Early inhabitants:

 Pre-Celtic Iberians: Arrived around 2500-2000 BC, lived during the Bronze and
Iron Ages, and built impressive stone monuments like Stonehenge.
 Continental Britain: Connected to Europe until the last ice age, then separated
around 6000 BC due to rising sea levels.
Iberians:
 Migrated from Iberia (Portugal and Spain) to Britain before the 7th century BC.
 Lived on berries, nuts, hunting, and some farming.
 Their bloodlines may be present in Scots, Welsh, and Irish populations.
Celts:
 Arrived from Central Europe around 700 BC, pushing the Iberians to Scotland,
Wales, and Ireland.
 More advanced in metalworking than agriculture.
 Druids held significant power in religion, education, and justice.
 Worshipped natural elements like the sun, moon, trees, and rivers.
 Oral tradition through bards and poets.
Roman Invasion:
 Julius Caesar led the initial invasion in 55 BC, followed by Emperor Claudius
in 43-47 AD.
 Introduced Roman language, culture, and architecture (cities, roads, castles).
 Hadrian's Wall built in the 2nd century to defend against attacks from the north.
Legacy:
 Roman language formed the foundation for modern Romance languages.
 Place names like Chester, Lancaster, and Gloucester reflect Roman influence.

Lecture2
Pre-Anglo-Saxon Era:
Anglo-Saxon Invasion (410-1066):
Germanic tribes, mainly Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, invaded Britain in large numbers
during the 5th century.
They spread across England and southern Scotland, pushing the Celtic Britons
westward.
Christianity arrived in Britain through St. Augustine in the 6th-7th centuries, later
spreading to northern England, Scotland, and Ireland.
King Arthur, a legendary Celtic leader, attempted to resist the Anglo-Saxon invasion.
Viking Invasion (8th-11th centuries):
Vikings from Scandinavia invaded Britain in the 8th century and parts of Ireland in the
9th century.
King Alfred of Wessex successfully halted their advance, dividing England into
Wessex in the south and the "Dane law" Viking kingdom in the north.
Alfred the Great, a scholar and military leader, played a crucial role in uniting England
and promoting education and culture.

Lecture 3
Summary of the Norman Conquest and its impact on Britain:
Before the Conquest:
Anglo-Saxons and Danes shared similar cultures and languages, eventually merging
into a single kingdom with a Germanic base.
The Norman Invasion:
In 1066, the Normans conquered England led by William the Conqueror.
This marked the last successful invasion of England.
Norman rule introduced a strict feudal system with barons, lords, and peasants.
The Normans spoke French, creating a new social class system based on language and
land ownership.
Political and cultural consequences:
Anglo-Norman monarchs became powerful, ruling England and expanding into Wales
and Ireland.
Scotland remained independent but adopted some English customs and language in the
south.
Parliament started to develop as a representative body.
Language and social class:
English remained the dominant language despite Norman French influence.
Vocabulary related to food and higher classes came from French, reflecting social
divisions.
Legacy:
The Norman Conquest significantly impacted British political, social, and linguistic
structures.
It laid the foundation for a strong monarchy and the development of parliamentary
democracy.
The class system and linguistic influences remain evident in today's society.

Lecture4

Summary of the Norman invasion of Britain in 1066:

Background:

The Normans, descendants of Vikings who settled in Northern France, adopted French
language and culture.

King Edward the Confessor died in 1066, sparking several claims to the throne.

Main events:

Duke William of Normandy (later William the Conqueror) claimed the throne based
on a promise from Edward and prepared to invade.

Harold Godwin, elected by the Anglo-Saxon Witan, faced internal and external threats,
including an invasion from Harold Hardrada of Norway.

Harold defeated the Norwegians but then faced William at the Battle of Hastings,
where he was killed.

William took London in December 1066 and was crowned King of England.

Impact:

Anglo-Saxon elites were replaced by Normans, reshaping land ownership and political
power.

Feudalism was established, with William granting land to loyal nobles in exchange for
military service.

French language became prominent in government, church, and elite circles,

influencing vocabulary and syntax of English.

Norman architecture left a lasting mark with castles, churches, and monasteries.

The Domesday Book documented land ownership and wealth, consolidating William's
authority.
Norman conquest intertwined England and France historically, both politically and
culturally.

Lecture5
Summary of Troubles of England in the Late Middle Ages (1337-1485):
Major events:
Hundred Years' War (1337-1453): England and France engaged in a bitter conflict
over the French throne, with English victories early on (Crecy, Poitiers) followed by a
French resurgence led by Joan of Arc.
Black Death (1349): A devastating plague swept across England, reducing the
population by half and impacting social and economic structures.
Peasants' Revolt (1381): Economic hardships and high taxes sparked a widespread
rebellion led by Wat Tyler, demanding reforms and freedom from serfdom, although it
was ultimately crushed.
Wars of the Roses (1455-1485): Rival houses of Lancaster (red rose) and York (white
rose) clashed for the English throne, culminating in the victory of Henry Tudor and the
end of the Plantagenet dynasty.
Consequences:
 Political instability and dynastic struggle for power.
 Social and economic upheaval due to the plague and rebellion.
 Shift in social dynamics with increased bargaining power for laborers.
 Emergence of England as a more centralized and stable nation under the Tudor
dynasty.