CLEANER PRODUCTION:

Overview and Background

Pagan Robert Jack

Senior Lecturer
Environmental Management

Summary
This overview of the Cleaner Production strategy provides the background for the rationale for Cleaner
Production, locally and globally. We examine the need for Cleaner Production activities to be undertaken
and the benefits that will flow from them. We look at some of the drivers for implementation and also some
of the barriers. The activities of important worldwide groups such as UNEP are discussed and their rationale
for providing support. An overall picture of the importance of carrying out Cleaner Production - by whatever
name - is provided and Cleaner Production activities at all levels discussed.

1
 CLEANER PRODUCTION:
Overview and Background
Pagan Robert Jack

Senior Lecturer
Environmental Management

INTRODUCTION

Towards Cleaner Production

Only over the last few decades has there been an integrated approach to pollution prevention, which
has been adopted by many countries and states. Many governments have resisted the changes; many
have not considered it of strategic importance and only recently has there been a discovery of the
way in which it can influence trade and competition. Companies have also neglected environmental
management often from ignorance but sometimes from poor management perceptions and
sometimes from mistaken management judgements. Slowly, international organisations such as
UNEP and UNIDO and European organisations such as The European Environment Agency (EEA)
are having a profound effect on the way in which we relate to our environment and try to save it.
Here we will discuss the activities of UNEP and other organisations in this area.

Global perspective
• According to current trends in world population growth and industrialisation,
waste and pollutants are released faster than the earth can absorb them.

• Natural resources are consumed faster than they can be restored.

• By 2025 we expect to have an additional three billion people living on this planet.

• According to some assessments, reductions of over 90% on material throughput,

energy use and environmental degradation will be required by the year 2040 to
meet the needs of a growing population within the planet’s carrying capacity.

• If sustainable development is to be achieved, production processes, products and

services have to be redesigned.

This requires the development and use of new policy and management tools in
Government and industry. Also we need to develop environmentally sound
technologies with a focus on cleaner and safer technologies to prevent pollution and
make most efficient use of raw materials.

(Adapted from UNEP, http://www.uneptie.org/pc/cp/understanding_cp)

2
The European Environmental Agency (http://www.eea.eu.int/) has described the rise of pollution
control measures in the following terms: foul and flee; dilute and disperse; concentrate and contain.

Foul and flee

Typical strategy of hunter-gatherer type societies and slash and burn farmers, when there are low
population densities and a nomadic society. Such societies can keep moving on and hope the
carrying capacity of the land makes up for any impacts. Today our opportunities for fleeing are
diminished, but our ability to foul is increased.
Dilute & disperse, concentrate & contain
For many centuries in many areas dilute & disperse has seemed to be adequate to make waste
disappear to the air, to land and to water ("the solution to pollution is dilution"). Again this depends
on the assimilative capacity of nature and is still being carried out and argued for.
Concentrate & contain has also been viewed as a successful panacea for waste management using
landfills, sanitary or otherwise, to provide some containment for hazardous, toxic, nuclear or
otherwise objectionable wastes. Dumping and depositing is still a fact of life, probably the usual
way of managing waste production. However we now know that there is a limit to the efficacy of
these solutions. Today we believe that prevention is a potentially better solution, where possible,
and we have to look at many aspects of the production and consumption chain before deciding on
optimum solutions.
From the 1960s onwards, it became obvious that the dumping, dilute & disperse strategy was a
dangerous although expedient strategy for the populations concerned. Then, pollution control
became the answer and a considerable business in environmental technology developed. Sometimes
what this meant was simply transferring pollution from one medium to another. Cleaner Production
seeks to prevent this misconception of solutions and tries to integrate environmental decisions into
business decisions. To see this another way we can look at the direction in which environmental
management has moved over the last few decades.

CONTROL STRATEGIES

DUMP

CONTROL

RECYCLE

PREVENT

60s 70s 80s 90s

Despite these changes it must be remembered that the firm operates in its own strategic
environment, and environment is often low on the list of priority issues to be addressed. Forgetting
that “the business of business is business” condemns many environmental interventions to rapid
oblivion. In Cleaner Production approaches we try to consider all the needs of a business within the
context of its social, environmental, governance and economic priorities.
The Cleaner Production concept was coined by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)
in September 1990 in response to a need for a global approach to environmental disturbances,
pollution and crises. This paper explains the Cleaner Production concept, why it is important,

3
what are the benefits, what are the barriers to adoption, how to implement a program and
discusses some of the techniques employed in selected industry sectors.

Cleaner Production has evolved in many ways over the last few years and is now starting to make
its presence felt, internationally, nationally and down to company level - even by other names. In
the US, pollution prevention is the most common name and Pollution Prevention Roundtables have
become major conference events, attracting many thousands of informed participants. In 1993,
Carol Browner the head of the US Environment Protection Agency (USEPA), stated that end-of-
pipe and treatment scenarios should be discarded in favour of source control whenever possible,
according to the pollution prevention act of 1990. Disposal or other release into the atmosphere
should be conducted only as a last resort and in an environmentally safe manner. In Asia, Green
Productivity and Clean Technology are terms that are widely used and have strong pollution
prevention implications whereas another term, eco-efficiency is also being promoted because of the
possible stronger attraction to business.
The global nature of environmental issues can be seen in many ways. Some important issues facing
both industry and the general population are:
Greenhouse gases
Ozone depletion
Biodiversity loss
Aesthetic amenity
Acid rain
Noise
Environmental accidents
Water, land and air pollution

To attempt to tackle some or all of these problems is an important global and national issue as many
of these environmental concerns may extend beyond the borders of the state. Cleaner Production has
grown and developed to assist in tackling these and other problems and it is important to realise that
Cleaner Production is a broad concept which considers many aspects including:
• waste minimisation;
• maximising resources utilisation;
• minimising usage of harmful chemicals;
• maximising benefit to and from people;
• minimising energy use, and
• minimising environmental impact.

What is Cleaner Production?

Cleaner Production is defined technically as the continuous application of an integrated preventive

environmental strategy to processes, products and services to increase efficiency and reduce risks to
humans and the environment.
• For production processes: Cleaner Production includes conserving raw materials and energy,
eliminating toxic raw materials, and reducing the quantity and toxicity of all emissions and
wastes before they leave a process.
• For products: the strategy focuses on reducing impacts along the entire life cycle of the product,
from raw materials extraction to the ultimate disposal of the products.
• For services: Cleaner Production reduces the environmental impact of the service provided over
the entire life cycle, from system design and use to the entire consumption of resources required
to provide the services.
• Cleaner Production requires applying know-how, improving technology, and changing attitudes.
Many preventive terms - such as eco-efficiency, pollution prevention, waste minimisation,
4
 source reduction - are in use today. At UNEP, the term "Cleaner Production" was chosen to
encompass a comprehensive approach to production. Thus Cleaner Production covers processes,
products and services and their impacts, including their design, utilisation and usage of raw
materials and energy.
(UNEP, loc cit)
It covers all wastes - hazardous/toxic or not - whether emitted into the air, water or onto the land.
This implies that simply moving pollution from one medium to another is not an acceptable solution.
The term acknowledges that Cleaner Production requires not only improving efficiency and
material substitution - using tools such as technology and know-how - but new managerial skills
and policies as well. It also acknowledges the importance of design and use of products as well as
services.

What this technical definition implies is that Cleaner Production is mindset and a desire
to produce goods and services with the lowest possible environmental impacts and
lowest resource use, given all other things stay the same. It allows us especially to look
at source reduction of wastes, residuals and by-products.

The essential feature is that Cleaner Production is a problem-solving strategy; Cleaner Production
examines the waste production causes (sometimes called 'the root problem') in depth and
encourages a preventive mind-set to develop alternative solutions that cause fewer environmental
problems, possibly improve the work environment and often save resources.
Many different technical, operational, educational and managerial solutions can be used to bring
about changes, but Cleaner Production is not a fixed set of solutions. Developments in technology,
changes in perceptions regarding environmental issues, changes in supply and demand all influence
the actual - physical and methodological - contents of Cleaner Production solutions. Changes in
economics may change the attractiveness of specific opportunities for Cleaner Production - and this
is changing all the time. Also, depending on the actual application, a given technique might be
considered Cleaner Production in one application (for instance the use of a filter to separate product
from a water stream) and end-of-pipe technology in another application (for instance the use of a
filter for sludge dewatering).
Cleaner Production efforts may focus on different components of the environmental burden caused
by industrial activity, like for instance waste and emissions from manufacturing, use of hazardous
substances, energy consumption or overall environmental burden in the life cycle of the product.
This has resulted in different subsets of Cleaner Production practices, each having its own specific
tools and working methods. The best known are: Pollution Prevention (PP); Toxics Use Reduction
(TUR); and Design for the Environment (DfE).

WHY IS CLEANER PRODUCTION IMPORTANT?

In the long run, Cleaner Production is the most effective way to design and operate industrial
processes and to develop and produce products and services. The costs of wastes and emissions,
including negative environmental and health impacts, can be avoided or minimised by applying the
Cleaner Production concept from the beginning and apply it continuously and throughout the entire
life cycle. The costs of the traditional, reactive environmental strategy - the end-of-pipe strategy -
are well known. These costs continue to grow, and as regulations become more aggressive and
precise will increasingly add to the burden of business. In contrast, when Cleaner Production is
applied, processes become more efficient because they require fewer raw materials and/or generate
less waste. Cleaner Production approaches recognise that change has to come from within and
sustainable change cannot be imposed from external sources against the needs or desires of the firm.
Generally with a Cleaner Production approach, there are inevitably substantial economic benefits
that can be directly related to the program. These benefits are summed up as:
Saving money
5
 Preventing pollution
Complying with environmental legislation

Saving money
The easiest benefit to realise, saving money has an instant acceptance and comes from an attention
in the Cleaner Production program to:
reducing costs
increasing firm efficiency
increasing the competitive ability of the firm
comparing the firm turnover required to generate a net profit with the direct savings from the CP
activity
Improving Efficiency
A Cleaner Production program is also a leaner production mindset. The firm from the manager
down looks to do more with less. As a spinoff, the meticulous attention to detail and data gathering
allows attention to be paid to:
Reduction of defective products, rework and downtime.
Improved work practices - production, maintenance, cleaning.
Reduction in paperwork involved in monitoring and record keeping.
Improved employee morale, involvement.
Marketing Advantage
Every firm today, unless they are an absolute monopoly, has to have some kind of customer focus
and is always operating in a highly competitive environment. Any advantage the firm can get from
any of its business activities can be leveraged to produce more profit. In the case of Cleaner
Production we know that today there is a large customer base which is aware of environmental
considerations and is prepared to buy products based on that knowledge. This can generate:
Better image with customers.
Increased sales / profits.
Income from sale of by-products, recyclables.
New product / business development
Environmental Performance
Of course, the ultimate aim of any Cleaner Production exercise is not making money per se, but
should be enhanced environmental performance. Other gains should be secondary. Thus we are
looking for a reduction in toxic material use, environmental emissions, wastes and maybe
considerations of environmental design. This should lead to:
Reduction in discharges of wastes to the environment.
Lower impact on local/global environment and community and reduced risk of causing
environmental harm.
Compliance to Environmental Protection Acts, Duty of Care and government permits / licences.
Reduced risk of litigation.
Better relationship with community and regulators.

OVERALL BENEFITS OF CLEANER PRODUCTION

As mentioned, Cleaner Production is good business; it’s good for society, for government and
industry. We have learnt some significant lessons from our history of pollution: it is less costly to
prevent pollution at the source than to clean it up after it has been produced. Implementing Cleaner
Production may not solve all environmental problems in a factory, but it will decrease the need for
end-of- pipe equipment and create less toxic waste to treat and dispose. It often reduces worker
exposure to hazardous chemicals, and usually reduces the incidence of accidents that can harm
surrounding areas. Products that are designed and produced with Cleaner Production in mind are
often less harmful for consumers to use, and their residuals are normally less of a burden to waste
streams. A further spin-off is that it can motivate and inspire workers to get more involved with
their jobs and the effects of their actions, becoming more productive and less wasteful.
6
IF IT IS SO GOOD, WHY ISN'T EVERYBODY DOING IT?
The main reason people resist Cleaner Production is entrenched habits, lack of knowledge and
awareness, lack of experience with the concept and a reluctance to change. But other reasons have
been documented as well. They include:
• costs of end-of-pipe treatment strategies have been accepted as a cost of doing business, since in
many cases--especially in good economic times--these costs are not very high in relationship to
other costs of production;
• regulatory systems overwhelmingly focus on end-of-pipe solutions;
• belief that current systems are adequate;
• belief that current processes are optimal;
• concern over customer acceptance;
• fear of change generally;
• concern with process safety and quality;
• lack of initiatives for employee participation;
• lack of good costing data, and
• lack of knowledge that alternatives exist.
People factors and social conditioning may determine CP adoption. It is not always a problem to
find the right or new technology, but it does always require changes in attitude at all levels of a firm,
from top management to shop floor.
Cleaner Production is a complete cultural shift; from the "pollution control culture" to the "waste
reduction ethic". Firms that do get serious about Cleaner Production have managers who have
announced that Cleaner Production is a top priority of the company and have followed through with
corporate programmes to make it happen. The programmes have explicit incentives, often financial,
for employees to come up with ideas that work. They may even employ experts to get the message
across. These experts try to get people to think differently about the unit processes they operate
everyday. They ask "why" questions and "what-if" questions and the "who, where, when" questions
and do not accept "because it always has been done like that" or "it isn't broken" answers.
Commitment at all levels is essential for the uptake of Cleaner Production in the firm.
From the managing director down to the shopfloor, each individual needs to believe
in the process. For example, we can involve employees by means such as:
• Working out company goals.
• Reviewing processes for toxics use and hazardous wastes.
• Looking for sources of waste.
• Team-based management operations.
• Redesigning records and forms.
• Suggesting supplier and customer involvement.
• Providing rewards for suggestions and successful projects.

So employees can have a major influence on the manner, the timing, the extent and the success of
Cleaner Production programmes and this consideration is one of the differences between CP and
more intellectual or technology driven efforts to combat pollution or to introduce waste
minimisation.

Pollution control approaches Cleaner Production approaches

7
• Pollutants are controlled by filters and
waste treatment methods.
• Pollution control is evaluated when
processes and products have been
developed and when problems arise.
• Pollution controls and environmental
improvements are always considered cost
factors for the company.
• Environmental challenges are to be
addressed by environmental experts such
as waste managers
• Environmental improvements are to be
accomplished with techniques and
technology.
• Environmental improvement measures
should fulfil standards set by the
authorities
• Quality is defined as meeting the
customers requirements
• Pollutants are prevented at their sources
through integrated measures.
• Pollution prevention is an integrated part
of product and process development.
• Pollutants and waste are considered to be
potential resources and may be
transformed into useful product and by-
products, providing they are non-
hazardous
• Environmental improvement challenges
should be the responsibility of people
throughout the company, including
workers, process and design engineers.
• Environmental improvements include
non-technical and technical approaches.
• Environmental improvement measures
should be a process of working
continuously to achieve higher standards.
• Total quality means that production of
products that meet customer’s needs and
which have minimal impacts upon human
health and the environment.

External pressures can help make Cleaner Production happen, and consumer and environmental
advocacy groups are working away to change our societal perceptions of what is an environmental
issue. Some international agreements have been very successful - the Montreal Protocol has had an
enormous impact on the worldwide use of chlorofluorocarbons. Negotiations are underway to make
reductions or changes in energy use so as prevent global warming, however this is proving to be
quite a problem as simple substitutes are not easy to find. Innovative firms and innovative
governments have set up programmes and regulations to support Cleaner Production activities and
make CP happen. However, basically we know that at the end of the day the real seller for Cleaner
Production will be economics. It is just good business sense and requires arguments that will
persuade managers to adopt new approaches. It seems to be universally accepted that the only real
driver for CP adoption is increased profit, which may also come about from aspects such as reduced
risks, and the other benefits stated above.

THE CLEANER PRODUCTION CONCEPT

Cleaner Production at the firm level involves intervention in a number of areas:
Housekeeping
On-site recycle
Search for by-product use
Process control and optimisation
Technology changes
Input changes
Changes to products

Thus Cleaner Production involves examining the possibility for strategic intervention in a number
of different areas at the firm level. With the increasing growth of computerisation and increasing

8
lowering of prices of effective control equipment, many previously unviable solutions have now
become economically available. Thus CP approaches involve:
Planning - in a proactive and environmentally aware manner;
Implementing systems such as EMSs;
Looking for Cleaner technologies and low impact technologies;
Working back to the design stages for cost-effective and innovative solutions;
Looking at a whole-of-life approach to analysing impacts;
Considering human and personal values and,
Looking for triple-bottom-line benefits.
These will be discussed in detail later.
UNEP and other organisations have seen the benefits which can stem from such a strategic
approach and are actively supporting CP activities worldwide.

THE UNEP CLEANER PRODUCTION PROGRAMME

One of the main barriers to the adoption of Cleaner Production by governments and industry is a
lack of information. The United Nations Environmental Programme, Technology, Industry
Economics (UNEP DTIE) Cleaner Production Program is concerned with providing information to
help eliminate barriers and increase the uptake of CP worldwide.
The objectives of the Cleaner Production Programme are:
• To increase worldwide awareness of the preventive environmental protection strategy embodied
in Cleaner Production, and
• To help government and industry develop Cleaner Production programmes and activities that
will expand the adoption of Cleaner Production now-how and management approaches.
The program works through a number of channels:
• Training and Technical Assistance,
• Publications,
• Working Groups, and
• International Cleaner Production Information Clearinghouse (ICPIC).

Training and Technical Assistance

UNEP actively supports:
• Industry demonstration projects,
• National Cleaner Production Centres in developing countries,
• Technical, managerial, and policy workshops and training sessions.

Publications
The Cleaner Production Programme provides information on specific subjects. Various guides and
publications have been produced describing subjects such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) or
government policies for Cleaner Production, and more recently the UNEP Finance Initiative and the
UNEP LCA initiative.
There are booklets on Cleaner Production in specific industry sectors continuously being produced.
Booklets on Cleaner Production in the following industry sectors have been published: * Pulp and
Paper * Leather Tanning Industry * Metal Manufacturing Industry * Textile Industry, * Breweries
*Fish processing, Dairy processing, Meat Processing and many others, including a set of
environmental improvements in mineral processing.

Working Groups
UNEP has endorsed a series of Working Groups that are highly industry specific to take the
awareness raising strategy directly to highly polluting industries themselves. At present, some 10
industry-specific working groups exist, some of which are sector specific whereas others transcend
9
traditional boundaries. Each group operates from a home base but is available to provide support
and technical information internationally.
Biotechnology Guatemala
Pulp and paper Finland
Leather and tanning Great Britain
Textiles India
Metal finishing Australia (Melbourne)
Education USA (Tennessee)
Cleaner products The Netherlands
Policy, strategy and instruments Sweden
Data networking USA (Masachussetts)
Food production Australia (Brisbane)
The members of the Working Groups volunteer their time and talent. Some groups are supported
with funds or in-kind services by associated groups. For instance, the Sustainable Product
Development group has been financed by the Austrian and Dutch ministries of environment.
Working groups support the Cleaner Production Programme with experts from around the world
and provide technical reviews for publications and information for the case study database, ICPIC
(see below). They have been instrumental in providing new case studies. Working groups also help
disseminate information. The textile working group publishes its own newsletter and has written a
technical guide. The Policies and Strategies and Instruments working group has been organising
seminars in Sweden, Lithuania, the Netherlands and United Kingdom. The education working
group has organised many training workshops. The food working group is collecting members and
sponsorships and works closely with groups such as the Australian Cleaner Production Association
and carries out industry sponsored tasks such as CP assessments.

International Cleaner Production Information Clearinghouse (ICPIC)

The ICPIC database contains some several hundred case studies, publication abstracts, expert lists
and resources and is available from UNEP DTIE. The database can be accessed through the UNEP
working groups and is available on the Internet at http://www.emcentre.com/unepweb/index.htm.

Cleaner Production in Australia

In Australia an ANZECC (Australia and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council)
strategy has been formulated to take Cleaner Production forward. Discussions have been held with
prime stakeholders from government, industry, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and other
interested parties and a series of background briefing papers has been prepared. Background Papers
and strategy are available at:
http://www.environment.gov.au/epg/environet/eecp/publications/

The Federal Government has had a CP program in operation now for several years. The CP unit has
conducted a demonstration program involving ten companies around the country and results are
available as detailed case studies on the Internet. A video and several publications/case studies have
been generated, as well as other CP materials. Many case studies are available on the environmental
protection group (EPG) website above. Most states have some kind of CP program, supported to
varying extents by the respective governments. Some are very new, such as the Queensland
Sustainable Industries Division, others have been in operation for some years and have been very
successful, eg the Victorian and South Australian programs.
In Queensland a task force for CP was set up and this group has been active in organising seminars,
producing newsletters and raising public awareness. The latest activity of this group was to give
rise to the Australian Cleaner Production Association (ACPA). In Western Australia a centre of
Excellence in Cleaner Production has been formed at Curtin University.

10
Worldwide CP and NCPCs
The United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) and UNEP DTIE have jointly
launched a National Cleaner Production Centres Programme (NCPC) project to promote Cleaner
Production. This programme supports National Cleaner Production Centres (NCPCs) in
approximately 29 countries. The NCPCs play a major role in promoting Cleaner Production by
providing technical information and advice, stimulating demonstrations of Cleaner Production
techniques, and training industry and government professionals. Support for the project has come
from the governments of Austria and Switzerland , mainly, with assistance from Brazil, Canada,
Czech Republic, European Union, Finland, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, South
Korea, Slovenia, Sweden, UK.
(UNEP)

Around the world, most countries also have some CP programmes and assistance in place. In Asia
virtually every country has Cleaner Production demonstration programmes over a range of industry
sectors. These programmes are supported by government and industry and often foreign aid is
available to assist in various programmes.

DOING CLEANER PRODUCTION

There are many international examples of larger companies strategically managing their affairs to
take future materials substitution and materials flow reduction into account. These companies
recognise that their competitive position will become eroded if they don’t maintain all aspects of
their work plan and continuously investigate the need for change. 3M, DuPont, Ford, Electrolux,
Interface and Dow are examples of companies which are taking a proactive role in waste
management issues and Cleaner Production.

A visionary approach -
3M Corporation (USA)
In 1975, 3M became the first corporation to seriously test the possibilities of Cleaner
Production. Its program, entitled ‘Pollution Prevention Pays’ (PPP), has been
implemented worldwide throughout the corporate structure. Estimates made in 1998
show that the company’s PPP program activities has:
• Cut recordable injury and illness rates 50 percent since 1993
• Cut volatile organic air emissions 80 percent since 1990
• Cut releases to water 75 percent since 1990
• Cut solid waste 16.2 percent since 1990
• Cut the rate of waste generation 32 percent since 1990
• Cut energy use per unit of production 15.3 percent since 1990
3P results since 1975:
• 4,651 employee projects worldwide
• 1.5 billion pounds of pollution prevented
• $810 million in cost savings to 3M
Environmental, health and safety goals for the year 2000 include cutting 3M's
worldwide reportable injury and illness rate 25 percent per year, cutting releases to
the environment 90 percent from a 1990 base and cutting energy use per unit of
production by 3 percent per year. Ultimately, 3M intends to cut its injury and illness
rate and environmental releases to as close to zero as possible.

LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

11
Finding out what the environmental impacts of a process or product are is often obscured in murky
debate about relative environmental values. This can be overcome by a life cycle assessment
approach. Life cycle assessment (LCA) can help to compare products and processes using the same
inputs, outputs and datasets. This will help in establishing if there is a problem and can be a great
driver in helping CP get off the ground. Life cycle assessments are not for everyone to perform, but
it is important to put them into context as generators of quantitative information for a rational
debate. They can be as simple as streamlined rapid assessments with limited data, or complex
enough to require large computers and accurate databases.

Definition of life cycle assessment

• LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT is the assessment of a process; product or service (eg. transport)
at all stages of its life or delivery for its environmental effects or impacts.

• Life cycle assessment identifies opportunities to reduce environmental impacts at every stage of
the production process and/or service delivery.

• Life cycle assessment of a product accounts for all the stages of product processing, use,
reprocessing and disposal.

Life cycle assessment has four phases:

• Scoping and boundary definition;

• An inventory of energy, resource use, and emissions during each step of the product’s life;
• An assessment of the impact of these components; and
• An action plan for interpreting the Impact Assessment.

Some issues to consider in life cycle assessment

Life Cycle Assessment is not a simple process and there are many variables that can be considered
from the extent of data needs to the quality of the data and the uses of the study. Some such factors
are:

• Raw material extraction, production and delivery,

• Product manufacture and assembly, including packaging
• Energy use
• Waste emissions from the production process
• Product distribution
• Consumer use of the product,
• Product reuse, repair, recycling
• Product/technology design,
• Management of the materials at the end of the useful life of the product
• Effects of the entire process on the environment
• Impacts on humans.

By carrying out a life cycle assessment - even a simple one - comparisons can be made between
different products and processes and the most appropriate environmental option selected. Although
not always easy, or cheap, life cycle assessment can be a great contributor to knowledge about
relative environmental performances. For example an LCA approach by researchers at the Royal
Melbourne Institute of Technology University (RMIT) in collaboration with industry partners has

12
resulted in the design and production of a new type of energy efficient kettle, highly efficient
refrigerators and dishwashers.

CLEANER PRODUCTION IN ACTION

Cleaner Production can be applied to all stages of the project, process or product life cycle. As UNEP
says, it is a strategic approach. However mainly:

· at basic design phase, when there is an opportunity to design Cleaner Production concepts into
the process or product design. This is also commonly called eco-design or eco redesign;
· operational phase, when management, production and housekeeping issues can be addressed;
and
· during a remodelling phase, when there is an opportunity for design and raw material changes.
The program requires several steps, although different management regimes may choose implement
CP in numerous different ways. The organisation's policy or directions will determine the actual
Cleaner Production strategy, for example:
⇒ financial considerations;
⇒ compliance issues;
⇒ liability; and
⇒ corporate environmental policy.
Other drivers may include employee considerations, cost awareness, other stakeholders - neighbours,
shareholders, parent companies or new technological opportunities. The following section will
provide detailed technical information on how to implement CP at company level.

13
 CLEANER PRODUCTION:
Program and Technology
Pagan Robert Jack

Senior Lecturer
Environmental Management

Summary
This lecture provides a background into the implementation of Cleaner Production at the company level. We
discuss in detail the requirements for implementing a Cleaner Production program and the
personal/technology needs associated with this. A step by step methodology is presented, together with some
comments on specific difficulties at each step.

1
 CLEANER PRODUCTION:
Program and technology
Pagan Robert Jack

Senior Lecturer
Environmental Management

Implementing Cleaner Production

Cleaner Production Program

A Cleaner Production program in a company can be started in many ways. The systematic approach
outlined below is a useful method as it shows the deliberate and planned nature of the process.

• Commitment from management

• Cleaner Production policy and objectives
• CP Assessment process
Process flow diagram
Division into unit operations
Analysis of each unit operation
designed raw materials and energy inputs
actual raw materials and energy inputs
designed rates of waste generation
actual rates of waste generation
causes of wastes
potential for savings
Generation and assessment of options 1: Input changes
Generation and assessment of options 2: Process changes
Generation and assessment of options 3: Product changes
Environmental and economic evaluations
• Recommendations
• Cleaner Production Actions
• Implementation Plan
• Review and Monitoring

As can be seen there is a bit of a chicken-and-egg argument in this methodology because the policy
comes before the assessment and knowledge of the situation has been gained. However the policy
can be adapted fairly readily to any new situation. Some would say that the review phase is an
essential first to gain knowledge of the status of the site and then develop the policy based on prior
definite knowledge. Some companies never see the need to develop a policy and simply press on
with CP assessments and actions. From a theoretical viewpoint, developing a policy is a useful tool,
especially for larger organisations as it can embed and foster CP activities and help to promote them.

An assessment is often divided into five stages:

2
The goal of the assessment is to identify and characterise the sources of waste and opportunities for
CP, so this is a cause generation analysis. However it may be appropriate to use more or fewer
steps, depending on the needs of the organisation where especially size is of critical importance.
What is useful for the multisite, multinational may not be appropriate for a family business.

PLANNING AND ORGANISATION

management commitment
identify barriers and solutions
set goals
organise team

EVALUATION
develop flow chart
evaluate inputs and outputs
select audit priorities

INVESTIGATION
material balance
assess waste causes
generate prevention options
screen prevention options

FEASIBILITY STUDIES
preliminary evaluation
technical evaluation
economic evaluation
environmental evaluation
selection of feasible alternatives

IMPLEMENTATION AND CONTINUATION

prepare CP plan
implement measures
monitor CP progress
sustain CP
feedback and review

3
 Cleaner Production Program Decision Start

Planning and Organisation

Management commitment and involvement

Form a team? Phase 1
Goals, objectives
Barriers
Resources

Assessments/evaluations

Measuring/monitoring needs Phase 2

Collate existing data
Audits
Flowcharting

Option generation Phase 3

Feasibility Assessments
Phase 4
Technical feasibility
Economic assessment
Environmental assessments
Prioritisation

Implementation
Phase 5
Monitoring
Review

Adapted from “Environment and business, profiting from Cleaner Production”, Environment
Australia, 1997.

PHASE 1 - GETTING STARTED

Commitment from management

The success of a Cleaner Production program largely depends on the commitment and direction of
the company executive management. In the implementation phase most decisions must be made at
the top level, and unless enough support and impetus comes from that level, the implementation is
likely to fail.

4
Cleaner Production is about a change of thinking, a change in work practice, a change in relating
to other people.
Management model of the past Management model of the future
• not interested in the environment • committed to the environment
• day-to-day survival approach • long term vision
• crisis driven • proactive
• conservative • flexible
• strictly hierarchical • involves all staff in decision making
• control driven • collaborative

Goals of a Cleaner Production Program

When the Cleaner Production program idea is first put forward, the company managers are often
operating in an information vacuum about what CP means, what is required and what are the
benefits. At this stage it is important to provide direction and motivation. Providing useful goals for
the program is one way to harness the latent energy of all players in the firm.
Some possible goals for the firm are obtaining:
♦ optimisation of production processes and improvement of economic efficiency through reduction
of raw materials, energy and wastes
♦ financial benefits
♦ reduction of environmental risk and potential liability
♦ improvements of working conditions for its staff
♦ better morale of workers, who through participation and owning the improvement process
become proud of their contribution to the environment and become more committed and
responsible in the work place
♦ improved physical environment
♦ better relationship with neighbouring community
These benefits stem from the Cleaner Production overarching ability to lock into other management
systems and create many opportunities for improvement analysis.

Waste
Cleaner Production is not just waste minimisation. It is about an overall minimisation of resource
use and optimisation of processes and technologies. However, looking at waste is often an
important place to start. A common definition of waste is:
Anything that is a current liability or cost for the holder
Alternatively there are many other definitions - something of no value, an unsaleable product etc.
Similarly there are many terms for waste, jargon depending on the industry, e.g., dross, offcuts,
spew, fugitive emissions, spoil, returned sales, offcuts, overruns, etc. A good place to start to get
management and staff commitment is by focussing on waste and the costs of wastes. Waste costs
money - firstly there are the disposal costs, landfill or sewer charges, then the hidden costs:
• cost of purchasing raw materials
• cost of processing
• cost of rework and repair
• cost of waste treatment plant and operations
• cost of downtime and lost production time
• cost of waste related maintenance
• cost of lost opportunity for recycling
• cost of fugitive emissions
• cost of waste-related management
Zero waste should be the goal, and companies such as Dow and Asahi have stated this explicitly.
Knowing the costs and value of the waste is a great start for a Cleaner Production program.

5
PHASE 2 - ASSESSMENTS and DATA

The Cleaner Production Site Assessment

There are numerous ways of carrying out an assessment of a facility, which differ in detail and level
of data required. Assessments are often considered equivalent to audits which are defined as
systematic planned procedures. They have the objective of identifying ways to reduce or eliminate
the generation of waste and emissions and they contribute to an ongoing Cleaner Production
program that stimulates the corporate effort in achieving environmental improvements in operations.
In order to emphasise the ongoing improvement process, the concept of 'environmental
improvement' cycles is also used. Such cycles serve three functions:

♦ analysis of the environmental impacts of the product and/or production processes and its causes;
♦ inventory and evaluation of improvement options for the product and/or production processes;
♦ integration of the feasible improvement options into the product and/or production processes
and daily operation of the company.
Having gone through the first stage and obtained commitment etc, the next stage is a preliminary
assessment to give an overview of the site and list some priorities. A preliminary assessment relies
on getting a rapid overview - the big picture- and establishing approximate priorities. We need to
get aggregated data over say a one-year period and look in detail at costs.

First prepare a flow chart of the operations. This development and evaluation is very important to
allow an overview of the whole operations of the facility. Next step is to prepare an input - output
map with wastes listed. From this we can establish costs and usages, maybe get a baseline picture
and establish the priorities for detailed studies. If there is a non-compliance issue, an occupational
health and safety (OHSA) issue or a toxic material being used, then this may override the usual
criteria of cost which is used to select areas for study.

The detailed study comes next focussing on priorities. We need detailed data collection, some data
validation, data assessment and eventually objectives and targets for improvement.
If being carried out by external organisations or consultancies this kind of assessment can be carried
out in three distinct phases,
• Pre-site visit questionnaire;
• Site visit;
• Evaluation/Reporting
The objective of the pre-site questionnaire is to allow information to be collected to be used as part of
the review. An internal process is similar, although a formal questionnaire may not be used, some kind
of protocol is essential.
The protocol or audit checklist will call for a significant amount of information, some of which may
appear irrelevant or unnecessary to the firm. More familiarity with the process will show the reasons
for including the topics sought. Often some items will be missing and it is possible to crosscheck for
essential information, as well as accuracy and reliability. There are many information sources will be
available to provide input-output data and should be used as much as possible. For example some
sources may include:
· staff themselves;
· log books;
· maintenance records;
· utility records;
· waste management contractors;
· fuel suppliers;
· government inspectors and reports;
· supplier invoices;

6
· monitoring results;
· laboratory data;
· quality control data;
· environmental impact statements;
· material safety data sheets;
licence conditions and reports;
complaint logs;
· raw material and product inventories and specifications; and
· management systems.
Having said this actually getting this information is often difficult and takes considerable time. It is
important to be able to distinguish between desirable information and its reliability and the essential
information and reliability. Often approximate or order of magnitude figures are adequate for these
early stages. Actually getting the process started is the most important issue and it is vital to not get
bogged down in fairly irrelevant detail, especially at early stages. Exact data can be found later.

The process and site review

A material balance around important unit operations is the next step and if the information is
available a comparison between actual and design rates is very informative.
The process review should examine the design and operation of the different processes in sufficient
detail to allow others to understand the process and point out the sources of wastes and inefficiencies.
It is important to consider all aspects of the process or facility, including
• receival, warehouse and storage;
• transport operations;
• manufacturing processes;
• energy sources, utilities;
• administration and management.
For the first four areas, process flow diagrams and energy and mass balances should be developed and
these should be drawn up into diagrams that are easy to understand and represent the true situation.
Visual representation of flows and processes is often easier to follow than word descriptions. Detailed
process flow charts and mass balance diagrams - input/output are very useful. Sometimes it is difficult
to include very small flows which may represent very toxic chemicals for example. This must be
addressed. For the management operations side a diagram showing reporting routines and staff
responsibilities should be an essential part of the data gathering process. A staff tree is useful to
describe reporting and tasking routines and will also establish due diligence.
The actual operating procedural documents may also be used if the company is able or willing.
Sometimes there are no standard operating conditions (SOPs) and this will play a significant role in
the assessment. SOPs can be among the hardest things to change but can play a significant part of a
Cleaner Production Program. Again there are many sources of information and rather than try and
rediscover it, sources such as the following can be used.
Process sources include:
• design team and records;
• process flow diagrams;
• piping and instrumentation diagrams;
• process data sheets;
• equipment and vessel data sheets;
• HAZOP reviews;
• HACCP reviews
• Standard operating procedures
• Other management systems
The evaluation/reporting phase is a collection and collation of the information obtained during the
review and presenting of the data in a format which allows for easy analysis. An outcome of the

7
review process will be the identification of information gaps. In many cases, these information gaps
will need to be filled prior to moving onto later stages.
Measuring and monitoring
The determining and obtaining of information requirements is an ongoing process; with the level of
detail required increasing the further the options are developed and considered. Therefore, during the
environmental review phase it is important to keep information required to a level which will allow an
evaluation of potential options and get the program moving. It is important to collect relevant data and
not get swamped with superfluous information that has little process relevance. It is important to
realise that data collection is not an end in itself but is to support the assessment.
The site assessment and/or walkthrough audit is used to follow up on the information previously
acquired and check for accuracy and obviously serves to confirm in the assessor's mind what the site is
like in real life. The company itself can use walkthroughs as part of its workshopping of management
techniques and part of brainstorming activities, although it may be better to include an outsider to
guide discussions and keep attention focussed. The walkthrough is a good way to pick up on obvious
problem areas and interview staff to get their views and get information from the shopfloor.
In terms of management familiarity and to show commitment, the walkthrough is an invaluable tool
for getting support for the CP assessment and recruit staff for later stages. It highlights problem
areas, deficiencies and tensions. It shows where data needs to be collected and starts to prioritise
action events.

PHASE 3 - EVALUATION and ANALYSIS

Flow Charts
Flow charts are simply a picture of a particular process or unit operation depicting inputs and
outputs and describing the changes that happen during the process. These charts are essential
diagrams as an aid to allowing other evaluators as well as the auditor assess both the events in the
process and the integration of the inputs and outputs into the site activities. Flow charts are a very
useful tool to allow a vision of the process and conceptualise process flows. As stated above, a
picture is often easier to follow than words. They are also a useful aid in brainstorming and other
workshop activities, which may be required for option generation.
Input Output Charts and Energy/Mass Balances
To really find out what is happening in the operations, and where, we need to construct some kind
of mass or energy balance to determine inputs and outputs and quantify them. Of course mass and
energy balances may not be easy to create and not easy to verify, but they are usually classed as an
essential part of a structured approach to dealing with an assessment. The actual balance need not
be completely “closed”, but each stream does need to be noted and the derivation of the figures
given - with an indication of the errors and credibility of the data.
For many operations it will not be possible to achieve a perfect mass or energy balance. Data will
be inadequate and it will not approach closure (i.e. what goes in doe s not equal what comes out).
The importance of this step is to indicate the type of information that is missing and alert the
assessors to poor data quality and ensure they concentrate on priority issues. A side issue here is the
importance of dangerous chemicals. Although not such an issue in many sectors, some dangerous
chemicals may be used but in small quantities. Thus they may never figure in a mass balance where
we might say that an error of 2-5 % is acceptable. The assessment must mention these chemicals as
they may have a very large environmental consequence.
Data gathering is an essential part of this process and we need to know what data is required, how it
will be gathered, how it will be measured, when, where and the relevant accuracy parameters
involved.
Costing the process steps
Finding and showing the actual costs involved in each unit operation is a crucial element in
persuading others of the benefit of Cleaner Production. Carrying out a cost analysis is accepted as
an essential step in getting all the data into one consistent frame of reference. For example, all

8
managers can understand the following type of analysis showing how design costs compare with
actual costs. Costs really are the common denominator in business.
Process Material Designed usage Actual usage Design cost Actual Cost
name per month per month
A energy
input 1
input 2
This kind of analysis shows the real costs of resources to the company and compares it with design
figures. Simple though it sounds this kind of analysis may not be being carried out routinely and
presents a new set of figures for the manager to consider.

Cost of waste
This is one of the most dramatic ways to demonstrate the need for and usefulness of Cleaner
Production. When the actual costs of waste generation are shown then the benchmark for an
alternative proposition is created. A table such as the one below can be drawn to prove that waste is
causing a loss of profitability.
Process Waste Actual Disposal Disposal
stream generation cost per unit cost per
rate per month/year
month/year
A waste 1
waste 2
waste 3
From the study the actual waste generation rates can be derived and compared with design data. It
is only when such comparisons are carried out on an equivalent scale, e.g. money, that realistic
comparisons can be made. There is nothing like a financial comparison to generate interest. This
example only shows the more obvious costs of wastes, however as noted earlier, there are many
intangible costs that can be very significant. We usually think of a certain amount of waste as being
essential to the operation of a process, however there is high variability between sites and
companies. Benchmarking can prove an extremely useful tool in demonstrating potential strengths
and weaknesses in this process. In terms of assessing wastes, these can arise from numerous steps in
the operations:
Causes of wastes
Evaluating and costing the amount of waste generation is one aspect, evaluating the causes is
another. Often the waste is unavoidably produced; often it is quite avoidable. The actual causes of
waste may be very difficult to determine. Some brainstorming or some expert opinion may be
required.
Where do wastes arise?
• actual process requirements (90% process efficiency);
• transport;
• storage (e.g.. leaking tanks, pipes, spillages);
• inadequate inventory of the material;
• faulty equipment;
• poor process control;
• lack of process optimisation;
• failure of documented operating procedures;
• staff negligence or sabotage
• poor maintenance routines; and
• poor housekeeping practices.
The list above shows some operations which may generate waste. But it is not exhaustive and
certainly there will be others in the factory.
9
Generation of Cleaner Production Options
After finding out the nature, the amounts, the costs, the causes and the disposal routes for wastes,
the next step is to find out what to do to reduce the risks and costs. At the same time it might not be
just attention to wastes. The CP assessment may be focussed on toxic use reduction so there may be
a need to reduce some toxic chemicals, or it may focus on design for the environment, so there may
need for a product assessment. Or it may be a need for process efficiency improvement. The next
systematic step is option generation and option assessment. Often this can be grouped into a few
alternatives. Brainstorming, the use of consultants and experts and finding some benchmarks may
be necessary to generate options - that are designed give us an overall improvement - and allow
them to be analysed.
Option generation can be structured or unstructured depending on the size and type of facility. A
structured approach may be suitable for a large food plant, while a small motor vehicle repair shop
might benefit from a lateral thinking or brainstorming exercise. A hazard and operability type
analysis (HAZOP) using keywords to generate scenarios may be a suitable method for larger plants
as well as more formal engineering tools.
Woods (1996) has developed a HAZOP type exercise for CP into two phases. The first phase asks
“why” for all aspects of a plant operation - what are the specifications and why are they used. He
then analyses the process using key words such as Eliminate, Replace, Reduce, Re-Use, Separate,
Combine, Recycle, Treat, Dispose to see what can be done with an operation or a stream. (I.e. Use
the Cleaner Production hierarchy to generate options).
This approach can be very useful and can analyse many process operations in depth. Some
examples from Woods (1998) of how this system works are shown below.

10
 Process/Facility Aspect
and Key Word
Transport/Reduce
Storage/Eliminate
Raw Material/Combine
Cleaner Production Option Environmental and
Company Benefit
Supply of material in re- Minimise waste and cost of
useable 1000l containers disposal.
rather than 200 L drums
Remove underground fuel Decrease in fugitive VOC
storage tanks emissions and potential
liability
Decrease the number of Decrease waste and ability to
plastics used in a products, recycle during manufacture
e.g. car and capacity to recycle at
end of life and cost savings

Process Conditions/Manage Agree optimal and Decrease waste and

Process Equipment/Replace
Product/Replace
implement machine settings increased productivity
with operators
Replace coal fired boiler Decrease impact of air and
with Cogeneration plant solid waste emissions with
higher energy utilisation
Development of CFC Protection of Ozone layer
Replacement and competitive advantage

Energy/Reduce Decrease or improve control Decrease in energy use and

Other Utilities/Re-use
Air Emissions/Reduce
Non-aqueous wastes/Recycle
Aqueous Waste/Separate
Solid Waste/Treat
Hazardous Waste/Treat
of temperature set point,
while maintaining product
quality
Use of filter back washwater
for cooling tower make-up
Replace hydrocarbon based
solvent with water based
solvent
Recycle waste solvents and
oil
Separate anionic and cationic
aqueous wastes
Recycle paper waste
Form waste fuel for energy
intensive industry, e.g.
cement kiln
cost savings
Decrease in water use and
discharges to sewer and cost
savings
Reduce VOC emissions and
potential cost for control
technology
Conserving resources and
meeting company policy
Prevent further solid waste
problem and decrease
disposal costs
Conserve resources and
decreased disposal costs
Conserve resources and
disposal costs

Whatever method is used the most important aspect of this step for option generation is to generate
as many ideas using the resources available and to open up the possibilities for consideration,
keeping as free a mind as possible. Continually asking ”why” and “what if” and “who said so”, as
well as the major involvement of as many staff in the process as possible will help. In Cleaner
Production the human element is very important and management changes can have as important
effect as technical breakthroughs. Workshops, seminars, training programs all help to break down
barriers and get staff speaking freely and thinking freely.

11
PHASE 4 - FEASIBILITY ASSESSMENT

Overall Feasibility
Option assessment
Options may be generated in three phases as above:
1) Initial screening;
2) Generation of potential options;
3) Obtaining detailed information requirements and revisiting the process.
After collecting all the options we need to screen them for relevance, usefulness etc. Prioritisation
of changes which will lead to the maximum benefit is obviously of critical importance - e.g.
focussing on energy usage. This step looks at the options to see which have environmental merit,
cost saving merit, efficiency merit etc and to put them in some sort of order depending on their
possible advantages to the company. After prioritising, the decision needs to be taken as to which
options will be proceeded with, which neglected and which put on the shelf for further review. Also
is there a need for more data. Final steps require the evaluation of feasible alternatives by evaluating
the options generated technically, economically and environmentally before settling on a desired
alternative.
A Cleaner Production option may lead to different process conditions and there are many factors
which interact with process management and overall process profitability. There is always the need to
consider the practical aspects of running a factory, including as mentioned before the sensitive areas of
change management. These other areas may include:
• quality;
• staff acceptance;
• loss control;
• process integrity;
• reliability;
• safety.
The total feasibility of the changes will have to be examined because obviously some options may
have detrimental effects and do not carry the support of the staff. If processes become more difficult to
run, take up more staff time (eg even things as simple as good housekeeping operations may require
more staff attention) then without training and motivation the CP option may not be acceptable.

Environmental evaluation
The environmental evaluation will explore the benefits of the CP options proposed and compare the
results with the existing situation and with other alternatives proposed. We are looking for solutions
which improve the existing environment as well as being cost-effective.
• are we just transferring pollution across media (air, water, land)
• reduction in use (or release) of greenhouse gases, ozone depleting substances, radioactive and toxic
materials, etc
• effect on the surrounding environment, including people, animals, physical environment and visual
amenity
• reduction in energy and non-renewable resources usage

Economic evaluation
This is what will decide the fate of the options - will they really have been as sensible as they seemed
at the time, are the options really viable and sustainable? What kind of savings will we make? These
are the kind of questions which we need to answer. What are the real savings and can we factor in all
the external costs of using the environment.
• savings on operating costs
• savings on raw materials
• savings on waste transport offsite
12
• savings on waste treatment costs
• savings on waste disposal costs
• savings on waste handling, treatment and disposal infrastructure
• savings on human resources needed for the operation, administration, maintenance, etc. of waste
handling, treatment and disposal system
• savings on maintaining of emergency procedures in case hazardous substances are eliminated
• potential savings on workers’ health claims related to toxic and hazardous substances
• potential savings on environmental liabilities
These savings mimic what we stated earlier as being the goals of a Cleaner Production program.
Although not available in many cases, there are obvious benefits to be gained from such programs
where this is the first, fresh look at a site.
There are many ways of deciding on capital or maintenance decisions and some financial /
economic evaluation should certainly be used, e.g. net present value (NPV), payback period,
internal rate of return (IRR), depending on the preference of the company. Payback is probably the
simplest indicator. Payback is obtained by dividing the total capital outlay by the annual cash
inflow. It is important to try to include all environmental issues into the decision framework as
these can often get ignored. For example, the full costs of present monitoring and compliance
programs should be included as CP may bring about significant savings by reduction in risks. The
USEPA has a free publication which explains the costing detail and the decision making process -
“P2 Costs”. It is available from the USEPA.
Technical feasibility is of course a major issue - the option must work, must be achievable within
budgets and must not interfere with present operations. Similarly the environment should benefit
from the activity. It is important that CP is actually being carried out and there is not a simple
transfer of pollution from one medium to another. It must not interfere with the operability of the
plant, must improve quality and should also be more cost effective than other solutions. It may
improve worker safety or workplace amenity and may improve worker morale and performance.

PHASE 5 - IMPLEMENTATION AND REVIEW

Cleaner Production Implementation Plan

The plan will have different features depending on the management strategy of the company carrying
out the CP program. Some desirable features are:
• Develop implementation time tables for all recommendations and allocate tasks to staff members;
• Establish milestones for tasks and monitor their progress;
• Regularly report on progress to CEO
• Encourage all staff to participate by:
• information sessions for staff,
• Cleaner Production training,
• Cleaner Production posters, brochures or newsletters,
• staff reports,
• suggestion boxes,
• financial rewards for solutions bringing savings;
• Review the results;
• Conduct CP assessments regularly; and
• Set new targets for the continual improvement of the entire operation.
Implementation and review will be the stage at which any feedback from employees and others can
be incorporated into the system. As always, the critical need for planning and documentation as
well as efficient communication of the reasons for changes and the benefits which accrue to all are
demonstrated in these phases. Employees may well be critical and cynical, especially if older plants
are being assessed and the need to carry staff through the change process using all management arts
available is paramount to give the programme a chance of success. Change management is an
13
integral part of Cleaner Production. It may require different thinking and knocks against some
traditional aspects of running a business. The need for options to be generated and ideas put
forward by the workers themselves and others from outside the site is also difficult to accept for
traditional managers who may feel threatened by new ideas.
After implementation of the CP activities the results should be monitored and publicised so that
successes can be reported and problem areas noted. Sometimes results will be immediately
available and favour the CP activities; sometimes other work may have to be carried out. Review
and support is of course absolutely critical to the success of the program and allows management to
provide positive feedback and evaluate the resourcing needs and the program successes and failures.
Just like any other quality program, or management approach, the firm needs to review what it has
done, why it has done it and if it was successful and under what terms. Then work can begin to plan
for the future and expansion of the activities.
This is a concise description of a Cleaner Production implementation methodology. The actual
details need to be worked out for individual companies, as it will be different for every case,
depending on what is needed to be achieved.

IN SUMMARY
This short paper has highlighted the need for Cleaner Production and briefly described how to go
about starting to implement a system. The agenda for the 21st century will certainly incorporate
Cleaner Production. Together with industry, governments and other international organisations, we
must all attempt to ensure that our common future truly is sustainable. There is an urgent need for a
shift in the traditional, reactive, single media approach to the preventive integrated multimedia
approach of Cleaner Production. However, in the meantime we must also examine the pollution
prevention options used traditionally and see that they are optimised, if possible using a Cleaner
Production approach.

14
 CLEANER PRODUCTION:
Program and Technology - continued
Pagan Robert Jack

Senior Lecturer
Environmental Management

Summary
This lecture provides a background into the pollution prevention aspects of Cleaner Production, including an
overview of some of the technologies associated with last-resort treatments. The technologies are briefly
discussed and some CP case studies are presented. A discussion of the information needs for Cleaner
Production is provided, and linked with essential skills for an assessor.

1
 CLEANER PRODUCTION:
Program and Technology - continued
Pagan Robert J

Senior Lecturer
Environmental Management

TECHNOLOGY and SKILLS for CLEANER PRODUCTION

As discussed above, the main attack on pollution prevention should be by Cleaner Production
approaches targeting pollution prevention at source. Treatment methods are necessary when the CP
approach still leaves residuals which have some impacts. It is impossible to define all the pollution
prevention technologies and indeed pollution itself. What may be pollution for one firm, in one
circumstance may be acceptable in others. However some general aspects of pollution prevention
technologies may be usefully considered.
Pollution Definition
Pollution can be defined in a number of ways: because of the difficulty in assessing pollution, The
Queensland Environment Protection Act avoids the term and uses “environmental harm” as a
blanket definition. Any material which causes environmental harm because of its concentration,
toxicity or location will be considered a pollutant.
Assessing pollution
Some knowledge of the effects of pollutants and contaminants on the environment and the potential
harm which can come from them is essential from a Cleaner Production perspective. Although our
aim is to achieve ZERO EMISSIONS, there are many occasions when inadequate pollution
prevention is obvious and could serve as a driver for better CP. We need to be able to identify
environmental effects from pollutants such as Biochemical Oxygen demand (BOD) and what it
means, particulates, heavy metals etc.
A pollutant causes harm to the environment which may be:
• aesthetic
• temperature
• deoxygenation
• toxicity
• acidity/alkalinity
• eutrophication
• barrier to light
A contaminant on the other hand, produces no evidence of harm and is just present where it
shouldn't normally be.
In the UK, controlled substances, which may cause pollution, are:
• A dangerous substance
• A fuel or lubricant
• A medicinal product
• Food which is a liquid
• A liquid feeding stuff
• Inorganic fertiliser
• Cosmetic product
2
• Substance identified by manufacturer as harmful, toxic, corrosive or irritant
Cleaner Production seeks to avoid these substances causing pollution. Greenhouse gases are
important pollutants and have global implications. CO2 and methane emissions, as well as some
other important gases, rise to the upper atmosphere and may give rise to:
• Global warming
• Sea level rise
• Climate change
• International protocols and conventions
• Transboundary effects.
The Kyoto protocol is not yet ratified and has not had a significant effect on the generation of
greenhouse gases.
Ozone depletion is caused by the use of CFCs and other chemicals which may react with ozone in
the upper atmosphere. Ozone protects earth from harmful UV rays so we want to avoid destroying it.
Some issues associated with Ozone Depletion are:
• Use of some CFCs and other haloorganics causes problems
• International agreement are in place to phase out uses (Montreal protocol)
• Substitutes for CFCs have been found.
Because of the international agreements and use of substitutes it is believed that the ozone hole may
start to shrink within 20 years, however this year it is almost at a record.

Biodiversity conservation and habitat loss are important issues for many regions, affecting:
• Habitat loss and change affects and destroys species
• Australian land clearing very high, for example, causing significant biodiversity loss
• Loss of potential from exotic gene pools
• Loss of future values
• Ecosystem instability and change.
Although Cleaner Production does not generally consider biodiversity conservation, in certain
circumstances it could be important.

Acid Rain is another major global pollution problem which affects many countries.
• SO2 is produced from major emitters such as power stations, metal plants
• NOx produced from vehicles
• They react with water vapour to form acids in atmosphere
• Acid precipitates and damages forests, buildings, lakes and land.

Apart from these global issues there are the local land, air and water pollution issues associated
with discharges of many pollutants and wastes. It is impossible to define all potential pollutant
problems as we said above, potential environmental harm might be an indication to do something,
and that something might be Cleaner Production or one of its tools

Sampling and Measuring

Sampling and monitoring are highly technical issues that are often overlooked in Cleaner
Production. Often there is a shortage of data as discussed in previous sections. Getting bad data is
probably worse than no data as it can lead to misleading interpretations. We need good reliable
data: sampling, monitoring, measuring and assessing this data is absolutely critical. In taking
samples we want to assess:
What is sampled
Where it is sampled
When and how often it is sampled
How samples are stored and transported
How data is measured and sampled.
3
From a sampling perspective we need to use a sensible sampling plan and adhere to rigorously
correct sampling procedures - there are many publications on this. For example we need to pay
attention to:
Use of correct bottles
Use a sensible sampling plan
Decide on type of sample collection - composite, grab samples etc.
Treat and preserve samples according to analysis performed (e.g. acidification)
Maintain records and chain of custody
Keep cool.

Data validation and collection

We need to have systems on hand to validate the data and verify it is correct. Where did the data
come from, over what period was data collection made, any corroboration, was there a change in
circumstances, how reliable is the data etc.? Before embarking on an expensive sampling scheme,
have all available records been checked and cross-checked? How did the mass balance work out in
the studies carried out so far? Are there any other sources of information - any other people who
may be contacted? How about the walkthrough and the staff discussions - what kind of evidence did
this produce?
For example, has the walkthrough evidence been collated and discussed for:
Equipment left running during lunch and non-production
Hosing to drain or stormwater
Evidence of steam leaks and loss of lagging
Steam traps not working
Spillages, spoilages
Poor housekeeping - untidy areas
Overuse of drains as disposal methods
Worker dissatisfaction and grumbling

Benchmarks and indicators

The use of benchmarks and indicators is a great aid in assessing the data and creating a reality
check. Benchmarks can be internal or external and allow constant checks on performance. Key
performance indicators can be created which can feed into staff optimisation programmes and assist
in pollution prevention by extra motivation. Indicators can help in prioritisation and in setting
targets. As part of the general management strategy in carrying out CP targets and goals must be set
and these should be on the basis of measurable, achievable, realistic and simple indicators.
For example along the lines of:
• Energy use/kg COD removed
• $/kg COD removed
• COD removed/m2
• N removed/kg COD
• P removed/kg COD
• Water treated/$ invested
• Residuals generated/Ml
• CO2 generated/Ml
• Toxic chemicals/Ml
Having a set of indicators and benchmarks is a useful CP tool and this can be used and extended
throughout the CP assessment process.

4
TYPES OF POLLUTION
Pollution and technology issues
Pollution prevention can be considered a set of the following:
Waste prevention product substitution
non-production
elimination

Source reduction product reformulation

process modification
equipment redesign
new product development
input changes

Recycling materials sorting

materials separation
materials re-refining

Treatment thermal destruction

incineration
pyrolysis
wet air oxidation

Chemical destruction chemical oxidation

chemical reduction
adsorption

Physical destruction precipitation

filtration
evaporation
condensation

Biological breakdown aerobic

anaerobic

Final disposal Landfill

Residuals repository
An overview of the different more localised pollution events and some technology aspects to deal
with them is presented below.
AIR POLLUTION
Different industries all give rise to different air pollutants which may be mitigated in several ways.
The main types of air pollutants encountered are:
Nitrogen oxides
Sulphur oxides
Particulate matter
Odorous chemicals
Ozone
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Volatile organic compounds

5
All these pollutants have a direct or indirect effect on human health and are controlled by several
technologies. Again we must stress - try to avoid production of these air pollutants first by a CP
approach before addressing treatment/disposal technologies.
Nitrogen oxides are formed as part of a combustion process - especially transport and energy - and
form nitric acid in the atmosphere. These oxides are highly corrosive and irritating.
Sulphur dioxide is one of the main causes of acid rain and is produced as part of a combustion
process especially from some forms of coal which may have higher sulphur content. Again this gas
can cause severe respiratory problems.
Carbon monoxide and dioxide are two gases formed as part of the combustion process. Carbon
dioxide is very important as a causative agent for the greenhouse effect while the monoxide is a
strong health hazard, before oxidising to the dioxide. Apart from the energy industry, transport is
the major contributor to these gases.
Volatile organic carbon compounds have varying effects both on humans and the environment and
arise from substances such as paints, solvents, fuels, transport etc. As well as natural causes.
Particulates give rise to smogs and nuisances. Usually they arise from incomplete combustion.
Heavy metals eg lead are a severe health hazard.
Ozone depleting substances - CFCs, halons are contributing to the hole in the ozone layer.
Generally most larger combustion processes may have some licence requirement for some or all of
these pollutants. This may require the installation of a stack (chimney) of a specified height and
escape velocity, a wet scrubber, dry scrubber, cyclone or any combination of technologies to reduce
concentrations to acceptable levels. Monitoring of emissions is also often required by law and this
monitoring is often complex and requires sophisticated equipment and interpretation to be of value.

Pollution prevention technologies:

Centrifugal forces such as cyclones
Barriers such as filters, bags, gravel beds
Electrical devices such as electrostatic precipitators
Magnetic forces for charged particles
Inertial forces such as in mechanical collectors
Wet scrubbers
Fluegas desulphurisation and low NOx burners
Selective catalytic reduction
Flares
Adsorption
Condensation
Absorption

Considerations in the choice of technology are:

Efficiency and emission levels
Dust characteristics - size, conc., adhesiveness, chemicals composition, abrasiveness
Characteristics - dew points, constituents, temp
Process variations
Plant size
Power consumption
Cost

Some aspects to be aware of:

How is the discharge monitored?
What is the sampling regime?
How variable is the discharge
What happens on startup, shutdown
6
How is the equipment checked?
Are there any failsafe controls?
What happens if filter bags break
What happens to sludges, ashes?
What about other fuels?
What happens in abnormal situations?

Note that carbon dioxide can only effectively be reduced by increasing energy efficiency or by
changing fuels. Significant work is being carried out globally to try to remove the carbon disoxide
from the exhaust gases and "bury" or sequester it so it stays locked up for a certain time. So far this
work is in its early stages and is not Cleaner Production. Sulphur dioxides can be reduced by
increasing energy efficiency, changing fuels, desulphurising the fuel, or desulphurising the flue gas.

ODOUR
Odour complaints constitute a major source of work for enforcement officers and it can be difficult
to solve odour problems. Generally odours arise from the process itself as volatile compounds given
off in a growing, cooking, roasting or heating operation or may be a byproduct of waste
management practices such as wastewater treatment.
Odour is a very difficult subject to come to terms with. It is difficult and expensive to measure and
often quite subjective, although some odours have universal dislike associated with them. Some
odours may represent highly toxic or dangerous situations, eg hydrogen sulphide, the smell of
rotting flesh.

Odour Control
Factors which can affect odour reception and control are:
Physical state
Water content
Temperature
Flow rate

Some technologies which are appropriate are:

Afterburning
Incineration / adsorption
Liquid scrubbing
Tall chimney dispersion
Masking agents
Biofilters

Aspects to consider:
Are all airflows being treated is it diffuse or point source?
Is the production regular or variable?
Is the adsorbent regenerated regularly?
Are temperatures and times adequate and monitored and recorded?
Is the technology adequately sized?
Masking agents invariably lose their effectiveness very quickly and are regarded as not useful as a
long-term solution.

WATER POLLUTION
Aqueous discharges are created from almost all companies engaged in manufacturing and result in
sewer loads as trade waste, that might incur heavy charges, or loads to rivers, creeks or waterways
or even to land. Aqueous pollutants comprise a diverse variety of compounds which can have
7
deleterious environmental consequences for human health or for ecological health. Generally most
pollutants are grouped into several types of compounds:
BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) is a measure of the organic pollutant load of a flow. Pristine
water is generally considered to have a BOD of less than 20 mg/l (ppm) or so. Some organic
streams may have BODs in the thousands. The main effect of such pollutants is to reduce the
oxygen content of rivers, streams or lakes lowering their ability to support higher life forms etc.
Suspended solids is another pollutant that can arise from a number of sources and have a number of
deleterious effects both on sewage treatment and transport systems and on waterways.
Dissolved solids can affect waterways and can add to salinity, for example. Again they arise from a
variety of sources. Pesticides and other organic chemicals are often discharged accidentally or
intentionally and can have dramatic effects on the ecology. Some compounds are extremely
difficult to degrade. Heavy metals can have extremely serious effects on human health and strong
regulations exist for their discharge. They often bioaccumulate and it is relatively easy to exceed
limits. Nutrients - phosphate and nitrogen compounds are particularly important in Australia where
toxic algal blooms may form, especially in our inland waterways. Microbiological contamination of
water is an important consideration, especially when the watercourse is being used as a source of
drinking water. A recent concern is the appearance of hormones in water, such as oestrogens. These
oestrogens are difficult to remove and are having so far unknown effects.
Pollution prevention technologies for water rely on:
Biological treatment
Chemical treatment
Physical separation
However within the groups there are huge numbers of competing technologies and different
solutions for industry sectors - often the same solution going by a different name.
Some technologies of importance which are often used at a discharging site are:

Physical separation methods:

Settling
Gravity separators, triple interceptors
Filters
Flotation cells
Cyclones, centrifuges
Evaporation
Adsorption
Membranes
Evaporation

Chemical treatment methods

pH control
Coagulation
Precipitation
Oxidation/reduction
Sterilisation
Ion exchange
Solvent extraction
Stripping

Biological treatment methods

Anaerobic
Lagoons
Covered lagoons
8
Reactors (eg - upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), anaerobic filters, anaerobic beds,
anaerobic curtains)
Septic tanks

Aerobic
Activated sludge
Ponds mechanically aerated or natural
Rotating systems
Contact systems

Nutrient removal
Biological nutrient removal (BNR) systems (still relatively rare in industry) can remove phosphate
and nitrogen salts.
All these systems produce sludges (biosolids) which may require further treatment before final
disposal. Disinfection of the water may also be required with chlorine or UV etc.

Land disposal
Soakaways (evapotranspiration)
Irrigation
A combination of some of the above methods is often required for on-site treatment, prior to
disposal, although in some cases one method is adequate for the treatment of a specific stream.

Some factors to consider in examining a site with an aqueous discharge are:

Garages and motor vehicle repairers
Is there a triple interceptor, is it regularly cleaned, is it appropriately sited and are all discharges
routed through it.
Hotels, food preparation
Are grease traps installed, appropriately sized and cleaned regularly
Abattoirs
Are all discharges on site known and diverted to appropriate treatment?
Are adequate save-alls and screens installed?
Are DAF units sized appropriately and working?
Are ponds correctly sized?
Is there a good odour controlling crust on anaerobic ponds
Food factories
Is cyclones installed and working to recover starch?
Are settling tanks correctly sized and not anaerobic
Are all discharges identified and measured for flow and strength
Are grease traps/interceptors installed, cleaned regularly and working?
Is there reuse/recycling opportunity?
Is appropriate treatment installed?
Concrete batching and block making
Are silt traps installed and working
Is pH control required?
Are all water sources known and checked
Is reuse being practised?
Are first-flush diverters installed correctly?
Chemical manufacturers
Are monitoring steps required and in place
Is appropriate pretreatment in place?
Are bunds installed and correctly sized
Is signage correct?
9
Are contingency plans in place for emergencies?
These are just a few of the myriad of things to be aware of in site inspections of different types of
industries. No one person can be completely knowledgeable about all aspects of environmental
impact from different facilities, but experience, an inquiring mind, always asking “WHY” and
never being satisfied with appearances will reveal many mysteries.

STORMWATER
It is becoming more common for many industrial sites to have a requirement for treating stormwater.
Most sites do discharge stormwater in an untreated form and often this stormwater could be
contaminated by site undesirables, such as oils.
Today licence conditions are being written around storing and segregating some nominated
stormwater quantity, often the first flush, to allow it to be treated. This often requires tying in to the
existing bunding system or improving it, so that a storage area can be created which can be diverted
to sewer, if appropriate or be monitored, treated and discharged separately. Generally nothing from
the site should be discharged to stormwater drains, except stormwater.
Be aware of:
Extensive storage of old drums in open air
Scrap including oil filled gearboxes etc in open air
Washdowns performed into stormwater drains
Spraygun cleaning into drains
Storage in stormwater catchment areas
Direct runoff to other sites
Cross connections from/to sewer
Stormwater drains should be signed correctly, should be known to staff and should be protected
from unwarranted flows. Materials should be diverted away from stormwater using valves or
diverters such as hay bales.

LAND POLLUTION/CONTAMINATION
Land pollution occurs from a multitude of long-lasting and harmful chemicals and cleaning sites
can be a lengthy and expensive process. Land disposal on site of most pollutants is today
discouraged as much as possible as potential clean-up costs can be severe.

Site reclamation technologies

Various technologies exist to rectify or treat contaminated land including:
Vapour stripping
Soil washing
Removal and treatment
Biological treatment
Barriers, walls, caps
Vitrification

Treating contaminated land is expensive and lengthy and usually requires expert intervention to
verify the extent of the contamination and the severity and to recommend clean up measures.
Some things to be aware of in site inspections include:
Is there underground fuel storage - is it being monitored for losses
Are extensive drum dumps on site - are contents known? - Hazardous
Is a site history available - is it complete and reliable
Do site activities drain to land and contain pollutants
Is land used as a disposal site?
Is land used as a temporary storage site for pollutant materials?
Are qualified/competent operators conducting clean-up operations?

10
SUMMARY OF POLLUTION PREVENTION OVERVIEW
Noise pollution and noise control has not been addressed above. Noise is a major nuisance in
society and has some major health impacts as well as creating a lot of work for regulators. Noise
can be greatly reduced by good planning and good design and modern acoustic engineers have
many excellent solutions for noise problems.
Practically all sites have some discharges to air, water or land. The concept of zero emission, while
being very appealing to a Cleaner Production practitioner, does not exist in reality today. It is
important to ascertain environmental aspects and from an analysis of relevant mitigation measures
calculate the environmental impacts likely to result. Many companies are examining options to take
them closer to the zero emission target, thermodynamics notwithstanding, and for water issues for
example total reuse and recycle on site is a feasible option in many cases, especially as water
charges rise.
Technologies are available to treat and manage just about every kind of waste. The appropriateness
of each system must be judged by skilled practitioners and must be analysed for environmental
costs and benefits as well as the traditional economic and technical analyses. When life cycle
assessment is added to the technical assessment then maybe this will improve the decision-making
system.
Especially in Asia, more companies are adopting an environmental management systems (EMS)
approach to doing business. As this becomes more widespread it will help to point out the
deficiencies in Cleaner Production attitudes, in pollution treatment options and in options for
improvement. Although an EMS does not specify the steps required or the level of environmental
impact mitigation required, at least it does focus attention on environmental aspects and requires a
continuous environmental improvement ethic. This could help with the introduction of Cleaner
Production and vice versa. The Cleaner Production mindset is right and ripe for EMS. As it is for
any number of other tools that may help in bringing about better environmental management and
lowering risks, to humans and to the environment.

11
Appendix 1 Some Cleaner Production Case studies

CASE STUDY: Radiator repair

NAME: Radiator Warehouse

PROBLEM: Discharge of wastewater containing chemicals, oil and solvents to stormwater

drains which flow directly to waterways.

CHANGES MADE:
• Water recycling system installed. Treated water re-used.
• Reduction in annual water consumption from 500 000 to 20 000 litres. Approximate
saving of 95%.
• Waste generated is disposed of as solid waste.

COSTS AND PAYBACK:

Cost type Amount Payback type Amount
Installation and setup of $10 000 Reduced water usage $2 500 per year
water recycling system
New employment 2 people
CONCLUSION: Had the Radiator Warehouse not installed a wastewater recycling system,
the local Council would have insisted on lying large capacity liquid trade waste discharge
pipes at a cost of $20 000, more than twice the cost of the water recycling system.

CASE STUDY: Large hotel

NAME: Anon

PROBLEM:

Large amount of waste including glass, paper and food

Large (20 tonne) bins removed five time weekly, even if half empty
In-sink garbage grinders used extensively
Massive amounts of oil and grease in pumpout wells

Changes made Benefits received

Remove garbage grinders
Recycling started
Task forces to reduce waste
Oil/grease and suspended solids levels reverted
to domestic levels.
Instant saving of $17 000 for licence fees.
Cancellation of extra grease trap worth of $350
000.
Garbage pick-ups reduced by two per week.
Cash flow from recycling and savings > $36 000
per year.
Improved recycling efficiency.
Increased staff morale.
Better waste control.

CASE STUDY: Office

12
NAME: ACT Department of Environment, Land and Planning

GOAL: To create an ‘eco office’ using simple, environmentally friendly workplace initiatives,
and develop a ‘workplace kit’ to enable other offices to implement these practices.

CHANGES MADE:
• recycled paper instead of virgin paper
• recycling service
• I in 3 fluorescent tubes removed
• light timers installed in low use areas
• computer screens turned off when not in use

COSTS AND PAYBACK:

Cost type Amount Payback type Amount

Energy audit Reduced energy costs 22% saved
Capital costs none Energy savings from $45 000 per year
turned-off computer
screens
ECO workplace 20% of one Reduced workplace 10% saved
Officer position running costs
CONCLUSION: ECO Workplace Kit launched and implemented in all 12 ACT government
agencies

13
CASE STUDY: High rise office block

NAME: Colliers Jardine

PROBLEM: To co-ordinate 38 varied tenancies in a high rise building to cut energy use and
reduce waste by 50% over 18 months.

CHANGES MADE:
• Waste Minimisation Committee formed with representatives from all tenants.
• staff educated in waste minimisation and energy saving
• recyclables separated at source
• white paper and cardboard recycled
• disposable cups replaced with ceramic mugs or glasses

COSTS AND PAYBACK:

Cost type Amount Payback type Amount
Waste audit funded by RRRC Reduced rubbish 38% saved
removal costs
Capital costs none Environmental paper recycling doubled
advantages to 3.75 tonnes
cardboard recycling
tripled to 0.6 tonnes
Property Management 10% of time
director
CONCLUSION: Project on target to reduce waste by 50%.

14
CASE STUDY: Panel beating
NAME: Weatherall Smash Repairs

PROBLEM: Release 15 000 litres of water per week containing silicon particles, oil and
solvents to stormwater drains which flow directly into waterways.

CHANGES MADE:
• Drainage modified so water collects in a treatment tank where sludge is settled out.
Treated water re-used.
• Water usage now 8 000 litres of treated water, 1 000 litres of fresh water per week.
• Waste generated now 200 litres per month, disposed of as solid waste.

COSTS AND PAYBACK:

Cost type Amount Payback type Amount
Installation and setup of $25 000 Reduced water usage $730 per year
water treatment (expected to increase)
Reduced water disposal $470 per year
Increased productivity 20% (no dollar value
available)

CONCLUSION: Savings are expected to increase as water charges rise. Weatherall plans to
reduce waste further by introducing a drying rack for sludge.
Above case studies taken from Queensland Cleaner Production Taskforce materials.

For a selection of other case studies and related CP information visit some of these sites:
http://www.deh.gov.au/industry/corporate/eecp/case-studies/index.html
http://www.emcentre.com/unepweb/tec_case/index.htm
http://www.ec.gc.ca/pp/index.cfm?language=en
http://waste.eionet.eu.int/prevention
http://www.nben.org/HTMLSrc/Resources/Technology.html
http://www.wbcsd.org/
http://www.p2pays.org/
http://www.cleanerproduction.com

Other on-line materials

Learning from the experiences of Cleaner Production Centres -
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/cp/library/catalogue/catalog_general.htm
Strategies and policies for CP - http://www.uneptie.org/pc/cp/understanding_cp/cp_policies.htm
UNCED Collection - http://www.ciesin.org/datasets/unced/unced.html
United Nations Development Programme - http://www.uneptie.org/
The World Bank - http://www.worldbank.org/
Asian Development Bank - http://www.adb.org/
European Environment Agency - http://org.eea.eu.int/
USEPA Enviro$ense - http://es.epa.gov/
EnviroNET Australia - 300 or so Pollution Prevention/Cleaner Production sites
UNIDO - http://www.unido.org
Thai Environment Institute (TEI) - http://www.tei.or.th/
UNEP Food CP working group site – http://www.geosp.uq.edu.au/emc/CP
Curtin University CP centre - http://cleanerproduction.curtin.edu.au/

15
Other useful reference materials

Journal of Cleaner Production

Journal of Industrial Ecology
Journal of Waste Management and Conservation
Journal of Life Cycle Assessment
Water (journal of the AWA)

Government Policy for CP - UNEP (available on line through UNEP)

Warmer Bulletin Tunbridge Wells, England
Our Common Future - Brundtland Report Oxford, England ; New York : Oxford University Press,
1987
World Resources Institute publications
Sustainability and Policy: limits to economics - Common M. Cambridge : Cambridge University
Press, 1995
Clean production : environmental and economic perspectives - Misra K. Berlin : Springer-
Verlag, 1996
Clean technology - Allan Johansson Boca Raton, Fla. : Lewis, 1992
Clean Technology and the Environment edited by R.C. Kirkwood and A.J. Longley London :
Blackie Academic & Professional, 1995
Ecoredesign manual - RMIT, 1997
LCA - what it is and how to do it - UNEP, Paris, 1997
ISO 14000: a guide to the new environmental standards - Tom Tibor with Ira Feldman
Chicago : Irwin Professional Pub., c1996
Zero pollution for industry : waste minimization through industrial complexes - Nelson
Leonard Nemerow New York : Wiley, c1995

16