The life tables

Barclay defines it in these words: “The life table is a life history of a hypothetical group or cohort
of people, as it is diminished gradually by death. The record begins at the birth of each member and
continues until all died.”
Thus, a life table is a mathematical device which shows the life span of persons up to a particular
age or their probable date of death relates to a cohort of people born at the same time until they die.
Types of Life Tables: Life tables are of two types:
Cohort or Generation Life Table, and Period Life Table. The Cohort or Generation Life Table
“summarizes the age specific mortality experience of a given birth cohort (a group of persons all
born at the same time) for its life and thus extends over many calendar years.” On the other hand, the
“Period Life Table summarizes the age specific mortality conditions pertaining to a given or other
short time period.”
Assumptions of Life Table:
A life table is based on the following assumptions:
1. A hypothetical cohort of life table usually comprises of 1,000 or 10,000 or 1,00,000 births.
2. The deaths are equally distributed throughout the year.
3. The cohort of people diminish gradually by death only.
4. The cohort is closed to the in-migration and out-migration.
5. The death rate is related to a pre-determined age specific death rate.
6. The cohort of persons die at a fixed age which does not change.
7. There is no change in death rates overtime.
8. The cohort of life tables are generally constructed separately for males and females.
Life table chart:
Importance of Life Table:
Life tables have been constructed by Graunt, Reed and Merrell, Keyfitz, Greville and other
demographers for estimating population trends regarding death rates, average expectation of life,
migration rates, etc. We detail below the uses of life tables:
1. Life table is used to project future population on the basis of the present death rate.
2. It helps in determining the average expectation of life based on age specific death rates.
3. The method of constructing a life table can be followed to estimate the cause of specific death
4. rates, male and female death rates, etc.
5. The survival rates in a life table can be used to calculate the net migration rate on the basis of
age distribution at 5- or 10-year interval.
6. Life tables can be used to compare population trends at national and international levels.
7. By constructing a life table based on the age at marriage, marriage patterns and changes in them
can be estimated.
8. Instead of a single life table, multiple decrement life tables relating to cause specific death rate,
male and female death rates, etc. can be constructed for analyzing socio-economic data in a
country.

Fertility
Fertility refers to the number of live births that occur within a given population during a specific
period, often measured per unit of time (usually per year) and per unit of the population.
Factors Affecting Fertility
1. Economic Development: Fertility tends to decrease as a society undergoes economic
development. Increased industrialization, urbanization, and improved access to education and
healthcare often lead to lower fertility rates.
2. Education: Higher levels of education, particularly for women, are associated with lower
fertility rates.
3. Income: In many developed and high-income countries, there is often a negative correlation
between income and fertility rates. As income levels rise, fertility rates tend to decrease.
4. Government Policies: Government policies related to family planning, maternity leave,
childcare, and financial incentives for larger or smaller families can have a significant impact on
fertility rates.
5. Migration: Migration patterns can impact fertility. For example, in some countries,
immigration from regions with higher fertility rates can influence overall fertility levels.

Migration
Migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another, typically involving a change
in their permanent residence. Migration can occur within a country or between countries.
 In-migration: In-migration is the process of people moving into a new area in their country to
live there permanently.
 Out-migration: Out-migration is the process of people moving out of an area in their country to
move to another area in their country permanently.
Internal Migration:
Internal migration refers to the movement of people within the boundaries of a single country or
nation. It involves individuals or groups relocating from one geographic area or region to another
within the same country.
Types of Internal Migration:
 Rural-to-Urban Migration: This type of migration is often driven by the search for better
economic opportunities, improved living conditions, access to education and healthcare, and
the desire for a different lifestyle.
 Urban-to-Rural Migration: This can occur for various reasons, including a desire for a
quieter lifestyle, lower cost of living, or to return to one's rural roots.
 Urban-to-Urban Migration: People also migrate between different urban areas, which can
be driven by job opportunities, family considerations, or other factors.
 Rural-to-Rural Migration: Migration within rural areas can involve movement between
villages or regions, often in search of better agricultural opportunities or family-related
reasons.
Causes of Internal Migration:
Economic Factors: Many internal migrants are motivated by economic factors, such as the
pursuit of better jobs, higher wages, and improved career prospects.
Education: Access to education and educational institutions can be a significant driver of
internal migration, especially for students seeking higher education.
Family and Household Reasons: Family reunification, marriage, and changes in household
composition can lead to internal migration.
Environmental Factors: Environmental considerations, such as natural disasters, climate
change, or environmental degradation, can force people to move within their own country.
Political and Social Factors: Political instability, conflict, or changes in government policies
can also lead to internal migration.
Effects of Internal Migration:
 Population Redistribution: Internal migration can lead to shifts in population distribution
within a country, with some regions gaining population while others lose it.
 Economic Impact: Internal migration can affect the labor market, housing demand, and
economic development in both source and destination areas.
 Social and Cultural Changes: Internal migration can contribute to cultural diversity and
influence social norms and practices in both urban and rural areas.
 Challenges and Opportunities: Managing the challenges associated with internal migration,
such as housing shortages, infrastructure demands, and social integration, can provide
opportunities for urban planning and policy development.
External migration
"External migration" is a term used to describe the movement of people from one country to
another, involving a change in their country of residence. It is often referred to as international
migration or immigration and is distinct from internal migration, which involves movement within
the boundaries of a single country.
Types of External Migration:
▪ Immigration: Immigration refers to the movement of individuals or groups of people into a
new country with the intention of establishing permanent or longterm residence.
 ▪ Emigration: Emigration is the departure of individuals or groups from their home country to
live in another. People who leave their home country are often referred to as emigrants or
expatriates.
Causes of External Migration:
➢ Economic Factors: Economic motivations, such as the pursuit of higher wages, better job
prospects, and improved living standards, are common drivers of external migration.
➢ Family Reunification: Many migrants move to be with family members who have already
settled in another country, taking advantage of family reunification policies.
➢ Education: International students migrate to other countries for higher education, seeking
quality institutions and diverse academic opportunities.
➢ Political and Social Factors: Political instability, human rights issues, and social unrest can
drive individuals to emigrate from their home countries.
Effects of External Migration:
▪ Cultural Diversity: Immigration contributes to cultural diversity in host countries, enriching
their social fabric with different languages, traditions, and customs.
▪ Economic Impact: Immigrants can have both positive and negative effects on host country
economies.
▪ Social Integration: Successful integration of immigrants into host societies can lead to social
cohesion and inclusivity.
▪ Diaspora Communities: Over time, immigrant communities may form diaspora populations,
maintaining connections with their home countries and sometimes influencing politics and
culture in both the host and home countries.
▪ Demographic Impact: External migration affects the population size, age structure, and
demographic characteristics of both sending and receiving countries

Mortality
Mortality in demographic usage, the frequency of death in a population. It refers to the occurrence of
death within a population. It is one of the key components of demographic analysis and is essential
for understanding population dynamics, health, and public policy.
Factors of mortality
Mortality or death is affected by a variety of factors. They may be biological, physiological,
environmental, etc.
1) Age: Age is one of the most significant factors affecting mortality. Mortality rates tend to
increase with age, and the risk of death is higher for older individuals.
2) Natural Disasters: Earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, and other natural disasters can result in
fatalities.
3) Infectious Diseases: The prevalence of infectious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis,
malaria, and emerging pandemics (e.g., COVID-19), can significantly impact mortality rates.
4) Access to Nutrition: Adequate access to nutritious food is crucial for overall health and
mortality. Malnutrition, whether due to undernutrition or obesity, can increase mortality risks.
5) Accident: Accidents are a significant cause of mortality worldwide. Accidental deaths result
from various types of unintentional injuries, and they can occur in a wide range of settings,
such as at home, in workplaces, on the roads, in recreational activities, or during everyday
tasks.
 6) Politics: While politics itself is not a direct cause of mortality, political decisions, policies, and
actions can have significant indirect effects on public health and mortality rates.

Population Pyramid
A population pyramid, also known as an age-sex pyramid, is a graphical representation of a
population's age and gender distribution. It consists of two bar graphs, one for males and one for
females, placed side by side, with the age groups typically arranged from youngest at the bottom to
oldest at the top.
Types of Population Pyramid:
1. Standard Size 2. Increasing Shape 3. Bell Shape 4. Be Shape
▪ Standard Size:
A population pyramid typically represents the age and gender
distribution of a population, and its size depends on the specific
population being analyzed and the time frame covered by the data.
▪ Increasing Shape
Young populations have a typical 'pyramid' shape, with a broad base
indicating high proportions of children. Indicates a population
undergoing rapid growth. In this period 0-15 & 60+ age people depend
on 15-60 age people. It is useful for least development countries.
▪ Bell Shape
The bell-shaped pyramid indicates an adult population. Its base is moderate, as birth control has
begun. The percentage of young people is between 25% and 35%. The
population falls slowly towards the top, due to a high life expectancy, so the
percentage of elderly
: people is moderate: between 5% and 12%. Example:
Japan, koriya & Europe countries.
▪ Bee Shaped:
In this case, the birth rate is low, the average life expectancy is high & the
middle-aged population group is high, like America.

Malthusian Theory of Population Explained

The Malthusian theory explained that the population grows in a geometrical fashion. The population
would double in 25 years at this rate. For example, in the sequence 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10……
However, the food supply grows in an arithmetic progression. Food supply increases at a slower rate
than the population. For example, in the sequence 1, 2, 3, 5, 6…..
Malthus derived this conclusion from the Law of Diminishing Returns. Since the population grows
through geometric progression and the food production increases through arithmetic progression,
we can conclude that the population will grow more quickly than the food supply. This will result
in a food shortage.
Population Control
Malthus argued that since the population will be larger than the food supply, many people would
then die due to the shortage of food. He theorized that this correction would function through
Positive or Natural Checks and Preventative Checks. These checks resulted in the Malthusian
catastrophe, bringing the population down to a sustainable level.

Positive or Natural Checks

Malthus believed the imbalance between population growth and food supply would be corrected by
natural forces, such as earthquakes and floods. He also believed the imbalance would be corrected
by human actions like wars and famines.
Preventative Checks
In addition, Malthus suggested the use of preventative measures to control population growth. These
included celibacy, late marriage, and family planning.
Criticisms of the Malthusian Theory of Population :
1. Lack of Predictive Accuracy: One of the most significant criticisms is that Malthus's predictions
about population growth outstripping food production have not materialized on a global scale.
Technological advancements in agriculture and food production have allowed the world to
support a much larger population than Malthus anticipated.
2. Ignoring Technological Progress: Malthus did not adequately account for the potential for
technological innovations to increase agricultural productivity. The Green Revolution and other
advancements in farming techniques have demonstrated that food production can be significantly
improved.
3. Socioeconomic Factors: Critics argue that Malthus overlooked the role of socioeconomic factors
in population growth. Poverty, inequality, and lack of access to education and healthcare can
contribute to high birth rates, and addressing these issues can reduce population growth.
4. Cultural and Behavioral Factors: Malthus's theory often simplifies complex cultural and
behavioral factors that influence family size and reproduction. Different societies have different
attitudes toward family planning, which can affect population growth rates.
5. Global Perspective: Malthus's theory primarily focused on the situation in Europe, and critics
argue that it does not account for the diversity of population growth rates and resource
availability worldwide.
6. It's important to note that while the Malthusian Theory has faced criticisms, it also had a
significant historical impact and played a role in stimulating discussions about population,
resources, and sustainability. Modern population theories take into account a broader range of
factors and have evolved beyond Malthus's original ideas.
 Economic development of population
To compare with help of economic development by population:
Comparing economic development with population is a fundamental exercise in economics and
policy analysis. This comparison serves as a key indicator of a nation's overall prosperity and well-
being. By assessing the relationship between a country's economic performance and its population
size, we can gain important insights into how wealth is distributed and the standard of living within
that nation.
Key aspects to consider in this comparison include:
1. GDP per Capita: This metric divides a country's total economic output by its population. It
provides a per-person measure of economic performance, making it easier to compare nations
with different population sizes.
2. Income Inequality: Understanding how wealth is distributed among a population is essential.
High income inequality can indicate disparities in living standards.
3. Access to Basic Services: The availability of essential services like healthcare, education, and
infrastructure can significantly impact the well-being of the population.
4. Employment and Unemployment: Assessing the employment rate and unemployment levels
provides insights into labor market conditions and economic development.
5. Poverty Rates: Examining the percentage of the population living in poverty offers a clear
picture of the challenges faced by a nation's citizens.
6. Demographic Structure: Consider the age distribution of the population and its implications
for economic development, such as the potential demographic dividend or burden.
7. Sustainable Development: Evaluating a country's commitment to environmental
sustainability and resource management is crucial for long-term well-being.
By comparing economic development with population, governments, organizations, and analysts can
better understand the overall quality of life within a country, identify areas for improvement, and
tailor policies to enhance the well-being of their citizens.
Natural resource population With factors of population:
The concept of "Natural Resource Population" involves examining the intricate interplay between a
country's population and its management of natural resources. Several key factors influence this
relationship, including technology, international trade, and the abundance of natural resources:
1. Technology:
 Resource Efficiency: Advancements in technology can enhance resource efficiency, allowing
more efficient use of resources. For instance, innovations in agriculture can boost food
production without expanding agricultural land.
 Resource Exploration and Extraction: Technological advancements in mining and drilling
can increase the accessibility of previously untapped natural resources.
2. International Trade:
 Resource Import/Export: International trade plays a vital role in resource management.
Countries with abundant natural resources often export them, driving economic growth.
Meanwhile, resource-scarce nations may import these resources to meet their needs.
 Resource Dependency: International trade can lead to resource dependency, making
countries vulnerable to fluctuations in global commodity markets.
3. Natural Resources:
 Abundance or Scarcity: The availability of natural resources, such as oil, minerals, arable
land, forests, and water sources, directly affects a nation's economic potential and
sustainability.
 Sustainability: Managing natural resources sustainably is crucial to ensure they remain
available for future generations. Sustainable practices include responsible harvesting,
reforestation, and water conservation.

Balancing these factors is essential to ensure that a growing population can coexist with the finite
availability of natural resources. This may involve investing in green technologies, practicing
responsible resource management, and engaging in international trade relationships that are
economically beneficial and environmentally responsible. The goal is to achieve a harmonious
equilibrium between the needs of a growing population and the preservation of the planet's natural
resources for future generations.

Factors effecting the supply of natural resources

Several factors affect the supply of natural resources:
1. Geological and Geographic Factors: The distribution and accessibility of resources are
influenced by geological formations and geographical location. Some areas have abundant
resources, while others may have limited access.
2. Technological Advancements: Innovations in extraction and exploration technologies can
increase the supply of resources by making extraction more efficient or enabling the discovery
of new deposits.
3. Economic Factors: Market prices and investment levels play a significant role. High prices
can drive increased production, while greater investment in resource development can boost
supply.
4. Environmental Regulations: Stringent environmental regulations can restrict resource
extraction. Sustainability practices may also impact supply by preventing overexploitation.
5. Climate and Weather Conditions: Climate change, extreme weather events, and changing
weather patterns can disrupt resource supply chains, affecting industries such as agriculture
and energy.
6. International Trade and Geopolitics: Trade agreements, tariffs, sanctions, and geopolitical
considerations can influence the global supply of resources.
7. Consumer Demand: Increasing global population and evolving consumption patterns can
drive up demand for resources, potentially affecting their supply.
8. Recycling and Circular Economy Practices: The development of recycling technologies
and the adoption of circular economy principles can reduce the demand for new resource
extraction, thus influencing supply.
These factors collectively determine the availability of natural resources and impact industries,
economies, and the environment. Sustainable resource management and responsible practices are
essential for ensuring a stable and adequate supply of resources.

Demographic Data
Demographic data refers to the collection of statistical data which is collected concerning the
population, gender, age, and income. Usually, the demographic data is collected through means of
samples, surveys, and questionnaires.
Sources of Demographic Data
 Civil registrations system: The registration system is believed to be one of the most important
data collection methods. Various events like birth, death, marriage, divorce, etc., are considered
requisite accounts of every citizen of the country. When either of the events takes place, it must
 be registered at the respective authoritative office, which makes it easier to analyse the
demographics.
 Population census: The population census is the most important and popular source of
searching demographic data. Census has been derived from a Latin word meaning “to assess”.
Some of the critical functions of the census which make it essential and the most popular are.
1) Census is completed in a specified period.
2) Usually, the census covers the entire country.
3) A census is conducted and performed every ten years.
4) The census finally filled up is collected, analysed statistically, and examined by the census
commission to evaluate the accuracy and correctness of the data before launching.
 Sample surveys: A sample survey is yet another effective source of collecting population data.
Information in a sample survey is collected through individual samples rather than the population
as a whole. Sample, as the name itself suggests, is a fraction of the overall available population.
From each sector of the population, a particular sample is picked up based on which the
conclusions are drawn. One of the most common examples of survey samples includes the
number of vehicles purchased and sold in the case of the study of automobiles.
Census Problems:
1. Undercounting: Some individuals or groups may be missed or undercounted due to various
reasons such as homelessness, language barriers, mistrust of authorities, or simply not being
available during the census period.
2. Overcounting: On the flip side, there might be cases of overcounting due to duplicate entries
or counting individuals in the wrong location.
3. Incomplete or Inaccurate Data: Errors in data collection, processing, or reporting can lead
to incomplete or inaccurate information.
4. Privacy Concerns: There are concerns regarding privacy and confidentiality, especially when
collecting sensitive personal information.
5. Logistical Challenges: Conducting a census requires significant logistical planning and
resources. Difficulties in reaching remote or inaccessible areas can pose challenges.
Census Method:
1. Planning and Preparations: 2. Address Listing and Enumeration: 3. Data Collection:
4. Data Processing and Analysis: 5. Dissemination of Results: 6. Evaluation and Feedback:

Population studies
Population studies, also known as demography, is a multidisciplinary field of study that focuses on
understanding various aspects of human populations. It involves the scientific analysis of population
dynamics, including the size, structure, distribution, and characteristics of populations, as well as the
factors influencing these patterns. Population studies encompass a wide range of topics and
methodologies.
Subject Matter of Population Studies
1. Population Size and Growth: Analysis of the total number of individuals in a given area and
how this population changes over time due to factors like births, deaths, immigration, and
emigration.
2. Population Distribution and Density: Study of how populations are distributed across
different geographic regions and the concentration of people within specific areas.
3. Population Structure and Composition: Examination of the demographic composition of
populations in terms of age, gender, race, ethnicity, education, income, marital status, and
household structure.
 4. Fertility and Reproductive Behavior: Investigation into patterns of fertility, childbirth, family
planning, contraceptive use, and factors influencing reproductive decisions within
populations.
5. Mortality and Health: Analysis of mortality rates, causes of death, life expectancy, diseases,
healthcare access, and health disparities among different population groups.
6. Migration and Mobility: Study of internal and international migration patterns, reasons for
migration, migration trends, and their impact on population dynamics and social structures.
Difference Between Demography and Population Studies:

Demography Population Studies

Demography refers to the study of population,
especially with reference to size, density, and
distribution.
Demography studies the whole population.
Demography, especially formal demography,
focuses on the measurement of population
processes.
Demographers make decisions related to
individuals in the population.
Demography and population studies is that
demography is the statistical study of the human
population.
Population study refers to the study of people
who share similar common features like age,
sex, or health condition.
Population studies focus only on a specific
group taken from the general population.
Population studies also focus on the
relationships between social, economic,
cultural, and biological processes influencing a
population.
Population studies, the decisions can be only
made for the individuals who belong to the
specific group taken from the general
population.
Population studies is the study of a group of
people (from the general population) who share
similar characteristics.

Need for separate study of population studies:

1. Understanding Population Dynamics: Population studies focus specifically on the dynamics
of human populations. This includes studying birth rates, death rates, migration patterns, age
structures, and other demographic factors that are fundamental in shaping societies.
2. Policy Formulation and Planning: Demographic information is vital for governments and
policymakers to formulate effective policies related to healthcare, education, social welfare,
urban planning, immigration, and resource allocation.
3. Addressing Socioeconomic Challenges: Population studies help identify disparities and
challenges within different demographic groups, such as disparities in access to healthcare,
education, or employment opportunities.
4. Environmental Impact: Understanding population dynamics is crucial for assessing the
impact of human activities on the environment.
5. Healthcare Planning: Demographic data aids in healthcare planning, including predicting
healthcare needs, disease prevalence, and understanding the health challenges faced by
different age groups or regions.
6. Academic Research and Innovation: The field of population studies fosters research and
innovation in areas such as statistical methods, survey techniques, modeling, and
interdisciplinary studies that contribute to a better understanding of population dynamics.
 7. Global Perspectives: Population studies allow for global comparisons, helping to understand
how population dynamics vary across different regions, countries, and cultures.
Population projection
A population projection gives a picture of what the future
size and structure of the population by sex and age might
look like. It is based on knowledge of the past trends, and,
for the future, on assumptions made for three components:
fertility, mortality and migration.

Density of Population
Population density refers to the measurement of the number of people living per unit area or
space. It is calculated by dividing the total population of an area by its land area (usually
expressed in square kilometers or square miles).
The formula for population density is: Population Density = Total Population / Land Area
Factors Affecting Population Density:
1. Geographical Features: Some areas, such as plains and valleys, tend to have higher
population densities due to favorable living conditions, while mountainous or arid regions
may have lower densities.
2. Urbanization: Cities tend to have higher population densities compared to rural areas because
of greater infrastructure, job opportunities, and services available in urban centers.
3. Cultural and Social Factors: Cultural preferences, historical settlement patterns, and societal
norms can influence population distribution and density within regions.
4. Economic Opportunities: Areas with strong economic prospects often attract more people,
leading to higher population densities.
5. Government Policies: Government policies related to land use, zoning, and urban planning
can influence population distribution and density.
6. Climate and Environmental Factors: Climate conditions and natural resources can affect
where people choose to live, impacting population density.
Understanding population density is essential for various purposes:
 Urban Planning: Helps in designing infrastructure, housing, transportation, and services in
cities and urban areas.
 Resource Allocation: Guides decisions on the distribution of resources such as healthcare,
education, and utilities.
 Environmental Impact: Allows for assessment of the environmental impact of population
concentration on land, water, and ecosystems.
Crude Birth Rate:
The crude birth rate is a demographic measurement that calculates the annual number of live births
per 1,000 people within a population during a specific period.
The formula to calculate the crude birth rate is as follows:
Crude Birth Rate = (Number of Births / Total Population)×1000 Where:
 Number of Births: The total number of live births that occurred within a specific timeframe
(usually per year).
 Total Population: The population at a specific point in time or the average population over that
period.
 The result is then multiplied by 1000 to express the rate per 1,000 people. For example, if a country
has a population of 10 million and records 200,000 live births in a year, the crude birth rate would
be: Crude Birth Rate = (200,000 / 10,000,000) ×1000 = 20 births per 1,000 people

Crude Death Rate

The crude death rate is a demographic measurement that calculates the annual number of deaths per
1,000 people within a population during a specific period.
The formula to calculate the crude death rate is as follows-
Crude Death Rate = (Number of Deaths / Total Population) ×1000
Number of Deaths: The total number of deaths that occurred within a specific timeframe (usually
per year).
 Total Population: The population at a specific point in time or the average population over that
period.
 The result is then multiplied by 1000 to express the rate per 1,000 people.
 For example, if a country has a population of 20 million and records 300,000 deaths in a year, the
crude death rate would be:
 Crude Death Rate = (300,000 / 20,000,000) × 1000 = 15 deaths per 1,000 people

Male-Female Ratio
The male-female ratio, also known as the sex ratio, is a demographic measure that compares the
number of males to females in a population. It is commonly expressed as the number of males per
100 females or as a ratio between the number of males and females within a given population.
The formula to calculate the sex ratio is:
Sex Ratio = (Number of Males / Number of Females) ×100
Alternatively, the sex ratio can also be expressed as the number of males per 100 females.
For example, a sex ratio of 105 would indicate 105 males for every 100 females in a population

Rate Of Natural Increases In Population

The rate of natural increase (RNI) in a population is a demographic measure that represents the
difference between the crude birth rate and the crude death rate over a specific period of time.
The formula to calculate the rate of natural increase is:
Rate of Natural Increase (RNI)=(Crude Birth Rate−Crude Death Rate)×1000/Total Population
For instance, if a country has a crude birth rate of 20 births per 1,000 people and a crude death rate
of 8 deaths per 1,000 people in a given year, the rate of natural increase would be:
Rate of Natural Increase (RNI) = (20−8)×(1000 / Total Population) = 12× (1000 / Total Population)
Dependency Ratio
The dependency ratio is a demographic measure that compares the size of the non-working or
dependent population (typically children and the elderly) to the working-age population (typically
ages 15 to 64). It provides insights into the level of economic support that the working population
must provide for dependents.
There are two main types of dependency ratios:
1. Old-age Dependency Ratio: This ratio measures the number of elderly individuals (typically
those aged 65 and above) compared to the working-age population (ages 15-64). The formula to
calculate the old-age dependency ratio is:
 Old-age Dependency Ratio = [Population aged 65+ / Working-age Population (15-64)] ×100
2. Youth Dependency Ratio:This ratio measures the number of children (usually ages 0-14)
compared to the working-age population (ages 15-64). The formula for the youth dependency
ratio is:
 Youth Dependency Ratio = [Population aged 0-14 / Working-age Population (15-64)]×100
3. The total dependency ratio combines both the old-age dependency ratio and the youth
dependency ratio to provide an overall measure of the entire dependent population compared to
the working-age population:
 Total Dependency Ratio =
[{(Population aged 0-14) + (Population aged 65+)} / Working-age Population (15-64)] × 100
For example, if a country has a working-age population of 100 million, 20 million children (ages 0-
14), and 10 million elderly (ages 65+), the total dependency ratio would be calculated as:
Total Dependency Ratio = [(20 million+10 million) / 100 million] ×100 =30%

Age-Specific Birth Rate

Age-specific birth rate refers to the number of live births occurring in a specific age group of women
per 1,000 women in that same age group within a given period of time.
The formula to calculate the age-specific birth rate for a particular age group is:
Age-specific Birth Rate:
= (Number of births to women in a specific age group/Number of women in that age group) × 1000
For example, if within a year, there were 500 live births to women aged 20-24, and there were
25,000 women in the population aged 20-24, the age-specific birth rate for that age group would be
calculated as: Age-specific Birth Rate (20-24)=(500 / 25,000)×1000=20 births per 1,000 women

Age-Specific Death Rate:

Age-specific death rate refers to the number of deaths occurring in a specific age group per 1,000
individuals in that same age group within a given period of time.
The formula to calculate the age-specific death rate for a particular age group is:
Age-specific Death Rate:
= (Number of deaths in a specific age group / Number of individuals in that age group) × 1000
For instance, if within a year, there were 200 deaths among individuals aged 65-74, and the
population in that age group was 10,000, the age-specific death rate for that age group would be
calculated as:
Age-specific Death Rate (65-74)=(200/10,000)×1000=20 deaths per 1,000 individuals.

General Fertility Rate

The general fertility rate (GFR) is a demographic measure that represents the number of live births
per 1,000 women of childbearing age (typically ages 15 to 44 or 15 to 49) within a given period of
time. The formula to calculate the general fertility rate is:
General Fertility Rate (GFR)
=(Number of Live Births / Number of Women in Childbearing Age)×1000
For example, if in a year there were 2,000 live births, and the number of women aged 15-44 in the
population was 50,000, the general fertility rate would be calculated as:
General Fertility Rate (GFR)=(2,000 / 50,000)×1000=40 births per 1,000 women of childbearing age

Stable Population
A stable population, in demographic terms, refers to a population in which the age and sex structure
remain relatively constant over time, with births, deaths, and migration maintaining a balance that
leads to a near-constant population size. In a stable population, the birth rate, death rate, and
migration rate reach an equilibrium, resulting in little to no change in the population size or age
structure from one generation to the next.
Key characteristics of a stable population include:
1. Zero Population Growth: The overall population size remains relatively constant, with births
balancing deaths and migration over time, resulting in near-zero population growth.
2. Constant Age Distribution: The proportion of individuals in different age groups remains
stable from one year to the next, leading to a consistent age structure.
3. Fertility Rate Equals Replacement Level: The fertility rate is at replacement level, meaning
that, on average, each woman is giving birth to only enough children to replace herself and her
partner (approximately 2.1 children per woman in many societies).
4. Stable Death Rates: Death rates remain consistent over time, leading to a steady number of
deaths within the population.
5. Limited Impact of Migration: Migration rates are balanced and have a minimal impact on
the overall population size and structure.

Stationary Population
A stationary population is a theoretical concept in demography that describes a population where the
size remains stable over time. In a stationary population, the number of births equals the number of
deaths, resulting in zero population growth. This demographic equilibrium occurs when the total
fertility rate (TFR) is at replacement level, and the population experiences no net migration.
Key characteristics of a stationary population include:
1. Zero Population Growth: The population remains constant in size, with the number of births
equaling the number of deaths.
2. Constant Age Distribution: The age structure of the population remains the same over time,
with a consistent proportion of individuals in different age groups.
3. Replacement-Level Fertility: The fertility rate is at replacement level, where, on average,
each woman has enough children to replace herself and her partner, typically around 2.1
children per woman in many societies.
4. Stable Death Rates: The death rate remains constant, leading to a steady number of deaths
within the population.
5. No Net Migration: The population experiences no net migration, meaning that the number of
people entering the population through immigration is balanced by the number leaving
through emigration.
Similar to a stable population, achieving a perfectly stationary population is theoretical and may not
occur in reality due to various real-world factors influencing birth rates, death rates, and migration
patterns. External factors such as changes in healthcare, advancements in technology, economic
shifts, cultural changes, or unforeseen events can disrupt the equilibrium of a stationary population.