Introduction to Computer Numerical Control

Fixed automation versus programmable automation

Fixed automation refers to a
manufacturing system in which the
sequence of processing operations
is fixed by the equipment
configuration.
Typical features:
• Suited to high production volume
• High production rates
• High initial investment for custom
engineered equipment
• Relatively inflexible in
accommodating product variety
Programmable automation refers
to a manufacturing system
designed with the capability to
change the sequence of operations
to accommodate different product
configurations
Typical features:
• Suited to mid volume production
range
• Lower production rates
• High investment in general
purpose equipment
• Flexibility to deal with variations
and changes in product
configuration
• Numerical Control (NC) is a form of programmable automation, in which
– the mechanical actions of a machine tool are controlled by a program
containing coded alphanumeric data
– the alphanumeric data represent the relative positions between the
cutting tool and the workpart as well as other instructions needed to
operate the machine.
• The two common types of NC metal cutting machine tools are
 Turning Centre
• Turning centre is a numerically controlled lathe.

• It is capable of producing cylindrically shaped parts.

• It can be used to machine internal and external surfaces and it can be used
for operations like turning, facing, grooving, parting, boring, drilling,
and threading of a rotating part using tools.
 Turning Centre
• It has versatile tooling and may have a number of accessories like a part
loading system and other attachments.

• Another distinguishing feature is the coordinated movement of a number

of controlled axes.
CNC bed
• It is the main body of a CNC lathe where the saddle, cross slide,
headstock, and tailstock are mounted.
• The bed is made of grey cast iron due to the damping capacity of the
material which can absorb the vibrations during machining.
Headstock
• The headstock is mounted on the casting bed of the machine and it carries
the spindle assembly, chuck, chucking cylinder.
• It is parallel to the saddle.
LM Rail guide
• On the saddle and cross slide, Linear Motion Guide (LM guide) is mounted
for the free movement of the axes.
• This linear guide comprises a rail, balls and runner block or slider.
• In the rail, a raceway groove is made in each of both side surfaces, which
are two surfaces parallel to each other.
• The balls come into rolling contact with these raceway grooves.
• The slider moves along the rail via the balls.
• Linear guide rails are made from either hardened steel or stainless steel
due to the strength needed to ensure long life and precision.
Ball screw
• Also ball screw is mounted on the saddle and cross slide for the linear
movement of the axes.
• A ball screw is a mechanical linear actuator which translates rotary
motion to linear motion.
• A threaded shaft provides a helical raceway for ball bearings which act as
a precision screw.
• The ball screw assembly consists of a screw and a nut, each with
matching helical grooves, and balls which roll between these grooves
providing the only contact between the nut and the screw.
• Generally, Shaft and Nut are made of Chrome Molybdenum steel and
carburized and quenched, whereas the balls are made of high carbon
chromium bearing steel and are quenched and tempered.
Work holding
• Work holding methods include chucks, collet chucks, fixtures and so on.

• Shaft type workpieces may be held between chuck and tailstock centre or
may be clamped in the chuck only.
• The most common type of chuck is the three-jaw, self-centering, hydraulic
chuck as shown in Figure.
Chuck
• Chuck is a clamping device which is mounted on the spindle.
• It helps to hold the job with the required clamping pressure.
Collet chuck
• In this chuck, work-piece is clamped and unclamped by the help of the collet.
• It is designed like taper sleeve which can mount inside the chuck.
• For clamping and unclamping work-pieces of various diameters, the collet
must be changed.
Jaw type chuck
• There are various types of jaw type chucks: 2 jaw chuck, 3 jaw chuck, etc.
• In this chuck, work-piece is clamped and unclamped by the help of the jaws.
Fixture
• Fixtures are work-holding devices for odd-shaped or other hard to hold
workpieces.
• Fixtures may be held in the chuck or can be bolted directly to the spindle.
Part handling
• The part handling devices include bar feeders, part loaders and unloaders,
robotic loading systems, part catchers and so on.
Bar feeders
• Bar feeders automatically load rough stock into the work holding device.
• The raw stock is fed into the machine by use of pneumatic or hydraulic
pressure. The stock is fed the same distance each time through the use of
stock stops.
• When stock reaches the stock stop, the workholding device closes and clamps
the workpiece in place.
Part loaders and unloaders
• Individual part blanks can be automatically loaded using part loaders.
• Part loaders take up less space than bar feeders, but the parts have
to be cut to length before loading.
• A part loader is an auxiliary arm that places the precut stock into the
chuck or collet.
• The auxiliary arm can also unload parts after the necessary machining
has been done.
Robotic loading systems
• The use of robotic loading equipment represents a major trend in automated
manufacturing.
• Robots can be used to load and unload parts, retrieve parts from pallets, and can
even be used to change chuck jaws.
• Robots can communicate directly to the machine tools by using their own
controllers, switches and sensors.
• Special fixtures are sometimes needed to use robotic loading systems.
• Grippers need to be designed and built so that the robot can handle different part
shapes.
• Some robots have automatic tool changing capability so that they can even
change grippers automatically as required for different parts.
Tool holding
• A turret head is to hold and quickly index the cutting tools.
• This holds different type of tools (Turning, Parting, Threading, Drilling, Boring,
etc.)

• Each tool or tool position is numbered for identification.

• When the tool needs to be changed, the turret moves to a clearance position
and indexes, bringing the new tool to the cutting position.
• They can move bidirectionally to assure the fastest tool indexing time.
Different types of turrets

• Servo turret consists of the gear drive systems and the servo motor.
• The electro-mechanic turret indexes through the induction motor with high
torque
• The hydraulic turret is powered by a hydraulic motor.
Tailstock
• A tailstock is used in lathe for providing support to long jobs.
• In this tailstock often a hydraulic actuator is used for the movement of the
tailstock quill.
• This tailstock is co-axial to the main spindle and moves parallel to the saddle.
 Machining Centre
• Machining centre is a numerically controlled milling machine that is
equipped with a tool magazine and an automatic tool changer.
• It is a very versatile and productive machine tool.
• It can be employed for various operations like milling, drilling, boring,
tapping operations using rotating tools.
• Plane and sculptured (3 –D) surfaces can be machined.
• They may have
(i) vertical spindle or
(ii) horizontal spindle
Vertical spindle machining centre

• The vertical configuration of the spindle lends itself to quick, easy workpiece
setups.
• One side of the workpiece can be machined in a vertical spindle machine.
• They are suitable for plate type of workpieces.
 Horizontal spindle machining centre
• The horizontal configuration of the spindle lends itself to heavy depths of cuts on large
workpieces. It is often equipped with twin tables known as pallets.
• While one pallet is within the machining envelope, the other pallet is swung free, allowing
loading and / or unloading of parts.
• The basic types of palletizing methods are the linear shuttle system and the rotary shuttle
system.

• The horizontal spindle machine can access four sides of a box type of workpiece.
• Gear boxes and housing type workpieces are the most suitable types of workpieces that
can be machined in a horizontal axes machining centre.
• Tool magazine and automatic tool changers comprise important features in machining
centres.
Tool changers
• Tool changers are an automatic storage and retrieval system for the cutting tools.
• Tool changers come in two types:
– carousal and
– chain.
• Carousal type tool changers are spindle direct tool changer, meaning that they
do not use auxiliary arms to change tools as shown in Figure.

• The carousal can be mounted on the back or the side of the machine.
• Carousal tool changers are typically found on vertical machining centres.
• When a tool change is commanded, the machine moves to the tool
change position and puts the current tool away. The carousal then rotates
to the position of the new tool and picks it up.
Tool changers (continued)
• Chain type carousals are found on horizontal machining centres as shown in Figure.

• Chain-type tool changers typically hold the tool in a

horizontal position and usually, but not always,
incorporate a pivot arm as shown in Figure.
• The arm rotates and picks up the new tool and
removes the old tool from the spindle, all in one
motion. The chain may be located on the side or
top of the machine tool.
Tool changers (continued)
• Tools are lined up in a row within the chain type carousal
called tool magazine.
• The tool magazine automatically indexes to position a tool
for the next operation adjacent to the gripper arm.
Work-holding devices
• Work-holding techniques include vises, angle plate, direct workpiece mounting,
fixtures and so on.
Vises
• The vise may be the most common work holding device in the machine shop as
shown.

• The plain vise is used for holding work with parallel sides and is bolted directly to the
table using the T-slots in the machine table.
• Air or hydraulically operated vises can be used in high production operations to
increase productivity.
Angle plate
• Work that needs to be held at a 90o angle to the axis of travel is best held on an angle
plate as shown in Figure. It is an L-shaped piece of cast iron or steel that has tapped
holes or slots to provide a way to clamp parts to it.

Direct workpiece mounting

• Work that is too big or has an odd configuration is customarily bolted directly to the
table as shown in Figure.
Fixtures
• Fixtures are tools built exclusively to hold and accurately position a part.
• They are typically found in a production atmosphere and can be built to hold one part
or thousands of parts, depending on the application.
• The fixtured part is usually of an odd configuration, one that cannot be held in
something as simple as a vice as shown in Figure.
 Basic components of an NC system
• An NC system consists of three basic components:
– the program of instructions or part program
– the machine control unit
– Processing equipment or the machine tool
 Part program
• The program of instructions, also called a part program, is the detailed
step by step commands that direct the actions of the machine tool.
• The individual commands refer to positions of a cutting tool relative
to the workpart.

• Additional instructions include

• spindle speed,
• feedrate,
• cutting tool selection, and other functions.
 Part program
• The program is coded on a suitable medium for submission to the
machine control unit.
• In the past common medium was punched tape using a standard format
that could be interpreted by the machine control unit using a suitable
tape reader.
• Nowadays in CNC machines, the part program can be downloaded
directly to the CNC machine from a computer or the program can be
executed from a CD.
 Machine Control Unit (MCU)
• The MCU consists of a microcomputer and related control hardware
that stores the program of instructions and executes it by converting
each command into mechanical actions of the machine tool.
• Because MCU is a computer, the term Computer Numerical Control
(CNC) is also used.
• The related hardware of MCU includes components to interface with
the machine tool and feedback control unit.
• The MCU includes one or more reading devices for entering part
programs into memory.
• The MCU also includes control system software, calculation
algorithms, and translation software to convert the NC part program
into a usable format for the MCU.
 Machine tool
• The third basic component of the CNC system is the machine tool.
• It performs the processing steps to transform the starting work
material into a completed part.
• Its operation is directed by the MCU, which in turn is driven by
instructions contained in the part program.
• It consists of saddle, cross slide, spindle as well as the motors and
control to drive them.
 NC Motion control systems
• NC tasks can be implemented using two types of motion control systems:
– Point-to-point (positioning) control or PTP control
– Continuous path or CP control
PTP Control
• PTP control moves the tool to a programmed location without regard for the
path taken to get to that location.
• Once the move is completed, some processing action is accomplished by tool at
that location.
• Thus the program consists of a series of point locations at which operations are
performed.
• A typical PTP is used in positioning of the tool by moving it with a rapid velocity
to the desired location before commencing the turning or milling operation.
• It may be also used for drilling operations wherein a tool is moved with a rapid
velocity to the desired location before actual drilling operation can be performed.
 NC Motion control systems (continued)
CP Control
• CP control system is capable of continuous simultaneous control of two or more axes.
• Thus in CP control, atleast two coordinate axes are simultaneously moved to generate a
definite form or path and the velocity of the resulting motion is the appropriate feedrate
of the machining operation.
• This provides control of the tool trajectory relative to the workpart.
• PTP motion moves the tool from one locational point to the other without regard for the
path taken to get to that location and the processing action is accomplished by the tool
only once the move is completed.
• CP motion provides control of the tool trajectory relative to the workpart and in this case,
the tool performs the process while moving, thus enabling the system to generate
angular surfaces, 2-D curves or 3-D contours of the workpart.
• CP motion is required in turning and milling operations.
 Engineering analysis of NC positioning systems
• The NC positioning system converts the coordinate axis values in the NC part program into
relative positions of the tool and workpart during processing.
• Let us consider the simple positioning system shown in Figure.

• The system consists of a cutting tool and a worktable on which the workpart is fixtured.
• The table is designed to move the part relative to the tool.
• The worktable moves linearly by means of a rotating leadscrew, which is driven by a stepping
motor or a servo motor.
• Only one axis is shown in the figure for simplicity.
• To provide x-y capability, the system would be piggybacked on top of a second axis perpendicular
to the first.
• The leadscrew has a certain pitch p (in/thread or mm/thread).
• Thus the table moves a distance equal to the pitch for each revolution.
• The velocity of the worktable, which corresponds to the feedrate in a machining operation, is
determined by the rotational speed of the leadscrew.
Engineering analysis of NC positioning systems (continued)
• There are two types of positioning systems used in NC systems:
• Open loop, and
• Closed loop, as shown in the Figure below.

• An open loop system operates without verifying that the actual position achieved in the move is
the same as the desired position.
• A closed loop control system uses feedback measurements to confirm that the final position of
the worktable is the location specified in the program.
• Open loop systems cost less than closed loop systems and are appropriate when the force
resisting the actuating motion is minimal.
• Closed loop systems are normally specified for machines that perform continuous path
operations such as milling or turning, in which there are significant forces resisting the forward
motion of the cutting tool.
Engineering analysis of NC positioning systems (continued)
Open loop positioning systems
• An open loop positioning system typically uses a stepping motor to rotate the leadscrew.
• A stepping motor is driven by a series of electrical pulses, which are generated by the MCU in an
NC system.
• Each pulse causes the motor to rotate a fraction of one revolution, called the step angle.
• The possible step angles must be consistent with the following relationship.

where α = step angle (degrees), ns = number of step angles for the motor, which must be an
integer.
• The angle through which the motor shaft rotates is given by

where Am = angle of motor shaft rotation (degrees), np = number of pulses received by the motor,
and α = step angle (degrees/pulse).
• The motor shaft is generally connected to the leadscrew through a gear box, which reduces the
angular rotation of the leadscrew.
• The angle of leadscrew rotation must take the gear ratio into account as follows:

where A = angle of leadscrew rotation (degrees), and rg = gear ratio, defined as the number of
turns of the motor for each single turn of the leadscrew.
 Engineering analysis of NC positioning systems (continued)
Open loop positioning systems (continued)
• That is

where Nm = rotational speed of the motor (rev/min), and N = rotational speed of the leadscrew
(rev/min).
• The linear movement of the worktable is given by the number of full and partial rotations of the
leadscrew multiplied by its pitch:

where x = x-axis position relative to the starting position (mm, inch), p = pitch of the leadscrew
(mm/rev, in/rev), an A/360 = number of leadscrew revolutions.
• The number of pulses required to achieve a specified x- position increment in a point-to-point
system can be found by combining the two preceding equations as follows:

where the second expression on the right hand side is obtained by substituting ns for 360/α
• Control pulses are transmitted from the pulse generator at a certain frequency, which drives the
worktable at a corresponding velocity or feedrate in the direction of the leadscrew axis.
• The rotational speed of the leadscrew depends on the frequency of the pulse train as follows:

where N = leadscrew rotational speed (rev/min), fp = pulse train frequency (Hz or pulses/sec) and
n = steps per revolution or pulses per revolution.
 Engineering analysis of NC positioning systems (continued)
Open loop positioning systems (continued)
• For a two axis table with continuous path control, the relative velocities of the axes are coordinated
to achieve the desired travel direction.
• The table travel speed in the direction of leadscrew axis is determined by the rotational speed as
follows:

where vt = table travel speed (mm/min, in/min), fr = table feedrate (mm/min, in/min), N = leadscrew
rotational speed (rev/min), and p = leadscrew pitch (mm/rev, in/rev).
• The required pulse train frequency to drive the table at a specified linear travel rate can be
obtained by

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