篇章分析 (Discourse Analysis)

 Research: 結構 vs. 溝通
(1) 篇章的結構(1960-1970)： Reference (指稱、照應), deixis (指示), anaphora (回指), context,
topic and comment, cohesion and coherence; Cohesion in English (Halliday 1976)
(2) 篇章的溝通：language use, language change, language behavior, conversation,
communicative activities, cognition and context, discourse structure, 篇章分析架構
 Discourse 之不同理解：篇章 vs. 話語
(1) Style (語體、風格): [Edlmonsdons, 1981].
(a) text (語篇、篇章): written
(b) discourse(話語、言談): spoken
(2) Form (語言形式) vs. function (語言功能): [Widdowson, 1979]
(a) text- sentences (句子), usage (用法)
(b) discourse—utterances (語句), use (使用), situational use, communicative function
Language competence vs. language behavior [Van Dike, 1980]
(3) Linguistic unit (語言單位)
(a) text (one participant at one given time, written or spoken), discourse: connection
between texts [Beaugrande & Dresserler, 1981].
(b) Text/Discourse: spoken or written, a unit of meaning (語意的完整體)
e.g. spoken or written, momentary cry or all-day discussion on a committee, even a
preposition [Halliday, 1977]
 歐洲 (書面的篇章研究) vs. 美國 (口語的篇章分析)

 篇章和語用學的關係 Discourse and Pragmatics: not clear-cut yet

(1) Discourse includes pragmatics (Givon and Thompson): 篇章話語是研究實際運
用的語言；研究篇章話語就是研究 (a)語用及(b)源於語用因素的結構規律。
(2) Pragmatics includes discourse.

 語意學和語用學的關係 Semantics and Pragmatics

(1) Semantic meaning: Sentence-meaning; prepositional meaning; truth-functional meaning, inherent
(2) Pragmatic meaning utterance-meaning, contextual meaning: implicatures (會話蘊涵)

 篇章和語用和句法的關係 Discourse and Syntax:

(1) 篇章：
(a) 篇章分析乃對自然語言的量化分析，其結果往往表現出一種趨向性和選擇性，
呈現了一個客觀事實；
(b) 很少判別哪個句子能說或不能說 (不訴諸語感)；
(c) 是一個逐漸過渡的連續體 (Continuum) (徐赳赳 1995)。
(2) 句法：
(a) 句法研究一般不涉及句子的選用，研究的句子大都獨立存在；
(b) 大多數是憑個人語感造出來 (廖秋忠 1995)
(3)句法結構和篇章結構：
(a) 句法結構：主語(subjects) vs. 謂語 (predicates)
(b) 篇章結構：主題(topic) vs. 評述 (comment); 信息結構 (information structure)
(4)句法是否單獨存在：
(a) 篇章是句法的擴充
(b) 句法並不單獨存在 乃是篇章的體現
(c ) 兩者之間: (i) History factors (2) form and pragmatics
(5) 句法和篇章：
(A) 句法中的篇章現象:
(1) 有定 vs. 無定; 主語 vs. 賓語 (語感)
(i) 我跑了一隻狗 *我跑了那隻狗
(ii) 我喜歡上一隻狗 我喜歡那一隻狗
Sun and Givon (1985): 賓語有定比無定的多 (3:1)
Hsu (1991): In written Chinese, 主語有定占大多數，而直接賓語有定也佔 60%左右
Givon (1979): In written English, 主語有定占 90+%， 而直接賓語有定也佔 50%左右

(2) 主題與否﹔ 他來看你了

他來看你了，可是你不在
他來看你了，還帶著幾個朋友呢?
(B) 格 (case)
篇章中的句子有個” preferred argument structure”(偏愛的論元結構)
(1) Old and New Information: ergative (作格)vs. absolutive (通格):
(a) ergative (作格): subject of the transitive verb: old information
(b) absolutive (通格): object of the TV and subject of the IV: new information
He broke the window.
The window broke.
(2) Topic and comment: subject vs. object
(3) split ergativity
(a) First and second persons: subject and object: old information e.g. I saw him.
(b) other persons: ergative and absolutive

(C)篇章對句式語與句式變體選用的制約
篇章對句式的制約
(i) 您是那位? 我是陳老師
(ii) 陳老師是那一位?
The shirt has a button that is…. I saw a shirt

存現句 ﹔ 主語關係從句的數量大大超過賓語關係從句的數量
There is a book
篇章對式變體選用的制約

Discourse: (1) cohesion: formal link between sentences (linguistically overt signaled relationship)
(2) coherence: semantic/logical link between concepts and propositions (semantic

Discourse: Cohesion: inter-sentential link (vs. intra-sentential link)

(a) textual or endophoric reference: 張三, 李四, 和 我, 我們三個人是好朋友!
Coherence: (a) textual: prepositional and paragraphic link
(b) situational link: Help! world/cultural knowledge
(c) situational or exophoric reference: Open the door. 咱們走吧!

Cohesion (nothing new) merely serves coherence.

Structural cohesion: 信息結構; 主述語結構

What did the rate do to the cheese? 老鼠把乳酪怎樣了?
?The rat ate the cheese. 老鼠把乳酪吃了

把: mark subtopic, make the subsequent predicate become new info

I like beans. Beans I like. *I beans like.

semantic cohesion: reference [照應], Ellipsis [省略], pro-form [替代], conjunctions, lexical cohesion
Reference: personal (his/her: zero), demonstrative (this, that, the), comparative

語內照應 (endophoric reference) vs. 語外照應

他是我表弟 vs. 這是我表弟 (deixis): coherent