FRONT STAGE: This is where the actions or
performances take place in the theater and the actions
are executed perfectly to make good impressions on the
audience.
 BACK STAGE: This is where the preparation for the
performances take place/ rehearsals are done.
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
(2 CREDITS)
WEEK THREE: CULTURE
KWABENA BOATENG (PhD)

Culture and Human Diversity
Learning Objectives
 Define Culture
 Outline the components of culture
 Features of culture
 Manifestation of culture
Introduction
 Humans are no born naturally with rigid complex patterns of
behavior.
 The patterns of behavior is expected to make them functional

beings in their societies.
 Through socialization, people learn to adapt to their environment to

enhance their capacity to survive.
 The learned patterns of life is called culture.
 Culture is modified and handed over from generation to generation.

Culture Defined
 Culture is ‘that complex whole which includes knowledge,
belief, art, morals, custom and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of society’ (Tylor,
1871:1).
 Robert Biersdedt (1974:150) is of the opinion that culture is
the ‘complex whole that consist of all the ways we think and
do and everything we have as members of society’.
 Crapo (2002:48) defines the concept as the ‘learned system
of beliefs, feelings, and rules for living around which a group
of people organize their lives, a way of life of a particular
society’.
Components of Culture
The products of human society are classified
into two: material and non-material culture.
 Material Culture: They are the artifacts
physical objects that humans create and
give meaning to.
 Non-material Culture: The non-tangible
and nonphysical components of culture.
Features of Culture
Socially transmitted
It is man made
It is learned and not biologically
transmitted
Shared among people
Culture is dynamic.
NORMS AND VALUES
 Norms are the social rules that specify
appropriate and inappropriate behavior in given
situations (Zanden, 1990).
VALUES
 They are the patterns of behavior, practices
and ideas considered as most desirable,
having usefulness and relevance for people
in a particular society.
Categories of Norms: Folkways
Folkways are the ordinary usages and
conventions that guide everyday life
(Robertson, 1987).
Violations are not taken very seriously.
Sanctions against Folkways [gossip and
ridicule].
Categories of Norms: Mores
 They are those aspect of norms in which
their violations are taken seriously by
the collectivity.
 The prevention of the above is seen as
vital to society’s existence or survival.
 Offenders of mores are strongly
criticized or punished.
Categories of Norms: Laws
 Laws are rules enforcing the mores by
setting out the punishments for their
infraction.
 Law is a rule that has been formally enacted
by a political authority and is backed by the
power of the state (Robertson, 1987).
 That is, law codifies already existing vital
norms.
Social control
 Social control simply connotes a set of means that
ensures that members of a group generally
behave in expected and approved ways
(Robertson, 1987).
 The system of maintaining law and order and
ensuring that members of the society conform to
acceptable behavior (Nukunya, 2016).
 Control over people are at times enforced by
people tasked to perform this all important duty.
Types of sanctions: Positive and Negative
 Sanctions are the ‘reaction on the part of a society or a
considerable number of its members to a mode of behavior
which is thereby approved (Positive sanctions) or disproved
(negative sanctions)’ (Radcliffe-Brown, 1952:205).
 Positive Sanction: Rewards for actions which are approved

and help to reinforce or motivate others to act in an approved
manner.
 Negative sanctions: Deprivations which accompany behavior

which is disapproved by society.
Theories on Culture: The Functionalist Approach
 Functionalist consider society and culture as a system of
independent parts.
 Cultural elements must be understood within the context of
the wider society and not in isolation (Robertson, 1987).
 Cultural elements must be understood by establishing its
function to the entire system of society.
 The functional approach influenced the works of Radcliffe-
Brown (1952) Malinowski (1926), Parsons (1951), Merton
(1968).
 Example: Eskimos hospitality to a traveler was highly
valued.
Theories on Culture : The Ecological Approach
 The ecological perspective is popular within the scope of
Anthropology (Harris 1979; Bennett 1976, Hardsey, 1977).
 They analyzed cultural elements in the context of the
environment in which society exist.
 As already defined, culture is the means through which
people adapt to their environment.
 The Bedouin Arabs are typical examples of people who have
adapted to environment due to the harsh environmental
conditions in which they live in.
 The harsh conditions make farming impossible, do not have
permanent settlement or live in houses.
Bedouin Arabs
 They are nomads, wandering for a greater part of their time from
one oasis to the other.
 They live in easily transportable tents
 Herds of camels kept are able to stand the climatic conditions in the
desert.
 Material possessions are usually light due to their constant
movement.
 Norms about water conservation means that they are not offended
when people do not wash or bath for days or weeks.
 Thus, every aspect of their culture is influenced by the environment
in which they reside (Vidal 1976).
 Societies adapt diverse strategies to deal with similar
functional or ecological challenges:
 The Eskimos: deliberately leaving the aged, female
infants and unproductive sections in the snow to die
(Robertson, 1987).
 The Keraki of New Guinea: control population
explosion by encouraging males to practice exclusive
homosexual relations after puberty.
 Americans: control population by allowing abortion,
and using birth control pills (contraceptives).
The Manifestation of Culture
 Cultural Universals: They are the cultural traits or
characteristics/features that are common in all human societies.
Although their manifestations may differ they appear to achieve the
same or similar purpose in all human societies.
• George Murdock (1945) cultural universals: athletic sports, bodily

adornment, cooking, etc.
• Donald Brown (1991): language, nonverbal communication with

gestures, the expression of emotion with the same facial
expressions, sexual jealousy, incest taboo, kinship and nonkin,
etc.
The Manifestation of Culture
 Cultural shock: the loneliness and depression that are
often experienced when one is in a foreign cultural
setting (Osuofia in London).
 Cultural Relativism: The position that holds that the
values and standards of cultures differ and deserve
respect.
 It is the view that the meanings of behaviors are best
understood when interpreted in terms of the culture
of the actors.
The Manifestation of Culture: Ethnocentrism
 The tendency to view one’s own culture as best and
judge the behavior and beliefs of culturally different
people by one’s own standards (Robertson, 1987).
 The essence of the above definition center on
prejudice-intolerance, injustice, intimidation and
stereotype- label, pigeonhole.
 Linton (1936) contends that the persistence of
ethnocentrism is due to the inability of people to
objectively view their culture.
Xenophobia
Fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners or of anything that is strange or
foreign
Dislike of or prejudice against people from other countries
The Manifestation of culture
 Cultural Diffusion: It is the process of importing
some cultural elements of one’s society into the
culture of a society.
 Sub-culture: It refers to the culture of a section of
the population who also participate in the larger
societal culture.
 Counter culture: a way of life and set of attitudes
opposed to or at variance with the prevailing social
norm.
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
(2 CREDITS)
WEEK FOUR: SOCIALISATION & LIFE CYCLE
Lecture Objectives
 Define socialization
 Theories of Socialization
 Development of the Self
 Agents of socialization
 Life cycle
Introduction
 Human when born, are helpless living organisms at birth
 They cannot do anything without assistance from the older
generation in the society.
 Unlike animal, human after birth learn the patterns of behavior in
other to be functional beings in society.
 The process of learning the patterns of a given society is through

socialization (is lifelong).
 The most important aspect of the learning process happens during
infancy and childhood (laid foundations for formation of
personality).
Defining Socialisation
 “Socialization therefore is the process of social interaction
through which people acquire personality and learn the way
of life of society” (Robertson, 1987:105).
Roucek (1947): it is the “training process by which an
individual, inexperienced in a given culture, learns about and
acquires that culture as an aspect of his behavior”.
Leslie, Larson and Gorman (1973): those processes by which
an individual learns to take account of social order and to
cope with it by some combination of conformity, non-
conforimity, avoidance and conflict”.
Introduction: Socialization develops Personality
Through socialization, the personality is
developed.
It therefore has three components namely:
Cognitive
Emotional component
Behavioral
The Nature and Nurture Debate
The Nature Perspective
 This was dominant in the late 19th century.
 Through Charles Darwin’s work on the Origin of the
Species (1859), people came to the realization that the
behavior of other animals were obviously or wholly
determined by inherited factors.
 Some sociologist argued that class, nations, or races
were either inferior or superior to each other based on
some inherited qualities.
The Nurture Viewpoint
 Ivan Pavlov (Russian Psychologist) discovered that dogs salivate at the
sight of a food and anything associated with feeding (dish or bell
ringing).
 If dogs learned by association, then humans (greater capacities) could
even learn faster by association.
 John B. Watson, continued Ivan Palvov’s work.
 He argued that personality and human behavior are completely

flexible.
 It can be molded in any direction at the will of the instructor.

The Nurture Viewpoint
 Watson taught an infant to call his milk bottle “mama” by offering
him a bottle whenever he uttered the word.
 He also taught a little boy called Albert to fear white rabbits by
frightening the boy with a loud noise.
 Watson (1924) indicated that:
Give me a dozen health infants, well-formed and my own
specified world to bring them up in, and I’ll guarantee to take
any one at random and train him to become any type of
specialist I might select-doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief
and yes, even a beggar, and thief, regardless of this talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his
ancestors.
Pointless Debate: The Nature & Nurture
 It opposes two interrelated components (Humans are the products of a
complex interaction between nature and nurture).
Example, height and weight are determined by heredity.
 People born with the genes that can make them tall or fat when
underfed, will be shorter and thinner.
 Many aspects of personality such as intelligence appear to be
influenced by hereditary.
 Also, people learn, develop and satisfy their social potentials in a
social setting.
 Biology may determine the outlines and limits of our personality but
utilization of our potentials are determined by the environment.
Children Raised in Isolation
Two instances in the USA (Kingsley Davies, 1940)
Case 1: Anna
Biography of Anna
 She was discovered at age six. She was illegitimately born
 Her grandfather had insisted she must be isolated/hidden from the
world in an attic room.
 She received bare minimum physical care and attention Had no social
interaction with others.
 She could not talk, walk, keep herself clean at her age, feed herself
when she was found. She was apathetic and expressionless.
 Those who worked with her thought she was deaf and possibly blind.
Children Raised in Isolation: Case 1: Anna
Davis (1948) stated: “here, then, was a human organism who
had missed nearly six years of socialization. Her condition
shows how little her purely biological resources, when acting
alone, could contribute to making her a complete person”.
 She died four and a half years after her discovery and in
the socialization process.
 She could learn some words and phrases though not make
a complete sentence.
 She learnt how to wash her hands, walk, use building
blocks, brush her teeth, follow directions, and treat a doll
with affection.
Children Raised in Isolation: Case 2: Isabelle
 She was approximately the same age as Anna when discovered.
 She too was illegitimate child.
 Grandfather had kept her and her mother (who was deaf –mute) in a dark
room most of the time.
 An advantage over Anna as she had some interactions with her mother but had
no chance to develop her speech.
 The two communicated with gestures.
 She behaved wildly towards men when she was discovered (why?).
 Though learning process was slow, show quickly improved through the stages
of learning.
 By eight and a half, she had reached normal level of intellectual development
and attended school.
Children Raised in Isolation: Case 3: Oxana
 At age 3, a Ukranian girl named Oxana Malaya suffered
severe parental neglect.
 She lived in a shed with dogs, eating raw meat and scraps.
 Five years later, a neighbor called authorities and reported
seeing a girl who ran on all fours, barking.
 Officials brought Oxana into society, where she was cared
for and taught some human behaviors, but she never
became fully socialized.
 She has been designated as unable to support herself and
now lives in a mental institution (Grice 2011).
Theories of Learning: The Behaviorist Approach
Learning: A change in the thought, emotion or action of an individual
that results from previous experience.
The Behaviorist Approach
 The behaviorist school is founded on the thoughts of Ivan Pavlov
and John B. Watson.
 It states that learning takes place due to conditioning through
punishments and rewards.
 Positive rewards leads to reoccurrence of behavior and vice versa.
 This reward and punishment pattern is called reinforcement.
 Learning therefore occurs through the process of association once
the animal establishes the nexus between the behavior and its
effects.
Theories of Learning: The Behaviorist Approach
 Through this technique, animals have been taught to
undertake activities.
 Skinner (1971) has argued that human learning can be
explained in terms of conditioning.
 To other behaviorst (modified approach) learning does not
only results from any obvious rewards.
 This modified perspective is referred to as Social learning.
 It acknowledges that learning also takes place through
imitating or occurs incidentally even in the absence of
rewards and punishment (Bandura, 1977).
George Herbert Mead and the Development of Self
George Mead provides the main phases of child
development.
Infants and young children first develop as social beings by
imitating the actions of people around them.
Through play, small infants often imitate what adults
(significant others) do.
Children’s play evolves from simple imitation to more
sophisticated games in which a child acts out an adult role.
Mead called this ‘taking the role of the other’- learning what
it is like to be in the shoes of another person.
George Herbert Mead and the Development of Self
Self-awareness is achieved when we learn to distinguish
the “me” from the “I”.
The “I” is the unsocialised infant, a bundle of
spontaneous wants and desires.
The “me” is the social self.
In order to learn organised games, children must
understand the rules of play, notions of fairness and
equal participation.
At this stage children learn to grasp what Mead calls
Generalised other.
Theories of Learning: Developmental Approach
 Leading proponents in this school include the Swiss
philosopher and psychologist Jean Piaget (1950; 1954).
 Proponents believe that conditioning alone is inadequate for
human learning.
 Learning therefore, is a continuous development of the mind
by earlier experience through different stages.
 Advanced forms of learning is dependent on earlier
foundation laid through experiences and personal
interpretations.
Jean Piaget’s stages of Cognitive Development
Children learn to think about themselves
and environment through different stages:
Sensorimotor stage: Takes place from
birth to two years.
Preoperational stage: Children are not yet
able to use their developing mental
capabilities systematically.
Concrete operational stage: Last between 7-
11 years.
Children master abstract and logical
notions.
They handle concepts like causality without
much difficulty.
They are less egocentric.
Formal operational stage
Children are able to grasp higher
abstract and hypothetical ideas.
Children encountering problems
are able to view all possible ways of
solving it.
Types of Socialization
 Primary socialization: it takes place during the early
years of a person.
 Anticipatory socialization: it is directed towards a
person’s future roles rather than those that the person
has at the time of learning.
 Developmental socialization: It builds on already
acquired skills and knowledge (from primary
socialization) as the adult progresses through life
situations.
Types of Socialization
Reverse socialization: This is the transfer
of knowledge from a younger generation
to an older generation (Falkman & Irish,
1974).
Resocialization: It is a break with past skills
and knowledge acquired and the
internalization of radically different norms
FACULTY OF SCIENCES
SOCI142: INTRODUCTORY SOCIOLOGY
WEEK FIVE: TRADITIONAL MODES OF
SOCIALIZATION
By
Kwabena Boateng (PhD)
Objectives of the Lecture
 To appreciate the main objectives of

socialization;
Comprehend the ways through which traditional

rites constitute mechanisms of socialization and
Understand the utility of socialization both for

the individual and society.
Introduction
 Every society has its own distinct
cultural practices.
These are handed over from generation
to generation.
 Culture is the sum total of learned
behavior traits manifested and shared by
members of a society (Abotchie, 2011).
Introduction
Children also transmit these learned
behavior derived from their parents to their
children when they establish their family.
The process through which culture is
transmitted is called socialization /
education.
 The process of socialization only ends when
the individual dies.
Rationale / Goal of Socialization
 The need to inculcate in the new born member basic
skills ranging from instinctual behavior to the methods
of science.
 the creation of an awareness in the individual of his
social roles,
The inculcation of social aspiration particularly the
need to get ahead and
The enablement of the individual to attain his ideal
self.
Traditional Modes of Socialization – Outdooring
Outdooring or naming ceremony begins the
socialization process of children.
This ritual commences on the eighth day after
child birth.
A child less than a week old is not a member of
the community.
The child is officially initiated into the community
& given a name.
Traditional Modes of Socialization – Outdooring
Officiated by lineage head
The child becomes identifiable member
of the community.
Akans& Ewes- symbolic ritual of
socialization: touching the baby’s tongue
with water (or water mixed with
powered corn- Ewes).
Naming Ceremony
Symbolism of Outdooring
Introduction of the child to the notion of
good and evil (truth and falsity).
It’s the responsibility of the elderly
(kinsmen) to help him/her achieve this
noble task.
Thus the process of primary socialization
is the role of the family (nuclear and
extended).
Symbolism of Outdooring
Significant others teach the culture, language and
skills to respond to instinctual drives such as toilet
training and hunger.
Assimeng (1981) eating manners- washing of
hands before and after eating; use of right hand in
eating; left hand not placed on ground while eating;
taking small mouthfuls at a time; close mouth while
chewing; avoid nose touching while eating; not
jumping queue or scramble to obtain food.
Gender Roles
Socialization is done also through gender roles.
Girls are socialized in domestic chores, cooking, washing,
cleaning, etc. (future roles as mothers and housewives).
Boys are made to identify with and perform tasks associated
with fathers.
Oppong (1973) “Dagbon boys are brought up to achieve
certain daily targets on the farm to prove that they have come
of age as men.
Some parents send their children to live with distant relations
to learn some vocation.
Puberty Rites
Puberty rites follow after naming ceremony is
exclusively for girls in most communities.
This is conducted after the girl has her first
menses between 13-16 years.
Some parts of the adolescent girl is publicly
exhibited.
School of thought: public exhibition of the
physical beauty of the girl to attract prospective
suitors.
Puberty Rites
Social control – the girls must be
virgins.
Virginity test – attempt to insert a
boiled egg into the vagina.
 Disgrace to family; ostracism &
expulsion).
Puberty Rites in Ghana
Puberty Rites
Ritual Bath
Among the Akans and Ewe, ritual bath is
done for the girls.
Akans: ritual bath is conducted in a flowing
river as part of the nobility rites (Sarpong,
1977).
Ewes: ritual bath take place in a snake pond-
serpents worshipped (Abotchie, 1997).
Puberty Rites
Confinement
Confinement follows the ritual bath.
Initiate is socialized on her status- “as a girl who
is now in socially approved sexual currency”
(Assimeng, 1981:73).
She’s instructed on the nuances of marital life,
home keeping, child caring etc.
The obaa payin, Assistant to the Lineage head
leads officiate this ceremony.
Marriage
After puberty rites, the woman looks forward to be
married.
Ewe- period of confinement (6months) before marriage.
Emphasis during training: need for fidelity, humility &
obedience for successful marriage.
Adultery constitute the most serious infractions of the
marital code.
Magical herbs buried in compound of the husband’s home.
Psychic Padlocks- prevents the penetration of a wife by
another man.
Mortuary Rites
Mortuary rites are of significance for
socialization not for the dead but for
the living.
Ghanaians believe in life after death.
The soul continues to carry on the
same vocations as the dead person
while alive.
Mortuary Rites
Deviants are denied the final mortuary rites.
Their spirits are trapped in a “no-man’s land.
According to Ellis (1890), ‘opens to his
imagination all kinds of ill-defined terrors”.
The prospects of being confronted with “all
kinds of terrors” after death raise a specter
terrifying enough to persuade the living
against a criminal life.
Social Change and Modes of Socialization
Factors of social change: Colonialism, western education; Christianity and
Islam, urbanization, monetized economy, etc.
Naming Ceremony
 Naming now done after eighth day
 Merry making
 Naming now conducted in the church
 No gin and water used (morality education)
Puberty Rite
 Significance has waned due to education, Christianity & Urbanization
 Now done at very early ages of the child
Mortuary rites
 Increase debt for surviving relatives- food, cloth,
 mortuary fees (Dead not buried on time)
 Even deviants are properly buried now.
FACULTY OF SCIENCES
WEEK SIX: GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS

Lecture Outline
Types of Groups
Understand primary and secondary groups
Recognize in-groups and out-groups as subtypes of primary
and secondary groups
Define reference groups
Group Size and Structure
How size influences group dynamics
Different styles of leadership
How conformity is impacted by groups
Formal Organizations
Introduction
 Groups are prevalent in our social lives.
Most of us have a sense of what it means to be a part
of some kind of a group.
 Groups connect members to each other through
commonalities as:
 Geography
 Interests
 Race
 Religion, and
 Activities.
What is a Group?
Group refers to any collection of at least
two people who interact with some
frequency and who share a sense that their
identity is somehow aligned with the group.
Not all gatherings are necessarily groups.
An un-interacting group without a sense of
identity is called an aggregate, or a crowd.
Types of Groups
Groups can broadly be divided into two
categories: primary groups and secondary groups
(Cooley 1909).
The primary groups are usually fairly small.
Members engage face-to-face in long-term
emotional ways.
This group serves emotional needs: expressive
functions.
Types of Groups
Secondary groups are often larger and
impersonal.
They are task-focused and time-limited.
They serve an instrumental function.
Their role is more goal- or task-oriented
than emotional.
In-Groups and Out-Groups
Sociologist William Sumner (1906) developed the
concepts of in-group and out-group.
An in-group is the group that an individual feels
he/she belongs to, and she believes it to be an
integral part of who she is.
An out-group is a group someone doesn’t belong
to; often there may be a feeling of disdain or
competition in relation to an out-group.
Reference Group
A reference group is a group that
people compare themselves to;
providing a standard of measurement
for their daily activities.
In modern societies, peer groups are
common reference groups.
Group Size and Structure
Georg Simmel (1858–1915) wrote about the difference
between a dyad, or two-member group, and a triad,
which is a three-member group (Simmel 1902).
In a dyad, if one person withdraws, the group can no
longer exist.
In a triad, if one person withdraws, the group lives on.
A triad has a different set of relationships. If there are
three in the group, two-against-one dynamics can
develop and there exists the potential for a majority
opinion on any issue.
Group Leadership
Often, larger groups require some kind of leadership.
Leadership in small, primary groups, tend to be informal (most
families don’t take a vote on who will rule the group).
However, de facto leaders emerge but formal leadership is
rare.
In secondary groups, leadership is usually more overt/obvious.
Leaders have clearly outlined roles and responsibilities, with a
chain of command to follow.
Some secondary groups (army), have highly structured and
clearly understood chains of command.
Group Leadership Styles
An instrumental leader is one who is goal-oriented and largely
concerned with accomplishing set tasks.
Expressive leaders are more concerned with promoting
emotional strength and health, and ensuring that people feel
supported.
 Longstanding stereotype: men (more instrumental leaders) and
women (more expressive leaders).
Boatwright and Forrest (2000) argued that both men and
women prefer leaders who use a combination of expressive and
instrumental leadership.
In addition to these leadership functions, there are three
different leadership styles namely democratic, laissez-
faire and authoritarian leaders.
Democratic Leaders
 Encourage group participation in all decision making.
 Leaders work hard to build consensus before decisions
are taken.
 Demerit of Democratic leadership: Work proceeds slowly.
 Group members might pick sides and entrench
themselves.
Laissez-faire leader (French for
“leave it alone”) is hands-off, allowing
group members to self-manage and
make their own decisions.
This style works for highly motivated
and mature participants.
Group Leadership Styles- Authoritarian Leaders
Authoritarian leaders issue orders and
assigns tasks.
These leaders are clear instrumental leaders.
This type of leader risks alienating the
workers.
In different circumstances, each of these
leadership styles can be effective and
successful.
Formal organizations, are highly bureaucratized.
A bureaucracy is an ideal type of formal
organization.
Ideal does not mean “best” in its sociological
usage.
It refers to a general model that describes a
collection of characteristics, or a type that could
describe most examples of the item under
discussion.
Amitai Etzioni (1975) posited that formal organizations
fall into three categories namely Normative
organizations, Coercive organizations and utilitarian
organizations.
Normative organizations/voluntary organizations:
 Are based on shared interests.
 Joining is voluntary.
Coercive organizations:
 One is coerced, or pushed, to join (eg. prison or a
rehabilitation center.
 Goffman states that most coercive
organizations are total institutions
(1961).
Utilitarian organizations:
 People join because of the need for a
specific material reward.
 High school or a workplace are examples.
Formal Organizations (Etzioni, 1975)
Normative or Coercive Utilitarian
Voluntary
Benefit of Intangible benefit Corrective benefit Tangible benefit

Membership
Type of Volunteer basis Required Contractual

Membership basis
Feeling of Shared affinity No affinity Some affinity

Connectedness
Bureaucracies- Features
Max Weber (1922) outlined the features of
bureaucracy as having:
A hierarchy of authority: places one
individual or office in charge of another,
who in turn must answer to her own
superiors.
A clear division of labor: Each individual
has a specialized task to perform.
Bureaucracies- Features
Explicit rules: refers to the way in which
rules are outlined, written down, and
standardized.
Impersonality: takes personal feelings out
of professional situations.
Meritocracies: Hiring and promotion is
based on proven and documented skills.
Merits and Demerits of Bureaucracy
Merits of Bureaucracy:
They are intended to improve efficiency, ensure
equal opportunities, and increase efficiency
Criticisms of bureaucracies:
 Slow, difficult to navigate, and unfriendly.
 Michels (1911) suggested that all large
organizations are characterized by the Iron Rule
of Oligarchy, wherein an entire organization is
ruled by a few elites.
FACULTY OF SCIENCES
WEEK SEVEN: MARRIAGE INSTITUTION
MARRIAGE INSTITUTION
Lecture Objectives
 What is marriage and its types

 African conceptualization of marriage
 Marriage Payment
 Domestic and gender issues in
marriage
Introduction
Marriage is a basic institution in every
society
Without the marriage institution, there will
be no family.
Every adult in Africa is expected to marry
(bear children-family tree)
Marriage is thus a requirement every
male/female must fulfill (Gyekye, 2003)
Marriage defined
 The Notes and Queries (1951) definition:
"a union between a man and a woman such that children born to the
woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners.”
Matters arising:
 a pairing of (2) two man and a woman;
 Living individuals;
 Union of opposite sex couple;
 Union of adults;
 Objective of institution: - reproduction
 Legitimization of kids
 Reciprocal rights: husband and wife; kin and rights and status of
children.
Demerits/Controversies of the
above definition
Marriage is between a man and a woman.
African Marriage involves not only bride &
groom but also respective natal families.
Legitimate offspring after marriage.
Children may not be the focus of some
marriages (contract marriages-Green card).
Marriage Defined
Marriage is therefore defined as ‘any union in which the
couple has gone through all the procedures recognized in the
society for the purpose of sexual intercourse, raising a family,
or companionship’ (Nukunya, 2016).
Legality of a union
 Union must go through laid down process
 Marriage payment
 Formal handing over of the lady to the man’s family
 Marriage ceremony
African Marriage (Union of Families)
In Africa, marriage is seen as a group affairs
(Nukunya, 2016; Gyekye, 2003)
Involves the entire retinue of immediate and
distant relatives, friends, neighbors, peers, etc.
Members of the lineage of both the
prospective couples are deeply involved in the
marriage process.
Conceptualization For Unmarried Men
Unmarried men in African societies are
stigmatized / ridiculed by his peers and older
generation
Among the Akans of Ghana such a person is
considered as kwasea (fool)
Kwasea means unwise person (onnim nyansa)
A fool in Akan: irresponsible person or worthless
(Gyekye, 2003).
REASONS FOR MARRYING
Procreation – have legitimate
children though the concept of
“illegitimate children” generally does
not exist in Africa (Gyekye, 2003).
Sexual gratification
Prestige according married men
REASONS FOR MARRYING
 Marriage may confer status and recognition on couples and
family (unmarried people denied respect in Africa).
 Love and Companionship
 Political & Alliance motives: (chiefs and child betrothal-

political tensions)
 Economic reasons (source of labour; division of labour

based on sex/gender), Management of scarce resources
(money)
TYPES OR FORMS OF MARRIAGE
Child betrothal: in some African societies infants
may be given out in marriage (Ghana- Sagnarigu,
Nanumba North, Gusheigu, Saboba and Mion).
Ages between 10-17 years; investment in the
young girl
Implications:
 No say in the Choice of partner
 Elopements (communal feuds).
 Teenage Marriages
Child betrothal / Teenage Marriages:
Consequences
 Education: School dropouts among young girls;
 Teenage mothers: unprepared more.
 Over population
 Economic implications:
 Increase in streetism
 Social vices-armed robbery, prostitution
 Head porters.
TYPES OR FORMS OF MARRIAGE
Women-women marriage: a woman may wed
another woman resulting in female husbands.
This is uncommon now, but once widespread
among African peoples – e.g. Lovedu, Nuer,
Dinka.
Polygamy
 Polygamy: plural marriage. Types are Polygyny
and polyandry
Polygyny: Men may be allowed to marry more
than one wife.
Sororal polygyny: It is a type of marriage in
which the wives are invariably the sisters.
Non-sororal polygyny: It is a type of marriage in
which the wives are not related as sisters.
Polyandry
 It is the marriage of one woman with more than
one man. It is less common than polygyny. Two
types:
 Fraternal polyandry
When several brothers share the same wife.
 Non - fraternal polyandry: In this type the
husband need not have any close relationship
prior to the marriage.
MARRIAGE PAYMENT / PRESTATIONS
 Differs from society to society, same ethnic group etc.
 Ashanti: Drinks and money. Tiri nsa (head wine) formally
establishes the marriage. It is described as aseda (thanksgiving)
 It consists of two bottles of gin and an agreed fee.
 Anlo: Two types -tabianu (used in asking) and the sronu (marriage
payment proper) (Nukunya, 2016)
 Tiabianu : given to bride and family after marriage proposal is
accepted
 Sronu: paid around the time of the marriage ceremony (Nukunya,
1969).
 Ga: marriage payments consist of stage by stage payments of drinks
and cash. Weku daa (drinks for relatives) is the principal payment (Azu,
1974).
MARRIAGE PAYMENT / PRESTATIONS IN NORTHERN
GHANA
 Gonja: Minimum of 13 shillings and 12 kola;
supplemented by courting and greeting gifts to the
future wife and parents.
 Transactions not returnable (Goody, 1973)
 Lowiili: 35 cowries (to legalize the union), and 200, 000

cowrie shells paid in the lifetime of the marriage.
MARRIAGE PROHIBITION
All societies have rules that regulate the choice
of partner (s)
These are Exogamy, Endogamy, and incest taboo
 Exogamy (rule of exclusion)
 Endogamy: specifies the group a person is
allowed to marry.
 Incest taboo: an offence or sin committed
when close relations have sexual intercourse.
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE / ABUSE
Associated with marriage are domestic rights concerns.
They are not new and not exclusive to Africa. Recently they
have become a public concern, thanks to NGOs, &
women’s groups.
Forms of Domestic Violence: Physical abuse, Psychological
/ emotional abuse, Economic abuse, sexual abuse etc.:
Examples:
Beatings, threatening language, derogatory
remarks/insults, denial of needs, rape, killings, torture,
burning, abandonment, etc.
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
WEEK EIGHT: “CONCEPTUALIZING THE
FAMILY INSTITUTION”

Lecture Objectives
Definition of Family and Marriage
Types of Family and Marriage
African Orientation of the Family and

Marriage
4/19/2023 148
Introduction
Family is a system of institutions (Gisbert, 2004).
It is a basic social group and plays an important
role in socialization.
Family maybe described as a group of individuals
related to one another by ties of consanguinity,
marriage or adoption, the adult members of which
are responsible for the upbringing of children
(Nukunya, 2016).
Features of the Family
The family members are united together by social
and psychological bonds.
Social bonds include:
• Legal bond: The legal bond thus holds the marriage
union together.
• Economic bond: there is mutual dependence of both
husbands and wife and children with reference to
production of economic.
Features of the Family
• Religious bond: Under Christian terms,
marriage formed cannot be broken until
death.
• Precise network of sexual rights and
prohibitions: This also constitutes a unifying
force.
• The exclusive sexual right creates a sense of
belongingness.
Features of the Family: Psychological Bond
Love: It refers to the delight that both husband
and wife take in thinking about each other,
causing them to have an irresistible desire for
devotion towards each other.
• Erotic love creates a strong bond between
couple.
Affection: attachment or companionship.
• This attachment means the couples cannot do
without each other.
Features of the Family: Psychological Bond
Respect: Esteem or considerations that both
couple have for each other.
• Respect makes them appreciate each other and
get along much better.
Awe: It is explained by the ultimate submission
of the wife to the husband as head of the family.
• The wife recognizes the husband as the final
authority in the house.
African Orientation of the Family
In Africa, the family is:
 A group of people interrelated through blood, marriage or adoption;
 Members may or may not live together (Nukunya, 2016);
 Cooperation or collaboration among members of the family (Naming
ceremonies, funerals, etc.).
 Concept of reciprocity:
 Sharing of valuables
 caring for each other especially the younger generation
(primary socialization)
 Loyalty (to each other)
 Commitment (to the course of the group)
Types Of Family
There are various types of the family. Some of these
are
 Extended family,
 Lineage, Clan,
 Nuclear family/Simple family
 Family of procreation,
 Family of orientation, etc. 4/19/2023 155
The Nuclear Family
 It refers to a married couple and their children (Nukunya, 2016). It
may also be referred to as a monogamous family. A couple without
children does not constitute a family.
 Family of orientation: this is the family in which one is born into. It thus
comprises of the parents and children.
 Family of procreation: This is the family in which one marries with the
aim of raising children. It thus comprises of the spouses and children.
It is thus one into which a new generation of children is brought up in
(Nukunya, 2016; Gisbert, 2004)
Types of Family
Polygamous families
 Polygamous family is a man living together with many

women and children (Polygamy).
 It may also be a woman living together with many men

(husbands) an children (Polygyny). (Nukunya, 2017;
Gisbert, 2004).
Types of Family: The Extended family
 It is used in two may contexts:
• It is used to describe a residential group comprising a
series of close relatives built around either patrilineal
or matrilineal lines usually not along both lines
(Nukunya, 2016).
• It is also a social arrangement in which an individual
has extensive reciprocal duties, obligations and
responsibilities to relations outside his immediate
(nuclear) family.
Family, Domestic Group and Household: the Distinction
Domestic Group: It refers to persons occupying
a particular dwelling.
 Household: It is a group of people who share
the same housekeeping and eating
arrangements. That is people who eat from
the same pot. It may however be a domestic
group or family but not necessarily (Nukunya,
2016).
Functions of the Family
The four primary functions of the family
include:
Reproduction: Biological process through which
a husband and wife make love, wife gets
pregnant and baby is born.
Maintenance: A child born must be maintained
through provision of its basic needs – feeding,
clothing and shelter.
Functions of the Family
Status ascription: A child assumes a

specific status at birth (ascribed status) –
being in the upper, middle or lower class.
Socialization: it is the process whereby
an individual, inexperienced in a given
culture, learns about that culture as an
aspect of his/her behavior.
Secondary Functions of the Family
The family is a miniature form of society.
Political functions of the family
Maintenance of law and order by the
family head or lineage head Abusua payin
(Akan); Samefia (Ewe) or wetse (Ga).
Lineage head presides over code of
behavior and appropriate secular and
sacred sanctions.
Religious Functions of the Family
Indoctrination of the requirements of the
religion that the family practices (traditional,
Christianity or Islam)
The prescriptions, prohibitions and family taboos
are communicated to members of the family.
Lineage head or chief priest performs a vital role
(traditional religion); pastors or imams
(Christianity & Islam).
Economic Functions of the Family
 Family constitute both a productive and consumptive
unit.
 It constitute a source of labour force engaged in
planting, harvesting and distributing products.
Marriage functions of the family
 Family arrange for marriage partners for their
members.
 Family members provide advice or play roles in
investigation of the prospective spouse.
Socialization
 This is one of the primary functions of the family and
has found expression in rites of passages –
outdooring, puberty, marriage, mortuary rites.
Health functions of the family
 Family members contribute financially towards
healthcare of members.
 Family members become healthcare givers in the
home and hospitals.
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
WEEK NINE: THE TROKOSI SYSTEM

By
Introduction
 With the passage of time, some cultural
practices could not stand the test of time.
Some of these practices violated on the
human rights of those subjected to it.
They were portrayed badly in the eyes
of international donor agencies.
Is Troskosi a Social Problem?
Trokosi is a social problem.
News about the system floods the media
landscape in Ghana.
Its complex nature leaves certain aspects of it
unexplored.
In 1998 the Criminal Code of 1960 Act 29 was
amended to outlaw harmful traditional practices
including trokosi system.
The meaning of Trokosi
Trokosi is a combination of two Ewe words:
 These are tro and kosi
 Tro means deity and kosi means slave
 Trokosi therefore connotes “slave of deity”.
A virgin yet to experience the menarche is
given to a deity to atone for the sin or
offence committed by a relative.
The meaning of Trokosi
The girl practically becomes a slave of the deity.
Thus she’s called the deity’s wife.
She remains in the shrine serving the priest and
other functionaries of the deity and is often used
as sexual partner of the priest.
Even in the event of the death of a serving girl,
another girl from the family is brought to replace
her.
Variation of the System
In Akatsi and Ketu North Districts of the
Volta Region a similar practice can be
found.
This system is called the Fiasidi.
Fiasidi means “Prospective wife of a
chief (or deity) or a virgin preserved for
the deity.
Variation of the System
In this system, the vestal virgin is not
normally kept in the shrine.
She lives with her family
She could not marry or have sex without the
permission of the shrine.
She is respected by her family members
and her prospective husband.
List of Trokosi Shrines
39 active shrines in Volta and Dangme areas of Ghana.
 18 shrines in North Tongu District
 8 shrines in South Tongu Districts
 3 in Ketu South Municipality
 3 Ketu Municipality
 2 Ketu North District
The popular shrine in Akatsi is Dzoli located at Avenorfeme
In all, there are about 4,000 trokosi.
The largest concentration is in the Tongu area of the Volta
Region.
Origin of Trokosi system
Its one of the oldest practices found among the
Ewe.
Its origin can be traced to the practice of
paying deities for services rendered.
Kind payment: cattle, sheep, goats and poultry.
Those satisfied with the work of the gods begun
to offer their children (girls) to serve the gods in
appreciation for their services.
Male children pledged were called
Klu while females were called Kosi or
Dzatugbi (Dzatu).
Such children did not live in the
shrines but had obligations and duties
to the deity.
The females could not marry
without the consent of the
deities.
The deities also had a share
of the bride price.
Life in the Shrine
Trokosis prior to the confinement is
expected to bring her personal
belongings.
Life commences with a ritual of
committal.
The purpose is to induct the Kosi into the
shrine and administer concoctions to her.
Life in the Shrine
The concoctions are to make her faithful
devotee.
Sanctions against such actions are offered
to her parents and the lady herself.
Her hair is shaved as a mark of
identification.
She’s given a new cloth.
Taboos for the Trokosi
She's forbidden from wearing
shoes and clothes.
She is not to have sex
Not to eat some common fish
species.
Duties of the Trokosis
Performs domestic chores
Work for the priests without pay
She could not leave the shrine even for
the farm without his permission.
She rarely visit her family for few days.
Some don’t even visit home at all.
Sex except with the priest is a taboo.
Duties of the Trokosis
Those allowed to marry need
permission from priest to have sex.
The priest determines the bride
price of the girls.
Children fathered by the priests are
not properly catered for.
Offences that attracts punishment
Refusal to have sex with the priest
Quarrelling with a trokosis
Insulting others
Refusal or inability to run errands
Leaving for markets or farm without priests
permission
Running away to parents
Disrespect for the elderly
Challenges of liberation
Social rejection:
they are not readily accepted in the
society (friends and neighbours)
Fear and stigma
This makes them not able to engage in
meaningful economic activities.
Challenges of liberation
Challenge of not getting husbands
Fear and stigma prevents prospective husbands
from approaching them.
As such, marriage becomes a problem to the
women.
Fear of being influenced by the shrine
 Liberated women still fear that the former shrine
and priest can still influence or harm them even
though they have been liberated.
Implication of the Criminal Code Amendment Act
The Act stipulates that whoever:
Sends to or receives at any place any person or participates or is
concerned with any ritual or customary activity with the purpose of
subjugating that person to any form or customary servitude is guilty of
a Second Degree Felony.
Such a person will receive a sentence not less than three years
imprisonment.
Its targeted at the priests,
Shrine owners
Parents
Relatives
Chiefs
FACULTY OF SCIENCES
WEEK TEN: COMMERCIAL SEX WORK IN
GHANA
By
INTRODUCTION
Prostitution is a commercialized vice
that has existed in the world from
time immemorial.
The institution has never been
recognized by the society as such.
It’s the world’s oldest profession.
INTRODUCTION
The word commercial sex work (CSW) is
derived from the Latin word “prostare”.
It dates back to ancient societies and
occurs throughout human history.
This practice is an age-long phenomenon
recorded between 640–556 B.C.
Definition of Prostitution
It is defined as the practice of habitual
or intermittent sexual union, more or less
promiscuous, for mercenary inducement.
It is defined as a practice in which one

has sex with someone for money.
Prostitution has been defined
by Flexner (1914) as " more
or less promiscuity of sex
relationship for pay, or its
equivalent,"
The practice as involving illicit sex union
on a promiscuous and mercenary basis
with accompanying emotional
indifference.
Prostitution is not to be confused with the
illicit sex union of lovers, nor the concept
mistress.
Constituents of Prostitution
Thus, there are three important
constituents of prostitution:
 Illicit and promiscuous sexual
intercourse,
 Mercenary basis whether in cash or in
kind, and
 Lack of affection or personal interest.
Constituents of Prostitution
Adopting Flexner’s definition three
elements namely:
 Barter,
 Promiscuity
 Emotional indifference should be
present”
Causes of Prostitution
The causes of prostitution fall
under two main heads:
Biological (natural
phenomenon) and socio-
economic (society).
The most predominant cause
which operates among:
 Males is the sexual urge,
 Females is their economic
dependency.
It has been observed that different
causes work in three different groups of
males when classified on the basis of
marital status.
These three groups are (i) the unmarried
persons (ii) the married persons, and (iii)
the widowers.
Causes of Prostitution- Unmarried persons
 Unfulfillment of their sexual urges.
The different standards of morality for males
and females further encourage it.
 Women are stigmatized for illicit intercourse,
no such strong social disapproval is exhibited
against men.
Postponement of marriage because of
economic necessity bachelors.
Causes of Prostitution-among unmarried Males
Other causes may be included:
Sex stimulating literature
Indecent shows
Lustful conversation
Use of alcohol
Lack of moral teaching and
Curiosity for sex experience
Causes of Prostitution-Among married persons
A fair percentage of married persons resort
to prostitution.
The reasons given are:
 (a) unsatisfactory martial relationship
 (b) to escape from the emotional tensions in
their marriage and
 (c) the monotony of the marriage
relationship.
Causes of Prostitution-Among divorced man
The divorced man is often lonely and
establishes a relationship with a prostitute
for companionship.
 The sex drives causes men accustomed to
regular sex relationship in marriage, to
resort to prostitution when their
relationship have ended.
Causes of Prostitution for females
Economic Factors: The chief cause for women or
young girls accepting this profession is their
poverty.
Mental Deficiency or Certain Temperamental
Traits: Mental deficiency is also sometimes
considered to be the cause of prostitution.
 A proportion of both the young sex offenders and
the common prostitutes are rated low in mentality.
Social Values Against
Unchastity: A girl who had
illicit sex experience are often
made to feel that she had
nothing left to lose.
Ignorance: social vice rings operating in
large urban areas frequently exploit girls
from surrounding rural communities.
 Often they are lured by offences of
employment (Ghanaians & Nigerians in
UEA & France).
Unhappy marital relations.
Inordinate sex desire: Certain
girls have inordinate sex desire
and crave for sex stimulation for
its own sake.
Desire for new experience:
Desire for new sex experience.
Vested Interests: Highly profitable nature of the
business makes many girls to resort to prostitution.
Restrictions on Widow remarriage: In India there
are two additional social factors which increase
prostitution.
 They are difficulties in widow remarriage and some
other social customs such as Devadasi system which
force many women to prostitution.
Devadasi System: The Devadasi system is
prevalent in some of the South Indian states
such as Madras, Bombay, Mysore, etc.
 It is system in which a female before
reaching the age of puberty is married
or dedicated to a temple, temple priest or
some local deity.
Devadasi System:
 Under this system the women who are
dedicated as Devadasi to Hindu deities
and idols are considered unfit to marry
later on and this leads them to a life of
prostitution.
Types of Prostitution
Prostitutes may be divided into two groups:
 (a) the overt, and (b) the clandestine group.
The overt groups includes professional registered as well as
unregistered prostitutes, who generally live in brothel
houses.
But there are many prostitutes who are nominally employed
at other type of work, notably in personal service or as
entertainers.
Such girls are accustomed to practise prostitution as a more
or less regular supplement to their legitimate earnings.
Types of Prostitution- The clandestine group
The clandestine prostitutes include a wide variety of
women who enter into sex relationships for mercenary
considerations.
Firstly, there is the occasional prostitute who alternates
periods of reforms with period of active prostitution.
Secondly, there is the incidental prostitute, who
augments a scanty legitimate income by the sale of sex
favour.
Girl clerks employed in department stores often
supplement their wages by recourse to such illicit sources.
Types of Prostitution- The clandestine group
Cast-off mistress often enter prostitution as a last
resort after all other resources have failed.
Thirdly, married women on occasion resort to such
mercenary and adulterous practices usually serving
a restricted clientele.
Fourthly, the coincubinage system under which the
mistress or her guardians enters into agreement
with a male member for a minimum stipulated
period.

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VALLEY VIEW UNIVERSITY

WEEK ONE: INTRODUCTION TO OF SOCIOLOGY

BY: KWABENA BOATENG (PhD)

 Understand the meaning and subject matter of

Distinguish Sociology from the other disciplines in the

Trace the historical antecedents leading to the birth of

It is defined as the scientific and systematic study of society

Sociology is the systematic study of human society and

Reciprocal relationship - either direct or

A sense of bond or something in common

Man is social due to the fact that:

Theoretical: Utilize theories to explain social

Non-ethical: Sociology is not judgmental.

 It means the appropriate way of doing something, teaching or

 Method is the entire process or procedure to be followed while a

Philosophical Knowledge: It is built

Sociological knowledge: Knowledge

Psychology: It is the systematic study of

SOCIO142: INTRODUCTORY SOCIOLOGY

KWABENA BOATENG (PhD)

 Outline the components of culture

 The patterns of behavior is expected to make them functional

 Through socialization, people learn to adapt to their environment to

 The learned patterns of life is called culture.

 Culture is modified and handed over from generation to generation.

 Positive Sanction: Rewards for actions which are approved

 Negative sanctions: Deprivations which accompany behavior

• George Murdock (1945) cultural universals: athletic sports, bodily

• Donald Brown (1991): language, nonverbal communication with

 The process of learning the patterns of a given society is through

 John B. Watson, continued Ivan Palvov’s work.

 He argued that personality and human behavior are completely

 It can be molded in any direction at the will of the instructor.

 To appreciate the main objectives of

Comprehend the ways through which traditional

Understand the utility of socialization both for

WEEK SIX: GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS

KWABENA BOATENG (PhD)

Benefit of Intangible benefit Corrective benefit Tangible benefit

Type of Volunteer basis Required Contractual

Feeling of Shared affinity No affinity Some affinity

 What is marriage and its types

 Love and Companionship

 Political & Alliance motives: (chiefs and child betrothal-

 Economic reasons (source of labour; division of labour

 Lowiili: 35 cowries (to legalize the union), and 200, 000

KWABENA BOATENG (DR.)

Definition of Family and Marriage

Types of Family and Marriage

African Orientation of the Family and

 Polygamous family is a man living together with many

 It may also be a woman living together with many men

Status ascription: A child assumes a

WEEK NINE: THE TROKOSI SYSTEM

It is defined as a practice in which one

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