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The Ethiopian Orthodox Church - A Study in Indigenization
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church - A Study in Indigenization
CALVIN E. SHENK
Dr. Calvin Shenk is Professor of Church Studies at Eastern Mennonite College in Har-
risonburg, Virginia. He was a missionary for fifteen years (1961-75) with the Mennonite
Church in Ethiopia.
spirits of the dead. Some of them wield more power than the sorcerer and
are experts in rainmaking and divination (Trimingham 1952:28; Hyatt
192859; Ephraim 1971:267; Levine 196571).
Satan is considered to be the most powerful of the spirits. He is said to
dwell in deep waters, forests, or caves, and is particularly present at noon,
midnight, and near dirty places. He may be blamed for drowning, sickness
and epilepsy, burnings in the fire, as well as for immoral behavior such as
theft, drunkenness, and murder. Because of his power he is respected and
feared and sometimes prayed to in times of sickness. Certain individuals get
along well with the devil; they pray to him and he does them favors. When
the person dies, the son often continues that relationship (Levine 1965:67).
Holy springs, believed to originate in the Jordan River, are named after
Christ, Mary, or the saints. Hot springs, in addition to being places of heal-
ing, are frequently given religious interpretations. Drinking holy water is
common. Sacred trees are important in Ethiopia as objects of devotion;
many are dedicated to a saint or angel. Certain sycamore trees, trees on
church compounds, or groves around churches have become places of pil-
grimage, offerings, or sacrifice. To break a branch from a tree in the church-
yard is considered sacrilege.
Some churches were built on ancient primal temple sites or at places
where there were holy objects such as trees or stones. The churches super-
seded but sometimes also absorbed the older cult. A few authorities believe
that the practice of sacrificing an animal at the dedication of a church and
the celebration of certain feasts once each month (Nativity, St. George, St.
Mary, St. Michael, St. Gabriel) may reflect a pagan origin (Jones and
Monroe 1955:38-39;Trimingham 1952:28-29; Biddler 1959:35).
There are numerous traditions which depict Ethiopian saints as having
great victories over primal religion, witchcraft, and magic, but the stories of
their victories are often couched in the language of traditional religion.
Saints are very important because they fill the need for mediation. Venera-
tion of holy places and holy objects is common.
Some Christian holiday celebrations appear to reflect elements of tradi-
tional religions. Observance of New Year sometimes incorporates sacrificial
rituals for exorcism. Timket (Epiphany) has pre-Christian elements. The
Meskel (cross) festival which commemorates the finding of the true cross by
Empress Helena, mother of Constantine, includes the burning of a pole
(demeru)and many bonfires. Sometimes the sign of the cross is made on the
forehead from ashes taken from the fire. Christian explanations suggest that
the demeru are a symbol of the prayers and success of Helena, who either
was able to find the site of crucifixion through a sign from the smoke of
burning incense or else lit a fire in order that the smoke might serve as a sign
of victory. Others believe this practice is based upon a pre-Christian
observance related to fire or incense in cult worship. It might recall the use
268 CalvinShenk
1. Incorporation
The child is incorporated into the community through baptism. Chris-
tian baptism of the male child after forty days and the female child after
eighty days seems to follow the Jewish laws of presentation at the temple. At
the same time the baptismal ceremony reflects concern with demons both
from the standpoint of the past and the desire to avoid potential demonic
power over the child in the future through name magic.
2. Celebration of Community
The Ethiopian calendar provides for celebration of community
through fasting and feasting. This celebration includes the living and the
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church: A Study in Indigenization 269
dead. The calendar, though sometimes borrowing from Jewish and primal
traditions, is a constant reminder of the respect believers owe to the Chris-
tian saints. Churches are named for them, feasts are instituted in their
honor, the name of the saint is taken at baptism, and Tabots (arks) are dedi-
cated to them. It is generally believed that Christ granted Ethiopia as a fief
to his mother. St. George is considered the patron saint of Ethiopia.
Villages, religious fraternal associations, and families honor saints. The
celebration of saints’ days, social-religious institutions (Senbete, Mahaber,
Zikre Kiddusan), other holidays, and pilgrimages weld the religious com-
munity together. The emphasis upon church building, ark, clergy, and wor-
ship (music, vestments, symbols, gestures, language, liturgy) celebrate com-
munity. The corporate value of Orthodox worship fits beautifully with Af-
rican understandings of corporate celebration.
3. Fertility
Ethiopians are concerned for the fertility of land (rainfall and planting
ceremonies, protection of crops, harvest ceremonies) and people. Pil-
grimages are made to St. Gabriel’s Church at Kalubi in eastern Ethiopia to
ask for the angel’s intercession; one of the most common requests is for a
child. As noted before, some have equated the Virgin Mary with Atete, the
goddess of fertility.
4. Concernfor Power
This is seen in the wearing of amulets with both Jewish and Christian
motifs and the role of the debterra in using magic to counteract evil magic or
evil spirits. Even the cross can become a powerful fetish.
8. Death
Remembrance of the dead (Tescar) is a very important Orthodox rite
which not only commemorates the dead but offers material sacrifices on be-
half of the deceased to promote his well-being. Added to this institution of
the church may be magical rites designed either to propitiate or to safeguard
his destiny.
Since many other features of belief and practice are held in common
with universal Christian tradition and are not uniquely the result of the Af-
rican cultural context, they are not dealt with here. A complete picture of
the church would need to include that which is universal Christian tradition
as well as that which is particular to the church.
Solomonic period (1270- 1527). Christians and Muslims often competed for
primal religious areas, which adversely affected the purity of the faith. Some
of the emperors facilitated this expansion. Emperor Amda Seyon (1314-44)
was an important architect of the dynamic system of Christian expansion.
Emperor Zara Yacob (1434-68) sought to stabilize conquests and give a
sound institutional base for church and state. He was concerned about non-
Christian elements that had crept into the church and tried to bring an end
to these alien practices through religious instruction. He ordered churches
to be built on primal religious sites and tried to abolish primal religious cus-
toms. Magicians were executed or imprisoned. Worship of other gods and
magical prayers were forbidden under pain of death. Christian fasts and
holy days were enforced and Christians were required to bear signs of the
faith on their bodies, clothes, and property. He encouraged baptism by re-
warding new converts with a position among the privileged class of Chris-
tian settlers. He wanted to assimilate primal religious subjects into the
Christian community and create a religiously homogeneous society (Tad-
dessee 1972b:121, 232, 237-239; Kaplan 1984:107). However, his coercion
made effective indigenization impossible and many returned to their former
religion.
Some local rulers opposed the new religion but the power of the
kingdom was attractive to others who saw acceptance of the religion of the
conquerors as a clever way to gain political prestige and advancement. To
reinforce their power, local rulers sometimes enlisted the support of the
monk against primal religious practitioners because the local ruler saw the
primal religious expert as a threat to his power. Not only did the king have
political power for Christianization but now also the local ruler had power
over his subjects. Since among primal people religion is not so much the
concern of the individual as the community, the leaders of ethnic groups be-
came Christian and the community was obliged to follow them. Local rulers
were attracted to the Christian faith because it was a universal religion but
they were not required to abandon their previous beliefs. Unfortunately,
neither they nor their subjects experienced thoroughgoing conversion (Tad-
desse 1972b:233; Kaplan 1984:123-124).
Similarly, the church gradually dispossessed the primal religious
experts of their political and economic power but it never had complete
claim on the loyalty of their soul. Local leaders and religious experts tended
to reject Christian faith if it threatened their power but accepted it if it le-
gitimized their authority (Kaplan 1984:124).
In early Solomonic Ethiopia monks took a leading role in evangeliza-
tion. Monks did not usually represent themselves as emissaries of the Chris-
tian kings nor did they present conversion as a symbol of political submis-
sion. They preferred to convey an essentially religious message, to challenge
local religious experts rather than political officials. Yet despite their good
272 Calvin Shenk
3. Leadershipfor Evangelization
The Ethiopian Church has not had a unified policy for evangelization.
Without a common understanding of evangelism or a clear position toward
non-Christian practice, accommodation to culture proceeded haphazardly.
The central leadership of the church preferred a sheltered existence at
274 Calvin Shenk
the center of the traditional Christian state. They made little attempt to
convert people on the periphery (Kaplan 1984:91). Furthermore, it was im-
possible for the Coptic bishop to apply strict control from the center. Lack
of leadership meant that some of the concessions made to primal religious
cultures did not have the blessing of the central hierarchy of the church
(Taddesse 1972a:147).
Secular clergy tended to stay near the center of the kingdom. They
were so embedded in the society around them and so dependent upon it for
support that they did not opt for the lonely or dangerous life of the frontier.
When they went to the frontier they went with troops in order to serve their
religious needs. (Kaplan 1984:31).
Secular clergy made only minor contributions to the spread of the faith
among conquered peoples. Because of extended periods without a bishop,
there was a shortage of priests and deacons. This lack of clergy was a major
cause of the syncretistic character of Christianity. Often the selection of
priests was not based upon piety or learning but upon a family tradition of
serving in the priesthood. Poorly trained clerics had little interest in spread-
ing the Christian faith to non-Christian people. In fact, when such occasions
arose and they were confronted with primal religion they often com-
promised, abandoning essential elements of the faith (Kaplan 1984:30-31).
They could not provide sufficient guidance to people to extricate themselves
from their former religious milieu (Taddesse 1972a:150). The priests and
deacons were not even capable of transmitting the spirit of Christian teach-
ing to the Christian settler communities. They were only capable of
performing the liturgy and officiating at religious ceremonies (Taddesse
1972b:231-232).
The conversion of conquered people was left to the monks. Military
successes brought Christians into newly conquered areas but the missionary
activities of the monks brought Christianity. On occasion monks were co-
opted for the purposes of the state but they were not just pawns of the royal
hierarchy. Monks tended to be individualistic and act independently which
contributed to varied understandings of Christian faith in relation to primal
culture. They were tolerant of the socio-cultural practices. Conversion and
incorporation into the church was simple and rapid; profession of faith was
followed by baptism and change of name but there was little nurture.
Notes
I. While contextualization has tended to replace indigenizationin recent years, indigenization seems
preferable for the process described at this particular stage of historical development.
2. Axum is the ancient Ethiopian kingdom thought to have had its origin with the influx of Semites
from South Arabia who fused with the indigenous population.
3. Legend traces Ethiopian Christianity back to the time of the apostles, either to Philip and the
Ethiopian eunuch or to Pentecost. Some stories state that Matthew, Bartholomew, or other disciples
traveled to Axum to preach Christianity.
4. Council of Nicea (325), Council of Constantinople (381). Council of Ephesus (431).
5. Aremenian, Syrian, Coptic, Indian.
6. Primal religion is used here to describe what has often been called pagan religion or traditional
religion.
7. This feast, held on January 17, is also called the Feast of Immersion or Epiphany. It remembers
Christ’s baptism and confirms the church member’s baptism.
8. In the northern part of Ethiopia it is sometimes called the Kedwa Kedusan (Holy of Holies).
9. Sometimescalled Ende Tamir (Place of Miracles).
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