Balancing Equations

Chemical equations are a simple way to describe how different substances are made in a reaction.
The equation tells us which substances have reacted in the reaction. These are called the
reactants and are found on the left-hand side of the equation.
The equation tells us which substances are produced in the reaction. These are called the
products and are found on the right-hand side of the equation.
Word equations use words to describe the reaction.
1. Write word equations for the reactions below.
a. Lithium and fluorine react together to produce lithium fluoride.

b. Magnesium and oxygen react together to produce magnesium oxide.

c. Sodium and chlorine react together to produce sodium chloride.

Symbol equations give us more detail as they show the elements present in the reaction and
also the number of each element.
To balance a symbol equation:
Na + Cl2 NaCl
Step 1 – Write the symbol equation.
Na 1 Na 1
Step 2 – List the elements that are present on
Cl 2 Cl 1
each side of the arrow.
Step 3 – Write down the number of each element Na + Cl2 2NaCl
present on each side.
Na 1 Na 1 2
Step 4 – Identify which elements have different
Cl 2 Cl 1 2
amounts on each side.
Step 5 – Through trial and error, place numbers
in front of the chemical formulae to balance the 2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
equation. Na 1 2 Na 1 2
Cl 2 Cl 1 2

2. Balance the symbol equations below.

a. CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O

b. KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 + H2O

c. H3PO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaHPO4 + H2O

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Relative Formula Mass
The relative formula mass (Mr) is the sum of the relative atomic masses (Ar) of all the atoms present
in a compound.
To calculate relative formula mass:
Step 1 – Work out how many atoms of each element are in the chemical formula.
Step 2 – Find the relative atomic mass of each element on the periodic table.
Step 3 – Add together the relative atomic masses for all the atoms of each element in the formula.
e.g. The chemical formula for water is H2O.
There are two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
Relative atomic masses (Ar): H = 1, O = 16
Relative formula mass (Mr) = (1 × 2) + 16 = 18

1. How many atoms of each element are present in the compounds below?
a. CO2



b. H2SO4


c. Mg(NO3)2

2. Calculate the relative formula mass of the compounds below.

a. NH3



Mr = 
b. HNO3



Mr = 
c. C2H5OH



Mr = 

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Calculating Percentage by Mass
Percentage by mass of an element tells us the percentage of a chemical compound made up of
that element

Ar of element Y × number of atoms of Y

percentage mass of Y = × 100
Mr of compound
To calculate percentage by mass of an element:
Step 1 – Calculate the relative formula mass (Mr) of the compound.
Step 2 – Find the relative atomic mass (Ar) of the element.
Step 3 – Multiply the Ar of the element by the number of atoms of that element present in the
compound.
Step 4 – Divide the mass of the element by the Mr of the compound and multiply by 100.
Worked example:
Calculate the percentage by mass of oxygen in copper sulfate (CuSO4).
Relative atomic masses (Ar): Cu = 63.5, S = 32, O = 16
Mr of CuSO4 = 63.5 + 32 + (16 × 4) = 159.5
(16 × 4)
percentage by mass of oxygen = 100 = 40%
159.5

1. Calculate the percentage by mass of carbon in carbon dioxide (CO2).

Give your answer to 2 significant figures.
Relative atomic masses (Ar): C = 12, O = 16


percentage by mass =  %

2. Calculate the percentage by mass of aluminium in aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3).

Give your answer to 2 significant figures.
Relative atomic masses (Ar): Al = 27, S = 32, O = 16


percentage by mass =  %

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3. Calculate the percentage by mass of aluminium in aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3).
Give your answer to 2 significant figures.
Relative atomic masses (Ar): Al = 27, S = 32, O = 16


percentage by mass =  %

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Percentage Yield
Percentage yield is a measure of how much product is made in a chemical reaction compared
to the maximum mass that can be made. The maximum mass of a product that can be made is
called the theoretical yield.
actual yield
percentage yield = × 100
theoretical yield
The equation can be rearranged to find the actual yield or the theoretical yield.
In a chemical reaction, no atoms are created or destroyed. However, it is not always possible to
obtain the exact amount of product calculated. Very few reactions have a yield of 100%.
This is because:
• some of the raw materials may not be pure.
• some of the product may have been left behind in the apparatus.
• the reaction may not have finished.
• the reactants may produce unexpected products.
• The reaction may not go to completion because it is reversible.

1. In a reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid, it was calculated that 2.5g of
magnesium chloride could be produced. The actual yield of magnesium chloride was 1.5g.
Calculate the percentage yield of the reaction.

percentage yield =  %

2. In a reaction between calcium oxide and water, it was calculated that 27g of calcium hydroxide
could be produced. The actual yield of calcium hydroxide was 13g.
Calculate the percentage yield of the reaction.
Give your answer to 2 significant figures.

percentage yield =  %

3. In a reaction between sodium and chlorine, it was calculated that 5.6g of sodium chloride
could be produced. The percentage yield of the reaction was 75%.
Rearrange the equation to calculate the actual mass of sodium chloride produced.
Give your answer to 2 significant figures.

actual yield =  g

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Atom Economy
In a chemical reaction, no atoms are created or destroyed. However, not all reactants end up as
the desired product. Instead, they form other products known as by-products.
The amount of starting materials that end up as the desired product during a chemical reaction
is called atom economy. It makes sense to use reactions with a high atom economy for economic
reasons and sustainable development.

Mr of desired product
percentage atom economy = × 100
total Mr of all reactants

1. Ammonia (NH3) can be made by reacting calcium oxide and ammonium chloride.
a. Balance the symbol equation for the reaction between calcium oxide and ammonium
chloride.
CaO + NH4Cl NH3 + CaCl2 + H2O
b. Calculate the percentage atom economy for the production of ammonia in this reaction.
Give your answer to 2 significant figures.


percentage atom economy =  %

2. Ammonia can also be made by reacting hydrogen and nitrogen.

a. Balance the symbol equation for the reaction between hydrogen and nitrogen.
H2 + N2 NH3

b. Calculate the percentage atom economy for the production of ammonia in this reaction.


percentage atom economy =  %

3. Explain why the reaction between hydrogen and nitrogen is considered a more economic
method of producing ammonia than the reaction between calcium oxide and ammonium
chloride.


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Concentrations of Solutions in g/dm3
Concentration is a measure of the amount of a substance in a volume of liquid. The more particles
of a substance present in a solution, the higher the concentration.
In chemistry, there are two ways to measure the concentration of a solution. This can be done by
calculating the mass of the substance in grams or by calculating the number of moles.
To calculate concentration, you must be working in dm3.

mass (g)
concentration (g/dm3) =
volume (dm3)

The equation can be rearranged to calculate mass and volume.

1. Calculate the concentration of the solution produced when a 3.2g of sodium chloride is
dissolved in 8dm3 of water.

concentration =  g/dm3

2. Calculate the mass of magnesium chloride you would need to dissolve in 4dm3 of water to
make a 0.9g/dm3 solution.

mass =  g

3. Calculate the concentration of the solution produced when 5.2g of potassium chloride is
dissolved in 200cm3 of water.
Give your answer in g/dm3.

concentration =  g/dm3

4. Calculate the volume of water required to add to 4.5g of sodium carbonate to make a 15g/dm3
solution.
Give your answer in cm3.

volume =  cm3

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Mole Calculations (HT only)
A mole is the amount of any species that has the same number of atoms as 12 grams of the
isotope carbon-12. The word ‘species’ can refer to atoms, molecules, ions or electrons.
For example, one mole of calcium carbonate contains 6.02 × 1023 molecules of calcium carbonate
and one mole of sodium contains 6.02 × 1023 atoms of sodium. The mass of one mole of any
substance is equal to its relative formula mass in grams.

mass (g)
number of moles =
relative formula mass

The equation can be rearranged to find the mass of a substance using the number of moles and
the Mr of the substance.
1. a. Calculate the number of moles in 360g of water (H2O).

number of moles =  mol

b. Calculate the number of moles in 24.4g of Sr(OH)2.

number of moles =  mol

c. Calculate the number of moles in 4.44g of SrCO3.

number of moles  mol

2. a. Calculate the mass of 0.9 moles of Fe2O3.

mass =  g
b. Calculate the mass of 11 moles of H2SO4.

mass =  g

c. Calculate the mass of 0.2 moles of Pb3(PO4)2.

mass =  g

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Limiting Reactants (HT only)
The reactant that is completely used up in a chemical reaction is called the limiting reactant.
The mass of product made in the reaction depends on the mass of the limiting reactant.
The reactants that are left over when the limiting reactant is used up is said to be in excess.
To identify the limiting reactant:
Step 1 – Write the balanced symbol equation for the reaction.
Step 2 – Calculate the Mr of each reactants.
Step 3 – Calculate the number of moles of each reactant using the mass and Mr.
Step 4 - Work out how many moles of each reactant would be needed to completely react with
the other reactant.
Worked example:
10g of calcium carbonate is added to 10g of hydrochloric acid.
Which reactant is the limiting reactant?
Balanced symbol equation: CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
Mr of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16 × 3) = 100
Mr of HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5

10
number of moles of CaCO3 = = 0.1 mol
100
10
number of moles of HCl = = 0.27 mol
36.5

From the symbol equation, we can see that 2 moles of hydrochloric acid are needed to react
with 1 mole of calcium carbonate, so 0.2 moles of hydrochloric acid would be needed to react
with 0.1 moles of calcium carbonate. However, we have 0.27 moles of hydrochloric acid, so the
hydrochloric acid is in excess. Therefore, calcium carbonate is the limiting reactant.

1. 7.2g of magnesium is added to 49g of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to produce magnesium sulfate
(MgSO4) and hydrogen.
Show that magnesium is the limiting reactant.


2. 14g of lithium is added to 14.2g of chlorine to produce lithium chloride (LiCl).

Show that chlorine is the limiting reactant.

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Calculating Gas Volume (HT only)
The volume of one mole of any gas at room temperature and pressure is 24dm3.
volume of gas (dm3) = number of moles × 24
1. a. Calculate the volume of 10 moles of oxygen at room temperature and pressure.


volume =  dm3

b. Calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide in 4.8dm3 of gas at room temperature and
pressure.


number of moles =  mol

c. Calculate the number of moles of fluorine in 150cm3 of gas at room temperature and
pressure.
Give your answer in standard form.


number of moles =  mol

The equation for calculating gas volume can be used with the equation below to calculate the
mass of gas in a particular volume.
mass = number of moles × relative formula mass
2. a. Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide in a balloon containing 36dm3 of carbon dioxide at
room temperature and pressure.


mass =  g

b. Calculate the mass of chlorine in a container that can hold 600cm3 of chlorine at room
temperature and pressure.


mass =  g
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Concentrations of Solutions in mol/dm3
(HT only)
Concentrations of solutions can be calculated in mol/dm3 if you know the number of moles and

mass (g)
number of moles =
relative formula mass

1. Calculate the concentration of the solution produced when 0.4 moles of sodium chloride are
dissolved in 8dm3 of water.


concentration =  mol/dm3

2. Calculate the number of moles of sodium chloride in 4dm3 of a 2.5mol/dm3 solution.



number of moles =  mol

3. Calculate the volume of water required to add to 2.25 moles of hydrochloric acid to make a
1.5mol/dm3 solution.


volume =  dm3

A titration is a technique that is used to determine the concentration of an unknown acid or alkali.
A known volume of a solution of unknown concentration, such as an acid, is placed in a conical
flask and an alkali of known concentration is added gradually from a burette until the acid is been
neutralised. The end-point of the titration can be determined using an indicator.
The concentration of the acid used can be calculated from the volume of the known concentration
of alkali used to neutralise the acid.
To calculate the concentration of a solution of unknown concentration:
Step 1 – Write the balanced symbol equation for the reaction.
Step 2 – Calculate the number of moles of the solution of known concentration by multiplying
concentration by volume (make sure the volume is in dm3).
Step 3 – Use the ratio from the symbol equation to calculate the number of moles of the solution
of unknown concentration.
Step 4 – Calculate the concentration of the solution of unknown concentration by dividing the
number of moles of the solution of unknown concentration by the volume of the solution used in
the reaction.
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 Concentrations of Solutions in mol/dm3 (HT only)

Worked example:
In a titration, 22cm3 of a 1.25mol/dm3 solution of sodium hydroxide was required to neutralise
the 25cm3 of hydrochloric acid.
Calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric acid.
Balanced symbol equation: HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
22 ÷ 1000 = 0.022dm3
number of moles of NaOH = 1.25 × 0.022 = 0.0275 mol
The ratio of HCl to NaOH in the symbol equation is 1:1 so 0.0275 moles of HCl have reacted.
25 ÷ 1000 = 0.025dm3
0.0275
concentration of HCl = =1.1mol/dm3
0.025

4. In a titration, 20cm3 of a 2.0mol/dm3 solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl) was needed to

neutralise 25cm3 of sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

Calculate the concentration of the sodium hydroxide.



concentration =  mol/dm3

5. In a titration, 10cm3 of 1.2mol/dm3 solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) was needed to neutralise
25cm3 of potassium hydroxide (KOH).
Calculate the concentration of the potassium hydroxide.


concentration =  mol/dm3

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Maths Skills
When we carry out an investigation, it is important to repeat the experiment to ensure that our
results are repeatable. It is useful to calculate an average of the results because it allows us to
draw a conclusion from lots of sets of data. If most of our values are close to the average, it means
our results are precise. It is important to exclude anomalous results when calculating an average.
The mean is one type of average. To calculate the mean, we add up all the numbers excluding any
anomalous numbers and divide by how many numbers there are.
1. Calculate the mean for the results below, excluding any anomalous results.
a.
Repeat 1 Repeat 2 Repeat 3 Mean

22.96 21.90 23.00

b.
Repeat 1 Repeat 2 Repeat 3 Mean

83.91 15.68 14.98

c.
Repeat 1 Repeat 2 Repeat 3 Mean

7.55 8.12 6.98

We can calculate the range of a set of data to look at the spread about the mean. To calculate the
range, find the difference between the highest and lowest values in the set.
2. Find the range of the following sets of data.
a. 74, 76, 83, 87, 89, 91, 98

range = 

b. 81, 98, 108, 79, 106, 75

range = 

c. 21, 25, 32, 26, 27, 28

range = 

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 Maths Skills

Whenever a measurement is made, there is always some degree of uncertainty about the result.
Uncertainty is a measure of the variability in scientific data.
Uncertainty can be measured by considering the resolution of the scientific equipment being
used or from the range of a set of scientific data.
There are two types of errors, random error and systematic error.
• Random errors may be caused by human error such as a poor technique when taking
measurements or by faulty equipment. For example, three mass balances all showing different
mass values for the same object. Random errors are random and not something that can be
predicted.
• Systematic errors are errors that are produced consistently if the experiment is repeated,
the same error will occur. For example, not resetting a mass balance to zero properly or
problems with the experimental method.
Uncertainty can be calculated using the following equation:

range of results
number of moles =
2

3. Calculate the uncertainty for the following sets of data.

a. 63, 74, 65, 71, 72, 73

uncertainty = 

b. 19, 18, 17, 22, 25, 16

uncertainty = 

c. 32, 33, 34, 28, 29, 27

uncertainty = 

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Using Data to Draw a Graph
The table below shows some data collected in a reaction between calcium carbonate and
hydrochloric acid.
100
The dependent variable (the value of
which is measured for each change 90
in the independent variable) goes
on the y-axis. 80

Mean Volume of Gas Produced (cm)3

70
Time (s) Mean Volume
of Gas Produced 60
(cm3)
50
0 0
20 20 40
40 44
30
60 60
20

The independent variable (the 10

values of which are changed or
chosen) goes on the x-axis. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)

100

90
Time (s) Mean Volume
of Gas Produced 80
Mean Volume of Gas Produced (cm)3

(cm3)
70
0 0
20 20 60

40 44
50 We draw a neat
60 60 cross to plot the
40 point where the
two values meet.
This row tells us that when 20 30
seconds has passed, the mean
volume of gas produced is 20cm3. 20 ×
The value on the y-axis is 20cm3 . 10

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)
The value on the x-axis is 20s.

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 Using Data to Draw a Graph

1. Plot the values in the table below on the graph provided.

The first two points have been plotted for you.
100
Time (s) Mean Volume
of Gas Produced 90
(cm3)
80
0 0

Mean Volume of Gas Produced (cm)3

20 20 70
40 44
60
60 60
80 72 50

100 80
40

30

20 ×
10

0
× 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)

The line of best fit is the most reasonable continuous line determined by the points; it helps to
visualise the relationship between variables by averaging out any errors. The line may not pass
through every point and may not be a be straight line.

Add a line of best fit to the graph you plotted.

2. Use your graph to predict the mean volume of gas produced at 50 seconds.

cm3

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