Learner Guide

WRITE AND PRESENT FOR A WIDE RANGE OF PURPOSES,
AUDIENCES AND CONTEXTS

US 115790
NQF LEVEL: 5
CREDITS: 5
NOTIONAL HOURS: 50
LEARNER GUIDE
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE.........................................................................................3
ICONS.......................................................................................................................... 3
PROGRAMME OVERVIEW......................................................................................... 4
PURPOSE.................................................................................................................... 4
LEARNING ASSUMPTIONS........................................................................................4
HOW YOU WILL LEARN..............................................................................................4
HOW YOU WILL BE ASSESSED.................................................................................4
SECTION 1: PREPARE AND PLAN TO WRITE A BUSINESS DOCUMENT...................5
1.1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................6
1.2 PREPARING AND PLANNING FOR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION.....................7
1.3 UNDERSTANDING THE TARGET AUDIENCE.....................................................8
Take note.................................................................................................................. 9
1.4 DATA GATHERING OR RESEARCH (SO 2, AC 1; SO 4, AC 2).........................10
1.5 SELECTING INFORMATION FOR A DOCUMENT (SO 1, AC 4, SO 2, AC 2)....15
1.6 SELECTING LANGUAGE SUITABLE TO A BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT (12153
SO 1, AC 1, AC 2, AC 3)............................................................................................ 17
1.7 SELECTING THE NARRATIVE VOICE (SO 1, AC 3)..........................................19
1. 8 CREATION OF A CHECKLIST (SO 4, AC 1)......................................................23
1.9 TIME MANAGEMENT IN PLANNING (SO 1, AC 1).............................................24
SECTION 2: DETERMIMNG THE FORMATS, LANGUAGE AND STRUCTURE OF A
DOCUMENT...................................................................................................................... 25
2.1 INTRODUCTION (SO 2, AC 5).............................................................................26
2.2 STRUCTURE OF A DOCUMENT........................................................................35
2.3 SENTENCE STRUCTURE (SO 2, AC 3).............................................................37
2.4 TEXTUAL FEATURES AND CONVENTIONS (SO 3, AC 1, AC 2,AC 3).............41
SECTION 3: CREATING A FIRST DRAFT DOCUMENT................................................43
3.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................44
3.2 LOGICALLY SEQUENCING POINTS IN ARGUMENT (SO 2, AC 4)...................49
SECTION 4: EDITING THE FIRST DRAFT DOCUMENT................................................50
4.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................51
4.2 CHECKING THE FIRST DRAFT GRAMMAR ERRORS (SO 4, AC 4).................51
4.3 CHECKING THE PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION AND COHERENCE (SO
4, AC 3)...................................................................................................................... 56
4.4 INTERPRETING TERMS AND JARGON (SO 4, AC 5).......................................58
4.5 CHECKING LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF A DRAFT.............................................59
4.6 GENERAL EDITING STRATEGIES.....................................................................64
4.7 REWRITING THE FINAL DOCUMENT................................................................66
Learner guide 2
HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE
This workbook belongs to you. It is designed to serve as a guide for the duration of your
training programme and as a resource for after the time. It contains readings, activities, and
application aids that will assist you in developing the knowledge and skills stipulated in the
specific outcomes and assessment criteria. Follow along in the guide as the facilitator takes you
through the material, and feel free to make notes and diagrams that will help you to clarify or
retain information. Jot down things that work well or ideas that come from the group. Also, note
any points you would like to explore further. Participate actively in the skill practice activities, as
they will give you an opportunity to gain insights from other people’s experiences and to practice
the skills. Do not forget to share your own experiences so that others can learn from you too.
ICONS
For ease of reference, an icon will indicate different activities. The following icons indicate
different activities in the manual.
Outcomes Learning Activities
Assessment Criteria Note

Note!
Stop and Think!

Course Material Reflection
Notes (Blank) References
Definition Summaries
Example
Learner guide 3
PROGRAMME OVERVIEW
PURPOSE
This unit standard is intended to promote clear, unambiguous communication. It requires
learners to follow a process in writing workplace specific texts. The ability to write plain
language will improve the quality of business correspondence and other texts that are specific to
a workplace environment. The achievement of this unit standard enables learners to recognise
and use effectively textual conventions and features specific to business texts including those
that require a particular format and/or specified legislated requirements. They carefully
scrutinise their own and others' writing for accuracy, appropriateness and impact on different
audiences and contexts. They edit and change where appropriate.
Learners credited with this unit standard are able to:

 Use writing skills for specific purposes, audiences and contexts.
 Access, process, re-organise, and synthesise information in order to present it.
 Use appropriate language conventions, textual features and style for specific workplace
purposes.
 Draft and edit texts.
LEARNING ASSUMPTIONS
The credit calculation is based on the assumption that learners are already competent in terms
of the following outcomes or areas of learning: NQF level 4:
 Write texts for a range of communicative contexts.

HOW YOU WILL LEARN
The programme methodology includes facilitator presentations, readings, individual activities,
group discussions, and skill application exercises.
HOW YOU WILL BE ASSESSED
This programme has been aligned to registered unit standards. You will be assessed against
the outcomes of the unit standards by completing a knowledge assignment that covers the
essential embedded knowledge stipulated in the unit standards. When you are assessed as
competent against the unit standards, you will receive a certificate of competence and be
awarded 5 credits towards a National Qualification.
Learner guide 4
SECTION 1: PREPARE AND PLAN TO WRITE A
BUSINESS DOCUMENT
Specific Outcome
On completion of this section you will be able to Use writing skills for
specific purposes, audiences and contexts.
Assessment Criteria
 Time management skills are demonstrated in the planning of
the text. (SO1 AC1)
 The narrative voice appropriate to context, purpose and
audience must be chosen. (SO 1, AC 3)
 Ideas and information are gathered, organised and explicitly
stated in a text. (SO 2, AC 1)
 Texts produced demonstrate considered choice of content
and justification for inclusion of decisions/incidents/
requirements. (SO 1, AC 4)
 Selection of information in the text is appropriate to purpose,
target audience and workplace context. (SO 2, AC 2)
 A checklist is created to facilitate reflection, editing and
checked for accuracy and factual correctness of all
information. (SO 4, AC 1)
 Information accessed is checked for accuracy, bias, stereo-
typing and other possibly offensive details or language. (SO
4, AC 2)
 Topic sentences clearly state the main idea of a paragraph
and be relevant to the text as a whole. (SO 2, AC 3)
Learner guide 5
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Written communication involves the use of written words to send a message from one point to
another. What is fundamental is the ability to read with comprehension and to write clearly and
correctly and it cannot be emphasized enough that both of these skills are extremely important.
A report or memo that has repeated errors; immediately put to question the ability and
dedication of the person who wrote it. Why didn’t they take the time and effort to do it right?
Most of the successful people in organisations write clear, well organized memos and reports.
Written Communication always involves sending and receiving information, ideas and images.
There are different participants within the written communication process that have roles they
need to fulfil for the communication to be successful. First the author of the written message
must know the five Ws: what, where, when, why.
a. Who the recipient is?
b. What information or background knowledge his or her audience has with regard to intent
and the nature of the message?
c. When this information must be sent?
d. Where it must go?
e. Why it must be sent to that person at this time?
Secondly, the audience needs to understand and desire the communication, and be willing and
able to respond. This requires the author to construct his/ her message using comprehensible
language, including all important information and have a concern for maintaining and enhancing
a positive relationship with the audience.
Very simply stated, the purpose of written or oral communications is to present specific
information to specific audiences for specific purposes.
Learner guide 6
1.2 PREPARING AND PLANNING FOR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Before composing a written message planning is very important. If you don’t plan your writing
you are planning to fail. When planning, the writer needs to ensure that he/she focuses on the
receiver of the information (the audience):
 His / her knowledge of the subject to be communicated
 His / her ability to effectively use the language (read / hear, interpret, understand)
 His / her need for the information (why they need the communication)
Once you have the answers to the above, you can create your message as a verbal / written
communication in the right format, at the right time; to the right person so that the receiver would
best understand and react to the message.
When planning the written communication it is necessary and rather important to follow the
following checklist:
i. What is your purpose in writing this document?
ii. Do you know exactly what outcomes you want to achieve and how you want your
readers to respond?
iii. What is your audience like - what is their level of intelligence, how deep is their
knowledge, what is important to them?
iv. What document format are you going to use? (e-mail, letter, memo, report, etc.)
v. Are you being polite and unemotional?
vi. Do you have all the information you need? Is it correct?
vii. Have you assembled all your arguments? Have you anticipated any counter-arguments?
viii. Which is the best order to present your points in, both for your document and your
audience?
Learner guide 7
1.3 UNDERSTANDING THE TARGET AUDIENCE
A target audience mainly refer to those whom communication is directed to. An audience is
often referred to as the end user, and all communications need to be targeted towards a defined
audience.
The target audiences can be divided into:

a. Primary audiences: are the group which is supposed to be the first to receive
information. This group consists of the decision-makers and the first point of contact for
information.
b. Secondary audiences: are that part of the audiences who are not really intended by the
writer or speakers (sender in the communication process) but tend to receive the
message.
c. Tertiary audiences: comprise the different sectors which need to be informed of and
consulted with about the beginnings of any project or programme.
AUDIENCE ANALYSIS
Communication breakdown may occur for a number of reasons: the audience or person
receiving the message may not be interested or available to receive it, or may lack the
knowledge to respond to it. The responsibility of the author then is to investigate before writing,
the recipients of the message and carefully plan it to ensure that the audience will be able to
understand its content and has resources and tools to respond accordingly.
For Example:
Noise such as unclear instructions or inappropriate methods may inhibit communication.
Similarly the audience may be reluctant to respond if their cultural or religious values have been
violated or they are fearful or anxious because of perceived manipulation or repercussions.
Thus in designing written communication it is advisable to plan it in such a way that positive
feedback from the audience can be accomplished.
The audience may have a number of distinct qualities that will need to be determined before
constructing a message. Characteristics such as gender, age, educational level, cultural
background, values and knowledge of the topic, as well as position within the organization all
Learner guide 8
play an important part in constructing an appropriate message and what the recipients’
information needs are. For example; a company executive requires information specific to the
decisions he/ she makes to run the business whereas clients are concerned with details that aid
them in buying the goods and services.
It is clear that messages are tailored according to the unique needs and requirements of the
audience, based upon what they will do with the information received.
Take note
Note!
Audience analysis questions like the following are important as they enable you, to get a picture
of what the projected audience is like.
• Who are you writing to?____________________________________________________________
• Are they a superior or a colleague, peer, owner, manager?_________________________________
• What style and tone would be most suited to this audience?________________________________
• Is it internal or external correspondence?_______________________________________________
• What does the reader need to know?__________________________________________________
• Why do they need to know this?______________________________________________________
• What background do I need to fill them in on?__________________________________________
• What are they going to do with this information?_________________________________________
• Who, other than the recipient, will be exposed to this information?__________________________
• Are my objectives clear?___________________________________________________________
• Define your targeted reader and your objectives.__________________)______________________
• Is there a need for research of factual checking?__________________
Learner guide 9
1.4 DATA GATHERING OR RESEARCH (SO 2, AC 1; SO 4, AC 2)
As part of the planning process, the writer must gather necessary information that must be
included in the text to be written. Let’s look at the two main forms of accessing information;
Information can be accessed through primary data sources and secondary data sources
 Primary data: In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using methods
such as interviews and questionnaires. The key point here is that the data you collect is
unique to you and your research and, until you publish, no one else has access to it.
There are many methods of collecting primary data and the main methods include:
questionnaires, interviews, focus group interviews, observation, case-studies, diaries,
critical incidents, portfolios.
 Secondary data: All methods of data collection can supply quantitative data (numbers,
statistics or financial) or qualitative data (usually words or text). Quantitative data may
often be presented in tabular or graphical form. Secondary data is data that has already
been collected by someone else for a different purpose to yours. For example, this could
mean using: data collected by a hotel on its customers through its guest history system,
data supplied by a marketing organisation, annual company reports, and government
statistics.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
Identify and explain the advantages & disadvantages of primary and secondary data
1.4.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

The following are characteristics of any research:
 Research forms a circle. It originates with a question in the mind of the researcher, and
ends with an answer to the question.
Learner guide 10
 Research cannot continue if the aim of the research is not stated clearly and
unambiguously.
 An elaborated plan of procedures that are going to be followed is a precondition.
 Research starts with separating the main field of the search (the problem) from the
division thereof into smaller manageable subdivisions (sub problems).
 Direction is given to the research by means of setting applicable suggestions which are
based on ideas.
 Research has to do with factual knowledge.
 Research involves critical thinking, problem solving, analysis and dissemination as
depicted diagrammatically below:
1. Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is accepting nothing at face value, but rather examining the truth and validity of
arguments and evaluating the relative importance of ideas. Critical thinking includes evaluating
and weighing different sides of an argument, applying reason and logic to determine the merits
of arguments, and drawing and evaluating conclusions from logical arguments and data
Learner guide 11
analysis. Critical thinking requires background skills such as imagination and creativity, logic
and reasoning, conceptual thinking, reflection and feedback.
2. Problem Solving
Problem solving is the ability to identify, define and analyze problems, to create solutions and
evaluate them, and to choose the best solution for a particular context. It requires imaginative
and innovative thinking to find new ways to approach a problem, analytical skills to examine the
consequences of a particular solution, and reasoning skills to weigh one solution against
another. A common form of problem solving in science is experimenting. Problem solving
involves the background skills of imagination and creativity, logic and reasoning, data collection,
conceptual thinking, reflection and feedback, and scientific experimentation.
3. Analysis
Analysis is the ability to gather relevant data and information and apply methods of synthesis,
critical thinking and data reduction to locate and understand patterns or connections in that
information. Scientific analysis often requires mathematical techniques to manipulate data, such
as graphing experimental results or using statistical tests to examine differences between sets
of data. Analysis requires the background skills of data collection, data analysis, reflection and
feedback, scientific experimenting.
4. Dissemination
Dissemination is communicating to others the purpose and outcomes of research. It requires the
ability to summarise information, explain the aims, motives, results and conclusions of the
research, and tailor the communication to the needs and knowledge level of a particular
audience. Dissemination requires the background skills of imagination and creativity, logic and
reasoning, conceptual thinking, reflection and feedback.
1.4.2 BACKGROUND SKILLS IN DATA GATHERING

To be able to conduct a research one should posses some background research skills. Below
are the fundamental background skills:
I. Imagination and Creativity

Creativity means searching for different approaches to a problem or situation. It also entails
looking for alternatives to common or accepted methods and solutions and also trying to
Learner guide 12
examine issues from a different point of view (such as seeing an argument from another
person's perspective).
II. Logic and reasoning

Logical reasoning means understanding the structure of logical arguments, including deductive
(the process of reasoning from one or more general statements (premises) to reach a
logically certain conclusion) and inductive (kind of reasoning that develops or assesses
general ideas that are extracted from specific examples ) reasoning. It entails assessing
the logical basis for scientific claims and conclusions (such as deciding whether you agree with
the conclusions drawn in a scientific paper, based on the evidence given). Sometime you draw
conclusions from scientific arguments or analyses (for example, making valid generalizations or
predictions from experimental data).
III. Data collection

Entail gathering data (for example through carrying out experiments, surveys, focus groups,
interviews, literature reviews) and designing a data collection tool (for example, planning an
experiment or constructing a survey).
IV. Data Analysis

Data analysis involves identifying an appropriate method (mathematical or otherwise) for
interpreting and manipulating data and applying techniques of statistical analysis, including
using statistics in research and the statistical analysis of surveys (such as identifying and
applying an appropriate statistical test of significance). It also entails awareness of the
limitations of analysis techniques (for example, understanding the assumptions behind a
statistical analysis, and examining whether your data fit these assumptions) and forming
appropriate conclusions from results of analysis.
V. Conceptual thinking
Involves breaking a big issue into smaller, manageable parts (for example, breaking an
experimental investigation into a series of smaller measurements) and identifying concepts and
ideas relevant to a problem, synthesizing concepts and available data to construct a solution. It
also means making judgements about the value and relevance of ideas and information (for
example, deciding to ignore a particular factor because it contributes only a small amount to the
overall problem).
Learner guide 13
VI. Reflection and feedback
Thinking about what you have done, what you might have done differently, how you feel about
it, and how you might change it to improve your learning (for example, reflecting on the
outcomes of a research project and deciding on a different course of action for next time). You
use insights gained through reflection to improve your own or others' work or situation (for
example, watching others perform and offering feedback on the way they are tackling a
problem).
VII. Scientific Experimentation

Identifying and designing an appropriate experimental procedure understanding the limitations
and scope of an experimental design (for example, sample sizes and measurement
uncertainties).
1.4.3 VERIFYING DATA COLLECTED
Beware of using biased language as this could, unintentionally, give a negative tone to your
correspondence. Therefore, collected data must be analysed inorder to verify its accuracy,
remove bias, stereotyping and offensive details. Avoid discrimination by
• Being as politically correct as possible
• Avoiding sexist terms e.g. Chairman in stead of Chairperson
• Highlighting skin colour if irrelevant
• Describing people in stereotypical ways e.g. All women are bad drivers!
• Being insensitive to or too focused on people's social stature and needs
• Using terms that would be considered negative to describe groups of people
EXAMPLE RATHER USE

Blind Sight impaired
Poor Low income
People's perceptions of certain words or phrases depend on their frame of reference or attitude
LEARNING ACTIVITY
Learner guide 14
How do you identify the following in a document;
I. Bias
II. Stereotyping
1.5 SELECTING INFORMATION FOR A DOCUMENT (SO 1, AC 4, SO 2, AC 2)
Before a text is written the writer must decide on the information that must be included. The
information to be included depends on:
 Purpose of the communication. This should help you to evaluate which

information is relevant. Keep to your objective(s) and the relevant facts.
 The time frame. That is the time period for delivering the information. For
example if the time frame is short, then information must be summarized.
 Audience. The type of audience determines what information must be included.
For example if you are writing a letter of complaint to your supplier, the following information
must be included;
 Include your name, address, and home and work phone numbers.
 Include all important facts about your purchase, including the date and place where you
made the purchase and any information you can give about the product or service such
as serial or model numbers or specific type of service.
 State exactly what you want done about the problem and how long you are willing to wait
to get it resolved. Be reasonable.
SAMPLE COMPLAINT LETTER
 Name of Contact Person, if available

Title, if available
Learner guide 15
Company Name
Consumer Complaint Division, if you have no contact person
Street Address
City, State, Zip Code
 Dear (Contact Person):
 Re: (account number, if applicable)
 On (date), I (bought, leased, rented, or had repaired) a (name of the product, with
serial or model number or service performed) at (location and other important details
of the transaction).
 Unfortunately, your product (or service) has not performed well (or the service was
inadequate) because (state the problem). I am disappointed because (explain the
problem: for example, the product does not work properly, the service was not
performed correctly, I was billed the wrong amount, something was not disclosed
clearly or was misrepresented, etc.).
 To resolve the problem, I would appreciate it if you could (state the specific action
you want money back, charge card credit, repair, exchange, etc.). Enclosed are
copies of my records (include copies of receipts, guarantees, warranties, canceled
checks, contracts, model and serial numbers, and any other documents).
 I look forward to your reply and a resolution to my problem, and will wait until (set a
time limit) before seeking help from a consumer protection agency or the Better
Business Bureau. Please contact me at the above address or by phone at (home
and/or office numbers with area code).
 Sincerely,
 Your name
Enclosure(s) cc: (reference to whom you are sending a copy of this letter, if anyone)
Learner guide 16
1.6 SELECTING LANGUAGE SUITABLE TO A BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT (12153 SO 1, AC 1,
AC 2, AC 3)
Before penning a document, a writer must know his or her business environment. This is
because the language that the author shall use depends on the environment at hand. Have
you ever noticed that all law firms seem to correspond in the same way? Marketing
departments and tax offices use their own jargon appropriate to their industry. Examples from
the insurance industry could include terminology like premium, underwriting, claims-made
basis valuable benefits, and payout. Insurers tend to be more factual, emphasizing benefits.
Marketers and politicians tend to be more verbose or descriptive and lean more on emotional
benefits than factual statements.
Texts can be produced for a specific business function inorder to ensure understanding from the
recipients. Examples of text for defined business environments:
i. Marketing of training products

It is a well known fact that there is a serious lack of fundamental skills for the
unemployed, school leavers, skilled and non- skilled; they all have to make a decision as
to what their next step is toward their future profession. We have identified a number of
areas of expertise that are the foundation of every individual to prepare them to achieve
those professional and personal goals. We have structured the courses so that they will
be exposed to various career opportunities thus empowering them to make more
educated decision as to their future professions.
We strive to maintain the highest quality and cost effective skills development methods
by sourcing our training material from highly qualified professionals, utilizing the latest
Information and training methods.
ii. Presenting the overview of a course
The Menzies Leadership Programme is a six module process and the training objectives
focus on giving the delegates an overview of management and leadership issues as well
as specific skills which they can use on their return to their workplace.
Learner guide 17
The workshop is participative throughout, with many group discussions, partnership or
syndicate exercises, role-plays and demonstrations. The facilitator's role is to explain
concepts, facilitate rigorous thought and keep delegates thinking in terms of specific
issues and actions, instead of vague generalisations.
I. Presentation on the assessment process
ELSA (English Literacy Skills Assessment) is a standardized RPL measuring instrument.

It is a measuring instrument that can quantify and diagnose. ELSA quantifies a
respondent's English literacy (and numeracy if required) skills performance, equating the
functioning level to that of a mother tongue user.In diagnosing, ELSA shows up an
individual's strengths and weaknesses in an English speaking work / training environment.
It is an audio / pencil and paper assessment and takes approximately one and a half
hours to perform. It is a group test (20 delegates per session).
LEARNING ACTIVITY
Identify and explain the type of text that is used by different departments in your organisation.
Learner guide 18
1.7 SELECTING THE NARRATIVE VOICE (SO 1, AC 3)
Before writers can share their stories, they have to decide the narrative voice that shall be
used:
The First Person

A story written in the first person is told by an "I," where "I" can be the main character, a less
important character witnessing events, or a person retelling a story they were told by
someone else. This point of view is often effective in giving a sense of closeness to the
character. It can be very easy to get the reader to identify or sympathize with your main
character when the reader is seeing everything through that character's eyes.
There are some important things to consider when writing in first person, though. First of all,
you need to decide how this story is being told. Is the character writing it down? Telling it out
loud? Thinking it to their self? And if they are writing it down, is it something meant to be
read by the public? Or is it a private diary? A story meant for one other person? The way the
first person narrator is relating the story will affect how you write it, the language you choose,
the length of your sentences, your tone of voice and many other things. The reader should
have at least some sense of this as well. The way they interpret a story could be very
different if it is told as a secret diary or if it is a public statement.
Another aspect to think about is how much time has elapsed between when the character
experienced the events of the story and when they decided to tell them. If only a few days
have passed, the story could be related very differently than if the character was reflecting
on events of the distant past. Also think about why the character is telling the story. What is
their motivation? Are they just trying to clear up events for their own peace of mind? Make a
confession about a wrong they did? Or tell a good adventure tale to their beer-guzzling
friends? The reason why a story is told will also affect how it is written, and you at least
should know the answer, even if it never makes its way into the text. And not only Why? but
Why now?
A first person narrative is often more effective when it is a first person narrator telling
someone else's story (in other words, when the narrator is not the main character). This
allows a certain distance between the narrator and the events which is impossible for the
main character. On the other hand, the inability to see the bigger picture can sometimes be
exploited to good effect. Whether or not your narrator is actually telling the truth is another
big question (and one your readers will ask, so you'd best think about it, too).
First Person Protagonist: For this point of view, a character relates events that occurred to
them; the "I" is the main character, telling her or his own story.
Project communication: learner guide 19

I missed the bus that morning because I couldn't convince myself to get out of bed. It was
just too cosy under the comforter, with the cat curled up next to me. I was going to have to
walk all the way to work.
First Person Witness: The story of the main character is told by another character
observing the events.
She missed the bus. She'd probably spent an hour arguing with herself that she really
should get up. I could picture her there, curled up in bed with the cat next to her. Now she
was going to have to walk to work.
First Person Re-teller: The story is told, not by a witness to the events, but by someone
who has heard the story from yet another person.
She missed the bus. I don't know why; probably couldn't get out of bed. You know how warm it gets when you're all curled up in the
blankets. She had a cat, too, and somehow a cat makes it harder to get up in the morning. So she missed the bus, and would have to
walk all the way to work.
The Second Person
In second person, the narrator addresses the protagonist as "you." Often, this kind of story
has the narrator speaking to a younger version of their self. This point of view is very rare
because it is extremely difficult to pull off. The reader may feel that they are the one spoken
to, and will find it difficult to accept that they are doing the things the narrator tells them they
are doing. If you choose to tell a story in second person, it is very important to make it clear
to the reader who is being addressed, so they can trust in the teller and accept the story as
given.
You missed the bus again because you just couldn't convince yourself to get out of bed. The comforter made a cosy nest around you,
and there was the cat, a warm ball of fur curled next to you. So you had to walk all the way to work.
The Third Person
Characters are referred to as "he" and "she" in third person. In this case the narrator (who
may be indistinguishable from the author) is not a character in the story. Depending on the
type of third person point of view, the narrator may know -- and be able to tell about -- the
thoughts and feelings of all characters, or only one character, or they may only be able to
report what is seen or heard.
Sometimes a third person narrator requires the reader to accept the narrator's authority,
which they may be hesitant to do. Just because a narrator sounds like they know it all,
doesn't mean they do. This may be why the first person point of view has become more and

more popular -- it can be harder to get the reader to identify with a nameless, third person
teller. However, third person narration is very flexible and should not be discarded without
thought. It is still the most common point of view, and for good reason.
When a writer is turning personal experiences into fiction, it is often easier to write in third
person (even if they intend to put the final draft in first person). This is because the third
person distances the reader (and the writer) from events. It is easier to write about personal
things when you write as if they are happening to someone else. It is also easier to change
events -- often necessary to turn reality into fiction -- when you aren't claiming that it was you
who experienced them.
Third Person Omniscient: The narrator knows everything; all thoughts, feelings, and
actions may be related to the reader (or they may be withheld).
She missed the bus. She spent nearly an hour arguing with herself about getting up. You have to be awake now, it's a work day. But it's
so warm. Just a few more minutes. You'll be late. I don't care. Yes you do. Curled up there with the cat, it was so hard to move, so warm
and cosy. And so she missed the bus, and swore, and told herself how stupid she was. Then she started the long walk to work.
Third Person Objective: The narrator can only relate to the reader what is seen or heard. A
good writer can tell a completely objective story in such a way that the reader is able to
determine the feelings and sometimes even the thoughts of the characters through what
those characters say and do, even though the thoughts and feelings are never described.
She arrived panting at the bus stop when the bus was already long gone. She looked at her watch and swore. "Damn warm blankets,"
she said. "Damn warm, purring cat." She sighed and walked along the sidewalk in the direction of her office building.
Third Person Limited: The narrator is able to see into the mind of a single character.
Sometimes the point of view may zoom in so close to that character that the narrator begins
to use that character's manner of speech and thought, and sometimes the narrator may step
back to take a more objective view. This point of view is sort of the "default" in fiction -- it is
the most common because it can be used the most effectively in the majority of situations. If
there is no reason not to use a third person limited point of view, then it is probably the best
choice (but you will find it useful to experiment before choosing the point of view for any
given story; third person limited may often work, but it isn't always the best point of view.
Don't be afraid to use other points of view, just make sure you have a reason for your
choice). In longer forms like novels, third person limited can be made even more effective by
changing the character that the point of view is limited to. You must always be sure the
reader knows when you have switched points of view and who you have changed to,
however. If you are going to use shifting third person points of view, it is often best to change
at a chapter or section break, at least until you are proficient enough at it that you won't lose
your reader.

She arrived panting at the bus stop only to see a far-off glimpse of the back of the bus, moving quickly away. She glanced at her watch.
It was already half past eight. "Damn warm blankets," she said, thinking of how it had felt to be curled up and warm in bed. She had
argued with herself for an hour about how she should get going. She had stayed in bed so long she didn't even have time for a shower,
and now she'd missed the bus. It was the warm cat curled up next to her that had made it so hard to get out of bed. "Damn warm,
purring cat," she said, and headed along the sidewalk to work.
Whose Voice?
Now that you've seen the possibilities for who tells the story, what about how it's told?
Narrative voice is not exactly the same thing as the writer's voice (as in "You need to find
your voice"), though it can be. Narrative voice is another layer on the way a story is told. If
you are writing in first person, for example, the narrative voice is the narrator's voice (which
means it is not the voice of the writer, but the voice of a character) and involves the
narrator's manner of speaking, word choice, dialect and so on. A third person story can also
make use of a voice that is not the writer's -- even though the narrator is not a character in
the sense that they participate in the story, they can be a character in the sense that they
are not the writer.
Tone
Tone of voice is something you'll have whether you use your natural voice or an adopted
voice. It reflects an attitude towards events and the world in general, and will affect the
reader's perceptions of the work. If you recognize how you feel about what you are writing,
you will be able to exploit those feelings and that tone to add to your writing.
Experiment with point of view and narrative voice to see what things you can do with them.
Finding the right point of view and the right voice for each individual piece of fiction is vital.
Getting one of them wrong can result in a story that just doesn't quite work.

1. 8 CREATION OF A CHECKLIST (SO 4, AC 1)
A writer can use a checklist as a tool to assist him or her to facilitate and edit the text that he/
she is writing or shall write in the future.
DEFINITION OF A CHECKLIST
A checklist is a type of informational job aid used to reduce failure by compensating for
potential limits of human memory and attention. A basic example is the "to do list."
A checklist
 Helps to ensure consistency and completeness when writing a document.
 Serves as a reminder to the writer to prevent him or her from forgetting parts of the
texts to be included
EXAMPLE
BASIC CHECKLIST FOR PLANNING TO WRITE A DOCUMENT
THE THREE FOCUS QUESTIONS

1 e.g. Do I have enough information about who the “audience” is
that I am writing to
2
3
4
IDENTIFYING THE TEXT THAT IS MOST SUITABLE
5
6
7
8
IDENTIFYING AND APPLYING STANDARDS AND REQUIREMENTS
9
10
11
12
13
14

1.9 TIME MANAGEMENT IN PLANNING (SO 1, AC 1)
Time management is very important when preparing and planning to write a document. The
writer must remember to do the following inorder to effectively manage his or her time;
Have a to do list
You should have a reminder system to tell you of when you need to do what: don't try to
remember everything in your head as this is a recipe for disaster! Carry a pen and paper or
organiser wherever you go. At the simplest level your reminder system could simply be to
use your diary to write down the things you need to do, including appointments and
deadlines.
Setting Goals
Set yourself specific and clearly defined goals, and make sure that these are realistic and
achievable. To do this, you first need to examine your present situation and assess what
goals are important to you and what action you need to take to achieve your target. Have a
contingency plan or alternative route to your goal in case you have to change your plans.
Prioritising
Efficiency and effectiveness are not the same. Someone who works hard and is well
organised but spends all their time on unimportant tasks may be efficient but not effective.
To be effective, you need to decide what tasks are urgent and important and to focus on
these. This is called prioritising. It's important to list the tasks you have and to sort these in
order of priority, and then to devote most time to the most important tasks. This avoids the
natural tendency to concentrate on the simple, easy tasks and to allow too many
interruptions to your work.
Differentiate also between urgent and important tasks: an urgent task may not necessarily
be important!
Breaking down tasks

Break goals down into their components so that you can accomplish them one step at a
time. Write these steps down, and try to be as specific as you can when you do this. Try to
complete one task before you go on to the next. Reward yourself for achieving these
goals to maintain your enthusiasm.. Regularly review your progress towards your goals and
revise plans as appropriate to take account of unforeseen changes.

SECTION 2: DETERMIMNG THE FORMATS,
LANGUAGE AND STRUCTURE OF A DOCUMENT
Specific Outcome
On completion of this section you will be able to Use appropriate
language conventions, textual features and style for specific
workplace purposes.
Assessment Criteria
 Conventions common to a specific workplace are used
appropriately. (SO 3 AC1)
 Textual features and style enhance the message and/or
purpose. (SO 3, AC 3)
 Techniques used in the presentation are appropriate and
effective. (SO 2 AC5)
 Terminology specific to a particular business function is
applied. (SO 3, AC 2)

2.1 INTRODUCTION (SO 2, AC 5)
The format and structure of the document must be determined before writing a document.
Remember, the format and the structure is determined by the objective of communication
and the audience.
We shall now look at some formats and layouts of certain business documents;
2.1.1 BUSINESS LETTERS:
Letters are a popular form of written communication in business. They are used both
internally and externally. As business letters reflect the image of an organisation, they should
be positive and professional. A single mistake on a business letter will spoil the entire letter.
A letter must be planned and written in the right layout.
Business letter layout

The table below shows a template of a business letter.
Writer’s address
Date
Receiver’s designation in company

Receiver’s address
Salutation (no punctuation)
Subject Line
INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH Open by referring to a previous letter, or an incident that

gave rise to this letter. Factual information regarding why you are writing.
BODY This is the main theme of the letter. It should contain the required information and
supporting details. Each issue must have its own paragraph.
CLOSING PARAGRAPH The closing paragraph ends the letter courteously and looks
forward to a response, or suggests some action.
CLOSE (no punctuation)
Signature of writer
Title and name of writer
Writer’s position in the company
Enclosures: #

General Rules
The following are the key rules to be followed when writing a business letter
Rule 1 – The sender’s address

The sender’s address must be written:
 On the top left-hand side
 Without punctuation
 In block form
 Use Box 122, not PO Box 122
 Include a postal code
 Do not write the address if you are printing the letter on a pre-printed company
letterhead.
Rule 2 – The date

The date can be written:
 On the right-hand side or the left-hand side
 In the form “day month year”- the month is never written as a number
Rule 3 – The receiver’s designation

The receiver’s designation (position) in the company may be written:
 On the left-hand side
 Above his address
 Example: The personnel manager
 Note a rule – only used if needed
Rule 4 – The receiver’s address

The receiver’s address must be written:
 On the left-hand side
 In block form
 Use Box 122, not PO Box 122
 Include a postal code
Rule 5 – Addressing the receiver

The receiver should be addressed:
 Address the letter to a specific individual using his/her name or title
 If you have an informal relationship with the receiver:

o Dear Mike
o Only use Dear if you have established a good relationship with the person

 If you have a formal relationship with the receiver:
o Ms Bell or Mr Jones
o Use this if you are unacquainted
 If you do not know the name of the receiver:

o Sir is used to address a letter to an individual
o Madam is used only if you are sure that the receiver is female
o Sirs is used if you are writing to a company or a partnership
 If you are writing to a group of people:

 Use a title that describes how they are connected to the content of the letter.
 Examples: Board of Directors, Investors, Students
 Note that the words must start with a capital letter
Rule 6 – The subject line

The letter must have a subject line (heading):
 Describe the subject of the letter
 Must be underlined
 Must not have “Re” (no longer used in modern letter writing)
Rule 7 – Signing off

The words that you use to sign off a letter depend on how formal the letter is and how you
have addressed the receiver.
 An informal letter should be signed off informally = Regards
 If you have addressed the receiver by name = Yours sincerely
 Receiver addressed with the words Sir / Ms Smith = Yours faithfully
Rule 8 – The sender’s signature

 The sender signs his/her name below the closing phrase
 The sender’s name is typed under the signature
 Include (Ms) for a female sender
 If applicable, the sender’s position in the company should be printed under the
name
2.1.2 BUSINESS MEMO

Business memos are a piece of interoffice correspondence sent between employees in a
company or between company subsidiaries to transmit ideas, decisions, requests or
announcements. They are more private and more formal than emails but less formal than
letters. They can also be compared to reports, but very short ones.

There are two types of memos. That is;
 The more formal memorandum which employs schematic presentation and which
resembles a report
 A simpler type of document which is sent to those concerned to remind of, or introduce,
certain arrangements.
a) Formal Memo:
The formal memo has a set structure and would be specific to the organisation. Find an
example from your communications or HR department.
Memorandum
Date: 5 June 2004 My Ref: Mem06/04

To: Peter More From: James Foxs Department:
Marketing
Leadership Development Programme
The Leadership Development Programme for you and your staff has been arranged for 22-24
July 2004.
The workshop will be held at the Striving Mind Conference Centre, West Street, Kempton Park ,
Johannesburg, from 08h30 to 16h00. Lunch and refreshments will be provided.
Should you require any further information, please contact me on extension 1234.
b) The Less Formal Memo

It makes only certain facts known. Such memos should not be signed (or need not be
signed).
From: Training coordinator
To: Managing director

Office Manager
Course Members (us under)
John Jacks, Administration
Paul Nyathi, Finance
The Principal, Topnotch Training College
Subject: Foreign Language Course - French

Date: 4 February 2011
Arrangements have been made with the Principal of Topnotch Training College to provide an
intensive French course for executives of the company on company premises.
Details are as follows:

Starting Date: Monday, 25 February 2011
Duration: 2 Days
Time: 08h30 to 16h30
Venue: Main Training Room, Head Office
The following delegates have indicated their intention to attend:

Mr. J.Van hoff
Ms R. Molefe
Memo Format and Layout

Standard memos are divided into segments to organise the information and to help achieve
the writer's purpose. These segments include;
 Heading segment
 Opening segment
 Summary segment
 Discussion segment
 Closing segment
1. Heading Segment
TO: (readers' names and job titles)
FROM: (your name and job title)
DATE: (complete and current date)
SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)
 Make sure you address the reader by his or her correct name and job title. You might
call the company president "Maxi" on the golf course or in an informal note, but "Rita
Maxwell, President" would be more appropriate for a formal memo.
 Be specific and concise in your subject line. For example, "Rats" as a subject line
could mean anything from a production problem to a personal frustration. Instead use
something like, "Curtailing Rat Extremity Parts in our Product."
 Getting your memo read depends on a punchy subject line and concise message.

2. Opening Segment
The purpose of a memo is usually found in the opening paragraphs and is presented in three
parts: the context and problem, the specific assignment or task, and the purpose of the
memo.
 The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the problem you are solving.
You may use a paragraph to establish the background and state the problem or simply
the opening of a sentence, such as, "In our effort to reduce rat parts in our product...."
Include only what your reader needs, but be sure it is clear.
 In the task statement you should describe what you are doing to help solve the
problem. If the action was requested, your task may be indicated by a sentence
opening like, "You asked that I look at...." If you want to explain your intentions, you
might say, "To determine the best method of controlling the percentage of rat
extremities, I will...."
 Include only as much information as is needed by the decision-makers in the context,

but be convincing that a real problem exists. Do no ramble on with insignificant details.
 If you are having trouble putting the task into words, consider whether you have
clarified the situation. You may need to do more planning before you're ready to write
your memo.
 Make sure your purpose-statement forecast divides your subject into the most
important topics that the decision-maker needs.
3. Summary Segment
If your memo is longer than a page, you may want to include a separate summary segment.
This segment provides a brief statement of the key recommendations you have reached.
These will help your reader understand the key points of the memo immediately. This
segment may also include references to methods and sources you have used in your
research, but remember to keep it brief.
 You may want to wait until after the report is drafted and all conclusions and
recommendations have been decided before writing the summary.
4. Discussion Segments
The discussion segments are the parts in which you get to include all the juicy details that
support your ideas.
 Begin with the information that is most important. This may mean that you will start
with key findings or recommendations.

 Here you want to think of an inverted pyramid. Start with your most general information
and move to your specific or supporting facts. (Be sure to use the same format when
including details: strongest--->weakest.)
 For easy reading, put important points or details into lists rather than paragraphs when
possible.
5. Closing Segment
After the reader has absorbed all of your information, you want to close with a courteous
ending that states what action you want your reader to take. Make sure you consider how
the reader will benefit from the desired actions and how you can make those actions easier.
 For example, you might say, "I will be glad to discuss this recommendation with you
during our Tuesday trip to the spa and follow through on any decisions you make."
2.1.3 MEETING AGENDA

Whether a meeting is formal or informal, an agenda must be set and adhered to if the
meeting is to run smoothly. The agenda must be constructed to meet the needs of the
meeting and the agenda items must be selected in order that the important issues will be
addressed.
The agenda must be arranged in a systematic and logical way so that the meeting has a
distinct beginning, middle and end. Below is a sample of an agenda.
Facilities and administration Committee

29 August 2007, 3.30pm, Meeting room 3
Agenda
Apologies
1. Administration
2. Minutes of the previous meeting
3. matters arising
4. reports
5. visit of David Smith
6. Smoking room
7. Canteen
8. Post delivery
9. Any other business
10. Date of next meeting
2.1.4 REPORTS

Communication in business or projects can be done using reports. A business report is a
formal document in which a summary is given of fact, progress, investigation or enquiries.
Reports are used internally to give feedback on the progress of any task that may have been
delegated. They have a standard format but are more detailed. Let’s look at the format of the
following reports.
1. Progress Reports:
The following refers to any routine progress report: monthly, bimonthly, quarterly, bi-annual
or annual. A progress report is different from a situation report (sitrep) in that a sitrep merely
states what has happened and what was done about it during the reporting period. A
progress report, in contrast, relates activities to objectives.
Design your report with two major headings:
(a) Activities, and
(b) Results,
A good progress report is not merely a descriptive activity report, but must analyse the
results of those reported activities. The analysis should answer the question, "How far have
the work objectives been reached?"
Progress reports
Background
Activities completed
· Final against plan (data)
· Learning to be shared
Activities in process
· Status against plan (data)
· Issues/concerns
Recommendations/implications/conclusions
2. Financial reporting
As well as narrative reporting, there is the financial reporting. A detailed monthly financial
report should include
a) what moneys were received and from where,
b) what moneys were expended, listed line by line according to the budget categories in
the proposal,
c) reasons for over- or under- spending, and
d) An assessment of how well the expenditures contributed to reaching the stated
objectives of the project.

3. Field trip report
While you can mention or list field trips in your monthly report, all major field trips should be
reported in separate field trip reports.
A field trip should have
a) A purpose, so your report on the trip should begin with indicating what was the
purpose of the trip. The purpose should justify making the trip, even if you fail to
achieve what you set out to do on the trip. The purpose should directly relate to at
least one of the objectives of the project, as listed in the project document.
b) Technical details, of course, can be listed in any orderly fashion, dates and locations
of the travel, persons met (with their titles, agencies' names, times of meeting,
venue, and so on), sites seen, meetings attended. Make your list easy to read, easy
to understand, and brief but complete.
A field trip report should emphasize the results of that trip.

 Did you achieve your purpose?
 To what extent?
 Why?
 What unexpected observations did you make?
 What consequences do those observations have?
 Have you observed indicators of any results of previous projected activities?
 Should any project objectives be modified from what you observed? Did you identify
any new problems?
 Did you come to any new conclusions, alone or in discussion with some of the
persons you met or meetings you attended?
NB. Ensure that you report on the extent to which you achieved the purpose of your trip.
4. Workshop reports
The report should not be a list of activities that took place but,
a) Each report should be analytical, and focus on the result of the activities that took
place, and
b) How far they reached the objectives of the workshop.

As with all reports, such reports should not end with a list of activities, but indicate the results
of those activities (the degree to which the desired ends are reached) and with lessons
learned (about holding a workshop, not the lessons included in the workshop, which are in
this case activities).

2.2 STRUCTURE OF A DOCUMENT
Documents must be written in a structure that suits the reader and enhances their
understanding. Remember the following about the structure of documents;
1. Beginning Your Document:
A document that is going to be read must start with a "grabber." A boring beginning is
guaranteed to ensure the reader will not continue reading. It should start with an outrageous
statement, or a fascinating question. Or it could be something that the reader will skim, and
then whose interest will be piqued. In the right context, a joke can be used, if it is
appropriate.
In our field, a problem in the community, and a community approach to solving the
problem(s), is a source of plenty of available grabber topics.
Perhaps you can start with an amazing bit of statistics: eg how many people in the area are
ill or dying, compared to other ones? How many young people know exactly how to prevent
getting AIDS yet go out and practice unsafe sex? Grab the interest of the reader. Get her or
him interested in reading more.
2. Middle:
Once you get the attention of the reader, it is important to keep it. A very good way is to have
an argument. This is not a quarrel. It is a set of statements that link to each other and that
lead the reader from one point to another.
Keep your sentences simple, short, standard, complete and using the active voice. Avoid
notes and point forms in non sentences.
I prefer also using short paragraphs, and putting many subtitles in a document, indicating a
new topic each time. Without talking down to the reader, make it easy for the reader to see
your layout and design, as well as the content.
3. The End of the Document:
All the topics you include should lead to a conclusion. The conclusion should conclude.
Make the reader happy that s/he has read the document; and feels completed, satisfied,
sure. Remember that when you hand it out, the attention of the participants will be drawn

away from you as speaker. Either give them time to read the document without trying to
discuss another topic, or paraphrase the document verbally to accompany their reading.
Logical structure
By logical structure is meant the natural unfolding of a story as the reader progresses
through the document. This is achieved by going from the general to the specific, with the
background material preceding the technical expose, which should lead logically to the
conclusions. Consider a good joke. It has the structure as shown in Fig.1:
Figure 1: Joke structure
In our case, the punch line is the set of conclusions. Everything should support the
conclusions and naturally lead up to them. Remember this when constructing your contents
list! A typical technical report has the following progression:
Figure 2: Report structure

2.3 SENTENCE STRUCTURE (SO 2, AC 3)
Apart from structuring a document, the writer must also know the structuring of sentences.
There are basically four types of sentences:
 Simple
 Compound
 Complex
 Compound – Complex.
This has nothing to do with sentence length; rather these sentence types are created by the
use of transition words (or the lack of transition words).
1. Simple Sentence
This type of sentence type is the simple and basic sentence which is very easy to interpret
its meaning. It is vital to keep simple sentence short such that they retain the intended
meaning. The following are examples:
a. Bob went to the store.
b. Bob and Sue went to the store.
c. Bob and Sue went to the store on the corner near the centre of town to buy groceries
and to get some drinks for the party.
d. Bob went to the store and went to the Post Office.
These sentences can be long, but when they are very long they tend to be difficult to read. It
is imperative to keep these sentences brief.
2. Compound sentences
These are two complete sentences joined with a conjunction “and,” “but,” “or,” “so,” “yet,”
and “for.”. The following are the examples:
a) Bob went to the store, and Sue went to the office
b) The negotiations were successful, so the diplomats returned to their homes
c) We can go to party, or we can go to the dance
Note: Words using conjuncts – see Transition words – bottom of the page are a kind of
compound sentence. The negotiations ended successfully; therefore, the fighting stopped.
3. Complex sentences.
The sentences use subordinators. E.g. because the problem proved difficult, they decided to
from a committee.

4. Compound –Complex Sentences.
These sentences use a conjunction and a subordinator. The proposal that we wrote was
accepted, and we started the project. The proposal that we wrote was accepted, and we
started the project.
SENTENCE LENGTHS
A subtle, but very effective way, to make your writing deadly and monotonous is by never
varying sentence length. One short sentence after another makes your prose sound choppy
and childish. Conversely, all "long" sentences can make your writing hard to read. However,
using all "medium"-length sentences doesn't work, either. Sentences that are all about the
same length (and often follow the same grammatical pattern) create monotony.
A longer sentence serves to offer more details, to focus in, to probe an idea more
thoroughly, or--perhaps--to present a powerful description. A short sentence gets to the
point. To analyze your own writing, you first need to find out your ANW/S (average number
of words per sentence; I just made that term up :).
1) Take an essay that represents your normal writing (e.g., one with a great deal of dialogue
or an unusual amount of description could skew the results) and mark off twenty sentences.
2) Count the number of words in each sentence and then add those totals to get a grand
total.
3) Divide the grand total by 20. Your result will be the average number of words per
sentence
In general this type of analysis is not easy but can be learnt. An average sentence length
below 14 words per sentence may indicate that you use too many short sentences and you
need to learn how to combine and/or subordinate ideas. If your average sentence length is
well above 22 words a sentence, you may be piling too much freight on your sentences and
have a prose style that is dense and tangled. If your average word length falls between 14
and 22, you need to look at your sentences to see if there is some variety or if they are all
about the same length.
Should you decide your sentences are just spiffy the way they are, don't get too smug.
Hearing the "rhythm" of your sentences, knowing when to use a longer sentence or a shorter
one, and knowing when to vary the pattern of a sentence is a "work-in-progress" for most of
us. Effective sentence style doesn't just happen. It takes work.

Sentence combining and subordination are two methods to fix short-sentence-itis. Sentence
combining is just what it sounds like. Often, a series of short sentences can be combined
into a longer, more effective sentence.
PARAGRAPHS
Paragraphs are the building blocks of your correspondence. A paragraph discusses one idea
in detail and aids the development of an overall topic. Paragraph lengths will vary depending
on the purpose of the paragraph.
Parts of a Paragraph
The basic paragraph consists of three parts: a topic sentence, supporting details, and a
concluding sentence. This basic paragraph format will help you to write and organise a
paragraph and make each paragraph lead to the next.
1. Topic Sentence
The main idea of each paragraph is stated in a topic sentence that shows how the idea
relates to the thesis or overall focus of the correspondence. Generally, the topic sentence is
the first sentence of a paragraph. All subsequent points made in the paragraphs should
support the topic sentence.
2. Supporting Details
Supporting details elaborate upon and prove the topic sentence. Supporting details should
be drawn from a variety of sources and based on research, experiences, etc. plus the
writer's own analysis. Using a combination of different supports is the most common and
effective way to strengthen a paragraph.
The following are common ways to provide supporting details:

 Expert Opinion
 Facts and Statistics
 Personal Experience
 Others' Experiences
 Research Studies
 Brief Stories
 Journal Entries
 Personal Analysis
 Interviews
 Metaphors

3. Concluding Sentence
Each paragraph could end with a final statement that ties together the ideas brought up in
the paragraph and emphasizes the main idea one last time. If the assignment is longer, it
should transition to the ideas of the next paragraph.
Example Paragraph
Maintaining a healthy lifestyle requires eating a nutritious diet and getting regular exercise. A
nutritious diet includes eating a variety of foods from each of the four food groups: fruits and
vegetables, meat, dairy and grains. Regular exercise is also an essential part of keeping a
healthy lifestyle. Most experts recommend exercising at least thirty minutes a day, six days a
week. These two aspects, eating a healthy diet and exercising on a regular basis, will
maintain a healthy lifestyle.
 Topic Sentence
 Supporting Detail #2
 Concluding Sentence

2.4 TEXTUAL FEATURES AND CONVENTIONS (SO 3, AC 1, AC 2,AC 3)
Before writing text, a writer must understand textual features and conventions. It must be
noted that textual features and conventions vary in terms of context of the text. Let’s define
the two terms textual features and conventions.
II. Textual features: are the elements of a text that constructs a specific meaning or
message. The textual features vary depending on the type of text and the primary
intention for which the text was produced. Examples of textual features include;
 Table of contents
 Index
 Pictures
 Headings and titles
 Use of colour
 Size of print
 Labels and captions
 Diagrams and graphs
 Charts and maps
III. Writing conventions: include spelling, punctuation, jargon, capitalization, grammar,

and paragraphing used by the writer. The writer should use conventions to enhance
the readability of the paper. Spelling should be correct on all words. Punctuation
should be smooth and guide the reader through the paper. Capitalization should be
used correctly. Paragraphing should reinforce organization. The writer may
manipulate conventions for effect.
As discussed earlier on, different business functions correspond in the same way. The same
applies to terminology and conventions. That is, each field or business sector uses the same
terminology to make it easy to communicate with stakeholders.
Example 1: Assume an underwriter is writing a letter to an insurance client. The following

terminology can be evident
After carrying out a risk assessment on your property in Midrand Johannesburg, our team
of assessors recommended that for your premiums to be reduced by 20% the following

must be done;
 A night watch man must be on the premises everyday.
 Fire extinguishers must be properly maintained.
 Claims experience must be reduced by 30%
Example 2: Assume a lawyer is defending her client in court, who is accused of stealing.
The following terminology can be evident
After cross examining the witness brought to the stand their accounts were prima facie shallow
and thus cannot be taken as submissive evidence.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
Identify and explain the terminology used in your organisation or industry

SECTION 3: CREATING A FIRST DRAFT DOCUMENT
Specific Outcome
On completion of this section you will be able to access, process, re-
organise, and synthesise information in order to present it.
Assessment Criteria
 Topic sentences clearly state the main idea of a paragraph
and be relevant to the text as a whole. (SO 2, AC 3)
 Information and explicit ideas from more than one source are
consolidated into a coherent and cohesive, synthesised
text. (SO 2, AC 4)
Written communication: learner guide 43

3.1 INTRODUCTION
When writing documents, one must first prepare a draft document before writing the final document.
A draft also describes the product the writer creates in the initial stages of the writing process. In the
drafting enables the writer to;
• develop a more cohesive text

• organize thoughts
• explain examples/ideas
• uncover transitions
• discover a central argument/point
• elaborate on key ideas
Before writing the first draft of any document, the writer must always begin by formulating the topic
sentence, before developing the outline.
3.1.1 FORMULATING YOUR TOPIC SENTENCE (SO 2, AC 3)

The topic sentence states your main point. It is important to always have a topic sentence. Newspapers
demonstrate this principle exceptionally well. E.g. "Mr Smith was sentenced to five years' imprisonment
today. Although Mr Smith's lawyer presented his client's case confidently, the judge was not convinced
of his innocence. Judge Mofokeng warned that white collar crime would not be tolerated in South
African society."
Develop an outline
Outlines help you organize all the information you have gathered. For a formal outline, use Roman
numerals, letters, and numbers to organize your ideas.
Below is an illustration;
Title: The Importance of a Longer Lunch Hour

Topic sentence: A longer lunch hour improves health, productivity, and relationships.
I. A longer spring break improves health

A. Reduce stress
1. Relax
2. Meditate
3. Breathe
B. Exercise

1. Outdoor activities
2. Community activities
3. Time at the gym
II. A longer lunch hour improves productivity
A. Catch up on personal chores
1. Read
2. File
3. Get ahead
B. Rejuvenate
1. Refresh
2. Refocus
3. Regain perspective
III. A longer lunch hour improves relationships
A. Fetch children from school
Time to travel home safely
Stay for longer
Spend more time with children
B. Visit colleagues
Go on an outing together
Get together for lunch 3 Network
You are now ready to write your first draft!
3.1.2 WRITING THE FIRST DRAFT
Once your plan is complete, you can start to write. If you are struggling with a difficult introduction, go
back to it once you have completed everything else. Sometimes, with all the other text complete, it will
fall into place. Make sure that you follow a logical train of thought and that the end result is flowing text.
Make long texts easier to download by breaking up the information with headings, numbers or bullets.
Take note of the following;
a) Paragraphs

Paragraphs are the building blocks of your correspondence. A paragraph discusses one idea in detail
and aids the development of an overall topic. Paragraph lengths will vary depending on the purpose of
the paragraph.
b) Parts Of A Paragraph
The basic paragraph consists of three parts: a topic sentence, supporting details, and a concluding
sentence. This basic paragraph format will help you to write and organize a paragraph and make each
paragraph lead to the next.
c) Topic Sentence
The main idea of each paragraph is stated in a topic sentence that shows how the idea relates to the
thesis or overall focus of the correspondence. Generally, the topic sentence is the first sentence of a
paragraph. All subsequent points made in the paragraphs should support the topic sentence.
d) Supporting Details
Supporting details elaborate upon and prove the topic sentence. Supporting details should be drawn
from a variety of sources and based on research, experiences, etc. plus the writer's own analysis. Using
a combination of different supports is the most common and effective way to strengthen a paragraph.
The following are common ways to provide supporting details:
• Expert Opinion
• Facts and Statistics
• Personal Experience
• Others' Experiences
• Research Studies
• Brief Stories
• Journal Entries
• Personal Analysis
• Interviews
• Metaphor
e) Concluding Sentence
Each paragraph could end with a final statement that ties together the ideas brought up in the paragraph
and emphasizes the main idea one last time. If the assignment is longer, it should transition to the ideas
of the next paragraph.
Example Paragraph

Maintaining a healthy lifestyle requires eating a nutritious diet and getting regular exercise. A nutritious
diet includes eating a variety of foods from each of the four food groups: fruits and vegetables, meat,
dairy and grains. Regular exercise is also an essential part of keeping a healthy lifestyle. Most experts
recommend exercising at least thirty minutes a day, six days a week. These two aspects, eating a
healthy diet and exercising on a regular basis, will maintain a healthy lifestyle.
Identify;
 Topic Sentence
 Concluding Sentence
f) Sentences
Sentence lengths should vary, but should seldom exceed 20 words. They can be reduced by not using
adverbs and adjectives unless they add value to the text. Objectives are often easier to understand if you
use shorter sentences. When you write succinctly, your reader has a better chance of understanding
what the objective of the communication is. So write concisely and get to the point. Avoid the repetition
of words at the beginning of sentences, making a conscious effort to start each sentence in a different
way.
Suggest an alternative for "I have accepted the position that I was offered. I am excited about the new
venture. I think it is going to be challenging and I am hoping to make a success of it. I cannot wait to
start."
Remember the following;

 Use transitions, or repeat key words to move smoothly between sentences and
show how they relate.
 When listing ideas of the same relative importance, use parallel structure.
Example;
NON-PARALLEL: My responsibilities include evaluation, drafting proposals, and to prepare budgets.

PARALLEL: My responsibilities include writing evaluations, drafting proposals and preparing budgets.

 Emphasize the main idea within a sentence by placing it in the main clause. In each of
the following examples, the subordinating conjunction although introduces the first group
of words, making them a dependent clause (group of words with a subject and verb that
could not be an independent sentence). The second group of words in each example is
not introduced by a subordinating conjunction, so it is the main clause, which receives
more emphasis.
EXAMPLE: Although she was extremely busy, Laura wrote the proposal.
EXAMPLE: Although Laura wrote the proposal, she was extremely busy
.
Written communication is a fundamental part of business. A well-worded document can make a positive
impression on your reader, whereas a poorly chosen word can negatively affect business relationships
and transactions. The following examples and general guidelines demonstrate important principles about
word choice in business writing.
PAIRED ACTIVITY
Why is it important to prepare a first draft when writing a document?
Take note

3.2 LOGICALLY SEQUENCING POINTS IN ARGUMENT (SO 2, AC 4)
When writing, your arguments must be logically and deliberately sequenced to build up a convincing
conclusion.
An argument is a reasoned, logical way of demonstrating that your position, belief, or conclusion is valid.
One purpose of argument is to persuade reasonable people to agree with your position. Another is
simply to defend your position, to establish its soundness even if others cannot be persuaded to agree.
A third purpose of argumentation is to attack some position you believe to be misguided, untrue, or evil,
without necessarily offering an alternative of your own. (You could, for example, attack the president's
budget without presenting your own version).
Although argument and persuasion are related, they are not the same. Persuasion--getting other people
to change their minds—is one purpose of argument but not the only one. And although argument, the
appeal to reason, is one means of persuasion, there are others: appeals to the audience's self-interest,
to their moral sense, or to their emotions. You could, for instance, use all three of these appeals to argue
against lowering the drinking age in your state from eighteen to sixteen years of age. Appealing to your
audience's self-interest, you could point out how an increased number of accidents involving drunk
drivers would cost taxpayers more money and could cost some of them their lives. You could state, if
you believed it to be true, that teenage drinking is morally wrong and should be condoned by the state.
And finally, you could appeal to your audience's emotions by telling a particularly sad story about a
sixteen-year-old alcoholic. All of these appeals are relevant and fair, and any of them might succeed.
What appeal you choose depends partly on the results you want to achieve as well as your perception of
your audience. However, there is also an ethical question involved: whether and when the end justifies
the means. Most people would agree that lies and threats are unacceptable means of persuasion
among rational people, yet they are commonly used in politics and nearly everyone resorts to them from
time to time. But it is unquestionably true that in college, and outside of it as well, the most acceptable
form of persuasion--arguably the only acceptable form--is argument, the appeal to reason.

SECTION 4: EDITING THE FIRST DRAFT DOCUMENT
Specific Outcome
On completion of this section you will be able to Draft and edit texts.
Assessment Criteria
 Texts are edited for coherence of ideas and relevance to the
focus. (SO 4 AC3)
 Drafts are checked for cohesion and redrafted where
necessary. (SO 4, AC 4)
 Workplace jargon is interpreted and rephrased in plain
language or used appropriately in the correct context when
the terminology is essential to the understanding of the
text. (SO 4, AC 5)

4.1 INTRODUCTION
With their manuscripts completed, many authors are overwhelmed with the abundance of options
available for perfecting, publishing, and marketing their work. At that point, one thing a writer doesn’t
want to overlook is good editing. After months or days of researching and crafting a piece, you don’t
want your readers preoccupied with errors and inconsistencies. Few readers purchase a book without
first reading a few pages.
Remember, a good cover and a catchy title will grab their attention, but clear, error-free writing will close
the sale. Silly mistakes lead the reader to believe that you’re an amateur writer or that your story isn’t
well developed. And ultimately, your book/written texts will be placed back on the shelf.
4.2 CHECKING THE FIRST DRAFT GRAMMAR ERRORS (SO 4, AC 4)
After the first draft has been written, it must be checked for grammar errors and where necessary
rewritten in plain language. "Grammar," which comes from Latin, means the scientific study of the form
and arrangement of words, phrases, and sentences. Every language has a grammar (even if that
language is not written); every language has its own patterns.
As a writer, one must keep these three straight: level, label, and function.
4.2.1 LEVEL
Language is made of sounds, words, phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, and even more complex
pieces (such as essays, chapters, and books). Each of these levels can be analyzed.
1. SOUNDS
Letters represent sounds. The English alphabet includes only five vowels (a, e, i, o, u), but the English
language has at least twelve vowels sounds. Consonants (the other letters) also represent sounds.
Linguists (language analyzers) can break these sounds into even smaller pieces. Examples of sounds:
m, n, t, ou, z
2. WORDS
When sounds are combined, words are created. Words can be labelled according to their function in a
phrase, clause, or sentence. Once its function is determined, a word can be labelled. Examples of
words: students, light, run, be, the

3. PHRASES
Phrases do not contain subjects and verbs. A phrase is incomplete in thought. Phrases (and parts of
phrases) can be labelled, as well. Examples of phrases: writing a letter broken by the fall through the
door around the corner to proofread a paper in a minute
CLAUSES
Clauses contain subjects and verbs. There are two kinds of clauses: independent and dependent.
Independent clauses can stand alone and can be called a "sentence." Dependent clauses cannot stand
alone, are not sentences, and can be labelled according to their function in sentences. Examples of
independent clauses: I'm tired.
The car is running.
Examples of dependent clauses: because I'm tired that is my excuse.
4.2.2 LABEL
Labels are given to the various levels according to their functions in context. As far as grammatical
labelling, we will be concerned with three levels only: word, phrase, and clause. The terms we will use
are commonly known as "parts of speech."
1. NOUNS
"Noun" means name. This label is given to the name of a person, place, thing, idea, or belief. Nouns are
often preceded by "the" or "a/an." Nouns answer the questions "Who?" and "What?"
They can be found on three levels:
 Word: The class went on a field trip to the zoo. (Who went? On a what? To the what?)
 Phrase: She enjoys playing baseball. (Enjoys what?)
 Clause: Whatever you want to do is fine with me. (What is fine?)
2. PRONOUNS
Pronouns take the place of nouns (which are called "antecedents" of pronouns). Therefore, pronouns
also answer the questions "Who?" and "What?" As diverse as they are, English pronouns are actually a
lot less complicated than they used to be, now that words like thou, thee, thy, and thine are not
commonly used. Pronouns are word level pieces even though they can be found in phrases and clauses.
Pronouns can be labelled according to the following:
 number (singular/plural): it/they
 gender (male/female): he/she
 case (subjective/objective/possessive/reflexive): he/him/his/himself
 person (first/second/third): I/you/he, she, it

 Also, pronouns can be divided into groups:
 Personal: I, you, he, she, it, they, we, etc.
 Indefinite: anybody, someone, each, everyone, etc.
 Interrogative: who? what? which? etc.
 relative: that, which, who, whom, whose
 demonstrative: this, that, these, those
3. ADJECTIVES
Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. Adjectives answer the questions "What kind?" "How many?"
"Whose?" "Which one?" They function as "modifiers" (change agents) in a sentence and can be labelled
on all three levels. (Note: In English, word level adjectives generally appear before the noun/pronoun,
and phrase or clause level adjectives appear after it.)
 Word level: Tommy pulled the red wagon down the street. (What kind of wagon?)
 Phrase level: A man with a beard came into the room. (Which man?)
 Clause level: All students whose cars are illegally parked will be ticketed. (Which students?)
4. VERBS
Verbs show physical or mental action of the subject. They may also reflect "state of being"; that is, the
subject just "is." The complete verb, along with its complements and modifiers, functions as the predicate
in a sentence. Verbs answer the questions "What is happening/has happened/will happen?" Verbs are
labelled primarily on the word level although many times verbs have compound parts (two-word verbs or
helpers). Any word that functions as action in a sentence is labelled a verb. Verbs are the parts that
show time change (tense). Examples of verbs:
 Marge will go with you.
 The baby has been crying for two hours.
 The coach sat and pondered the situation.
 It should have been done by now.
5. ADVERBS
Adverbs are modifiers (change agents) of verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They answer the
questions: "Where?" "Why?" "When?" "How?" "How much?" or "To what extent/degree?" Adjectives can
often be changed into adverbs if "-ly" is added to them. Adverbs can be found on all three levels.
 Word level: I'm leaving later. (When am I leaving?)
 Phrase level: Put the book on the table. (Where should you put it?)
 Clause level: Because she felt sick. Betty went home. (Why did she go home?)

4.2.3 FUNCTION
Outside of its context, a word cannot be accurately labelled. Even a word as simple as the cannot
always be labelled as an article. For example, "The is hard to pronounce for people learning English." In
this sentence, the is functioning as the subject; it is doing a noun thing, so it will be labelled a noun in
this sentence.
Also, consider the word "light":

 Turn on the light. (noun)
 I wish you wouldn't light your cigarette in here. (verb)
 The cake was light and fluffy. (adjective)
 His eyes were light blue. (adverb)
In other words, A WORD IS LABELLED BECAUSE OF ITS FUNCTION, not the other way around.
Failure to understand this principle is probably the primary cause of confusion for students of grammar.
Students usually know that the subject of a sentence must be a noun (or pronoun). However, they often
fall into the trap of calling every noun in a sentence the "subject." This is an all too common error. This
problem can be avoided if one understands functions within a sentence and realizes that labels are to be
attached accordingly. A WORD CAN HAVE ONLY ONE LABEL AT A TIME!
Functions of a noun:
A word, phrase, or clause is labelled a noun if it functions as one of the following:

1. Subject: who or what the sentence is about; who or what is doing the action
Equality under the law is guaranteed for all. (What is guaranteed?)
2. Direct Object: who or what receives the action of the verb
I never saw what was coming. (Never saw what?)
3. Indirect Object: who or what follows an implied "to" or "for"
The teacher gave Bill an A in the course. (Gave to whom?)
4. Object of the Preposition: answers "Who?" or "What?" after the preposition
I hung a picture on the wall. (On the what?)
LEARNING ACTIVITY
Can you read these correctly ... the first time?
1. The bandage was wound around the wound.

2. The farm was used to produce produce.
3. The landfill was so full, they had to refuse more refuse.
4. Please polish the Polish furniture.
5. He could be in the lead if he would get the lead out.
6. Since there is no time like the present, it is time to present the present.
7. A bass was painted on the head of the bass drum.
8. When shot at the dove dove into the bushes.
INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY
1. I shall write to them when I will have them.
2. We did not expect having met the mayor by this afternoon.
3. This is the best thing that have ever, or can, happen to us.
4. They would be happy if you have called them.
5. That information I would have given to anyone who ask for it.
6. We were hoping that you are successful.
7. He reports that he did have made very good progress.
8. The letters were sent out early, which my typist know is the best thing to do.
9. I did have returned two weeks ago.
10. You people had ought to be punctual.

4.3 CHECKING THE PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION AND COHERENCE ( SO 4, AC 3)
As text is being edited, the presentation of the information can be changed to enhance ease of
understanding and meaning of the text. Information can be presented in
 text,
 graphs,
 tables,
 flow charts and
 Diagrams.
Illustration:
The following is part of a draft report on the progress of a small business owners training workshops.
The much awaited small business training workshop began on the 1 of January 2010. In January
100 people were trained, February 50 were trained, March 70 were trained, and April 40 were
trained.
The following numerical information can be presented as follows;
I. Table
Month Number of trainees
January 100
February 50
March 70
April 40

II. Bar graph
120
100
80
60
Series1
40
20
0
January February March April
III. Line graph

120
100
80
60
Series1
40
20
0
January February March April

4.4 INTERPRETING TERMS AND JARGON (SO 4, AC 5)
To avoid misunderstanding when using technical jargon, all technical terms and jargons must be
interpreted correctly or reduced to plain language. Alternatively, a glossary section must be created to
define terms and jargon used in the document.
Example:
After carrying out a risk assessment on your property in Midrand Johannesburg, our team of
assessors recommended that for your premiums to be reduced by 20% the following must be
done;
 A night watch man must be on the premises everyday.
 Fire extinguishers must be properly maintained.
 Claims experience must be reduced by 30%
Since the above text contains technical insurance terms, they must be interpreted in a glossary section.
 Premium- amount that the policy holder must pay the insurance company for protection
against possible future losses.
 Assessors- are people who examine properties to have a better understanding about
them for insurance purposes.
 Claims experience- means the history of past losses
LEARNING ACTIVITY
Identify and interpret technical jargon used in your organisation.

4.5 CHECKING LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF A DRAFT
Like a musician composes music, so you need to put your text together. There needs to be a logical flow
of information from sentence to sentence and paragraph to paragraph. We need to group together our
thoughts on the introduction, body and conclusion.
Editing is revising or correcting a document to make it more comprehensible for the reader. Before
submitting any written work, it is always a good idea to first do self-editing, even when there are people
other than the writer to do the final editing and proofreading. The following are general guidelines to
follow when starting the actual task of self-editing:
 Editing should be done with the hard copy of the written work. A different form usually gives a
different perspective and simple errors that can go unseen on the computer screen become very
noticeable on paper.
 There should be an interval of time between finishing the writing and starting the editing. The
longer the length of time, the more objective and open-minded one can be towards the writing.
 The document should be read at least twice, first, silently, to determine the general readability
and fluency; and second, out loud, to detect any inaccuracies in language or expression.
 Where applicable, blocks of texts can be reduced by using tables or graphics. This is a compact
way to convey information and it often emphasizes the main point better than the written text.
Checklist for a more thorough editing:
1. For organization:
 Every paragraph should develop a separate central idea; i.e. every paragraph should have its
own topic sentence and the paragraph should only develop or explain that central idea.
 A new paragraph should not be written just because the current one seems too long. One
sentence paragraphs should be avoided. Each paragraph should ideally have at least three
sentences.
 The text should be clearly stated at or by the end of the introduction. It should also be followed
throughout the paper.

 Check transitions. (But first remember: careful organization and strong expressions make the
best transitions. When one point or action follows logically from another, connectors may not be
necessary to convey the correct meaning).
o Do the paragraphs flow into each other, one following the other in a logical way?
o Does every sentence in each paragraph flow logically into the other?
o Do the transitions (both between sentences and between paragraphs) help connect ideas?
o Is there a more appropriate connector that may be used? Or, can a different connector be
used to bring variety?
2. For language:
People have a tendency to repeat the same mistakes; therefore, typical mistakes should be focused on.
Finding out what errors come up more frequently and/or repeatedly and learning how to fix those errors
can prevent a great number of them. Some focal points are:
 Tense agreement: Check to see if the tense appropriate for the writing has been used. A tutor can
be consulted if necessary. Using a variety of tenses should be avoided unless really necessary. For
instance, if the writing requires present tenses, the writer should alternate between present simple,
present continuous and present perfect-but use mostly present simple.
 Subject / verb agreement: Find the main verb in each sentence. Then, match the verb to its subject.
If the subject is singular, the verb needs to be singular too. If the subject is plural, the verb needs to
be plural too.
 Pronoun reference / agreement: Skim the paper. Stop at each pronoun. (Look especially at: it, this,
they, their, and them.) Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces. If there is no noun, change the
pronoun or insert a noun prior to the use of the pronoun. If there is a noun, check if it agrees in
number and person with the pronoun.
 Parallel structures: Skim the paper. Stop at key words that signal parallel structures (especially;
and, or, not only…but also, either…or, neither…or, both…and). Make sure that items (adjectives,
nouns phrases etc.) are in the same grammatical form (except: Not only + sentence in question
order, but also + sentence in sentence order)

3. For mechanics:
Another point to be aware of while editing is the mechanical aspect of the writing; that is, any possible
spelling or punctuation mistakes. Here are some points to consider:
 Check to see if every sentence has ended with a period (.), question mark (?), or exclamation point
(!).
 Check to see if a period has been used after abbreviations.
 Check to see if compound sentences have been separated with a comma (,). If not, skim for
conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor, so and yet). If there is a complete sentence on each side of the
conjunction, place a comma before the conjunction.
 Check for capitalized names of persons, cities, countries, streets and titles.
 Check to see if a quotation has been capitalized according to the original and according to the needs
of the sentence.
4. Flow of information
Have you ever heard someone say that a certain writer's work "flows?" Some prose seems to move
seamlessly from one idea to another because the writer eases readers through the presentation. Ideas
seem to cohere or stick together because readers never have to slow down when a new, potentially
confusing term is interjected into the text. And a skilful writer will never force readers to jump from one
idea to the next without first showing how Idea A relates to Idea B.
What can you do to make your writing cohere and flow? Here are a few suggestions.
I. Repeat and refer. If a word or concept is important, reuse it or refer to it. In the past, English
teachers warned students never to use the same word twice in the same paragraph or paper.
Consequently, they reached for the nearest thesaurus to find as many synonyms as they could.
That writing practice can result in an affective and garbled message. Here is why repetition and
referral work:
 Repetition of and referral to key words and phrases signals to the reader that renamed concepts
are important.

 Writers use repetition for emphasis.
 Consistency of word choice prevents confusion. Readers don't have to keep asking, "Is that
writer addressing the same topic?"
 Repetition appeals to the ear and makes prose seem to flow.
 Repetition weaves the elements of different paragraphs together. Try drawing lines between
repeated words in succeeding paragraphs. You can see how the repetition becomes like a strand
of fibre, strengthening the fabric of your prose.
You can see how the use of repetition and referral works to create a coherent presentation. Circle all
repeated words in a text and draw a line from one circle to the next. The course of the lines through the
text provides a flow or path through the text.
II. Announce what you are going to discuss and then discuss it. Here is an example of repetition
at work. Each sentence is the first sentence of a new paragraph.
Experts consider culture, economics, and history of a nation when determining if it can accept some form
of democracy…
Many cultures value the will and welfare of the group—the family, the tribe, the village—over individual
will and prosperity…
The economics of a country, especially its distribution of wealth, offers clues about the willingness of
elites to sacrifice power for the sake of instituting a democracy…
Finally, a nation with some history of democracy might be more likely to embrace some form of it
again…
Drawing circles around repeated words and then connecting the circles produces an image that looks
like a spider's web on the page. All the strands are connected to each other so they cohere or stick
together.
III. Use words that indicate the stages of your argument.
Series of words like first, second, and third signal the direction of your logic. So do words like initially,
then, finally, or beginning, middle, end. They are like heralds in medieval days who trumpeted to
announce the approach of someone important or the start of an important event.

IV. Use words that tie ideas together.
Some of these words can tie one sentence to another sentence, or one paragraph to the next. Think of
them as bridges that lead readers from one idea to the next. Words like therefore, however, in addition
to, moreover, or consequently, explain the relationship between two sentences, two paragraphs, or two
ideas, and help keep your reader on the right path.

4.6 GENERAL EDITING STRATEGIES
Begin by taking a break. Allow yourself sometime between writing and editing. Even a five-minute break
is productive because it will help get some distance from what you have written. The goal is to return
with a fresh eye and mind.
The following strategies will help you slow down as you read through a document and will therefore help
you catch errors that you might otherwise overlook. As you use these strategies, remember to work
slowly. If you read at a normal speed, you won't give your eyes enough time to spot errors.
I. Read aloud
Reading a document aloud forces you to read every little word. Read with a "cover"
Moving a blank sheet of paper down the page as you read encourages you to make a detailed,
line-by-line review of the document.
II. Role-play
Playing the role of the reader encourages you to see the document as your audience might.
III. Reading your document backwards Strategies Which Personalize Editing
In addition to using the general strategies already listed, you'll need to personalize the editing
process. You won't be able to check for everything (and you don't have to), so you should find out
what your typical problem areas are and look for each type of error individually.
To make sure that you do effective proof reading and editing consider doing the following:
 Find out what errors you typically make. Review your trainers' comments about your writing
and/or review your documents(s) with a trainer.
 Learn how to fix those errors. Talk to your trainer. He/she can help you understand why you
make the errors you do so that you can learn to avoid them.
 Use specific strategies. Use the strategies detailed in this manual to find and correct your
particular errors in organization and paragraphing, usage and sentence structure, spelling and
punctuation.
 To locate and correct errors in your correspondence, find the strategies below which correspond
to your typical problem areas and follow the step-by-step instructions provided for you. Each
strategy is designed to focus your attention on only one particular error, so to be most effective,
use only one strategy at a time.
REMEMBER:
The final draft must be proof read and self assessed to check that it is completely correct. Self
assessment can be done using a checklist based on the requirements of the writing task.
The checklist can cover;

 Information accuracy
 Suitability for purpose and audience
 Grammar
 Logical sequence

4.7 REWRITING THE FINAL DOCUMENT
Once the writer has identified all the errors in the document, the final stage is to write the final document.
Writing the final document using the first draft involves the following;
I. Adding
What else does the reader need to know? If you haven’t met the required word-count, what areas
could you expand on? This is a good point to go back to your prewriting notes – look for ideas
which you didn’t use.
II. Rearranging
Even when you’ve planned your piece, sections may need rearranging. Perhaps as you wrote
your essay, you found that the argument would flow better if you reordered your paragraphs.
Maybe you’ve written a short story that drags in the middle but packs in too much at the end.
III. Removing
Sometimes, one of your ideas doesn’t work out. Perhaps you’ve gone over the word count, and
you need to take out a few paragraphs. Maybe that funny story doesn’t really fit with the rest of
your article.
IV. Replacing
Would more vivid details help bring your piece to life? Do you need to look for stronger examples
and quotations to support your argument? If a particular paragraph isn’t working, try rewriting it.
Practical learning Activity
Your Facilitator will divide you into groups. Each group is supposed to write a field trip
report that relates to any work trip that you undertook in the past. After writing the
report, groups are to exchange their work and check for errors using the editing
checklist, discussed above.
Learner guide 66
REFERENCES
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0070958262/462504/Module02.pdf
http://www.abahe.co.uk/Free-En-Resources/English-for-Managers-Business-
Correspondance.pdf
http://davehood59.wordpress.com/2010/02/08/elements-of-fiction-style-and-tone/
http://mrwhatis.net/rhetoric-device.html
http://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/argument.html
http://www.authorhouse.com/authorResources/writing/resources/editing.aspx
http://www.sinclair.edu/centers/tlc/pub/handouts_worksheets/
grammar_punctuation_writing/
english_grammar_analysis_understanding_the_basics.pdf
Communication in Business and industry, Shutte & Steinberg, Robert E. Krieger Publishing co
Business communication in persepective/Rudansky-Kloppers, Sharon, New Africa Books, 2002
Clued Up on Culture, Barbara, Elion & Mercia Strieman, 2001, Oneline Media
Business writing for Dummies, Lindsell/Roberts, Sheryl, IDD Books Worldwi
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WRITE AND PRESENT FOR A WIDE RANGE OF PURPOSES,

AUDIENCES AND CONTEXTS

Outcomes Learning Activities

Assessment Criteria Note

Stop and Think!

Notes (Blank) References

Learners credited with this unit standard are able to:

 Write texts for a range of communicative contexts.

i. What is your purpose in writing this document?

v. Are you being polite and unemotional?

vi. Do you have all the information you need? Is it correct?

The target audiences can be divided into:

1.4.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1.4.2 BACKGROUND SKILLS IN DATA GATHERING

I. Imagination and Creativity

II. Logic and reasoning

III. Data collection

IV. Data Analysis

VII. Scientific Experimentation

1.4.3 VERIFYING DATA COLLECTED

EXAMPLE RATHER USE

1.5 SELECTING INFORMATION FOR A DOCUMENT (SO 1, AC 4, SO 2, AC 2)

 Purpose of the communication. This should help you to evaluate which

 Audience. The type of audience determines what information must be included.

SAMPLE COMPLAINT LETTER

 Name of Contact Person, if available

i. Marketing of training products

ii. Presenting the overview of a course

I. Presentation on the assessment process

ELSA (English Literacy Skills Assessment) is a standardized RPL measuring instrument.

The First Person

Project communication: learner guide 19

The Second Person

The Third Person

Project communication: learner guide 20

Project communication: learner guide 21

Project communication: learner guide 22

BASIC CHECKLIST FOR PLANNING TO WRITE A DOCUMENT

THE THREE FOCUS QUESTIONS

Project communication: learner guide 23

Breaking down tasks

Project communication: learner guide 24

Project communication: learner guide 25

2.1.1 BUSINESS LETTERS:

Business letter layout

Receiver’s designation in company

Salutation (no punctuation)

INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH Open by referring to a previous letter, or an incident that

CLOSE (no punctuation)

Project communication: learner guide 26

Rule 1 – The sender’s address

Rule 2 – The date

Rule 3 – The receiver’s designation

Rule 4 – The receiver’s address

Rule 5 – Addressing the receiver

 Address the letter to a specific individual using his/her name or title

 If you have an informal relationship with the receiver:

Project communication: learner guide 27

 If you do not know the name of the receiver:

 If you are writing to a group of people:

Rule 6 – The subject line

Rule 7 – Signing off

Rule 8 – The sender’s signature