Drive System Structure

MKT 433
Güç Elektroniği İle Elektriksel Tahrik

Voltage or current
sensors
“DC Motor Kontrolu” Loads have various requirements:
Example: Automotive or traction systems requires
• High efficiency
• Low cost
• Low noise
• Low torque ripple
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DC Drive Systems DC Motor Structure

Armature or Rotor
• DC drives in these days have come with the motor especially in • cylindrical rotor rotates
small power levels • has wound with uniformly distributed
• DC Drives are still used for cost sensitive applications winding
• They are replaced with AC drives for the last 25 years • • • carries collector
• • laminated core because of AC flux
• Why? •
• DC motors are huge in size S • V N • Winding is supplied via brushes
•
• commutators require maintenance • •
Stator or Field
• technology help DC motors improve the commutators
• carries field winding
• easy to control motors • have auxiliary field winding
• laminated because of ease of
manufacturing and fast change of field flux
Physical structure
of a DC motor

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Page 1
 DC Motors – Sizes DC Motors – Pros and Cons

The brushed DC motor is one of the earliest motor designs. Today, it is the motor
of choice in the majority of variable speed and torque control applications.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Easy to understand design • Expensive to produce
• Easy to control speed • Can't reliably control at lowest speeds
• Easy to control torque • Physically larger
• Can offer designs up to • High maintenance
• Simple, cheap drive design
12000HP
• High inertia
• From Micromo: • can have very high
• From Micromo: • Dust
voltage
• Conventional (brush) DC • Brushless DC motor: • Can’t reach very high speeds
motor: 6mm x 15mm • Not very high speed
16mm x 28mm
• 13,000 rpm • thousands of Nm torque
• 65,000 rpm
• 0.11 m Nm • Some applications
• 50 m Nm
• Power 0.15 W • Mining
• Power 11 W
• V from 1.5 to 4.5 V • Marine propulsion
• V = 12 V
• Metal industry
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DC Motors – Fundamentals DC Motors – Flux Distribution

h Main flux (Ana akı)
N
f Field leakage flux
(Alan kaçak akısı)

A Armature leakage flux

(Endüi kaçak akısı)
S
p
2 pole DC motor B
N S
Airgap
flux
density 2
h   BdA  BL l Fedx 
DC motor fundamentals and principles p

Mech
 l Fe  BLdx  l FeBM  p Degrees
0
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Page 2
 DC Motors – Flux Distribution DC Motors – Excitation Methods
h Main flux (Ana akı) +
N +
For 4-pole motor, V
V
• Each pole has 90 mechanical degree
S S portion - + VF -
-
• Each pole still has 180 degree
electrical degrees Separately excited DC Parallel excited DC motor
motor
N p
4 pole DC motor B + +
N S
Airgap V
V
flux
density 
 - -
/ 2 Mech Parallel and Series
Series excited DC motor
Degrees (Compound) excited DC motor

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DC Motors – Torque and EMF Production DC Motors – Torque and EMF Production
F Z – total number of conductors Total torque can be found by multiplying the total number of active conductors;
• • I – current in each conductor
• r
• i
N B • S l – axial length of the machine T  Zrl Bavg
• r – radius of armature a
•
a – number of parallel circuit We know that flux per pole is;
Atotal 2rl
Instantaneous torque/force on one of the armature conductors over one   BA  Bavg  Bavg
revolution p p
 i 
T (  )  r F (  )  r  l B(  )  Now, torque is;
 a 
i  p  Zp
T  Zrl   i  K t  i
Average torque over one magnetic pole, a  2rl  2a

2 / P 2 / P
1 i 1 i T  Kt  i
T( ) 
2 / P T (  )d  rl a 2 / P  B(  )d  rl a Bavg
0 0

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 DC Motors – Torque and EMF Production DC Motors – Torque and EMF Production
Instantaneous voltage (back EMF) generated in one of the conductors; Note that Kv=Kt if Pin=Pout
e(  )  r l B(  )
Input power;
Where rω - linear velocity of the conductor, ω - angular speed of the rotation
Pin  ei  Kv  i
If we take the integral over one pole;

e  r  l Bavg Output power;

Pout  T  Kt  i 
Multiplying by the number of series conductors between brushes Z/a gives
Z i
e r l Bavg
a + +
In terms of flux per pole
p Z V e
e r l Bavg  Zp 
2rl a 2a + VF -
- -
e  Kv   

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DC Motors – Equivalent Circuit DC Motors – Equivalent Circuit

Equivalent circuit of a DC motor; Electromechanical energy conversion equations
R L Kv 
e
+ e  Kv  r Kv '
i +
e iF
V Field flux
_ VF
_ w
T

Armature circuit equation T  Kt  i Kt 

T
di
V  Ri  L e K t '
dt Armature current
Field circuit equation
di
Vf  Rf i f  Lf f TL – load torque i
dt B – viscous damping coeff
Mechanical equation J – total rotational inertia • Φ’> Φ we can change Φ and adjust the motor speed
d w – rotor speed
J  B  TL  T • Kv and Kt depends on the machine design
dt
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 DC Motors – Equivalent Circuit DC Motors in Steady State

Basic electromechanical energy conversion equation: Machine and load interaction:

Electrical power = mechanical power (ignoring losses) T TL

ei  Tr
Jm JL
Kv  r i  Kt  ir
machine ω load
Kv   Kt   K

Field flux Mechanical differential equation of the system:

KV  KT d
Jtot  T  TL  B
 V   Nm  dt
 rad / s    A  (Make sure you use SI units) Friction and windage
Jtot  Jm  JL

• Kv is measured at i=0 (open circuit case) During steady state: T=TL

• Kt ise measured at i=iR case

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DC Motors in Steady State DC Motors in Steady State

Armature circuit equation Keep in mind that the no load speed is

di V
V  Ri  L e V  Ri  e NL  KV – back EMF constant
dt KV 
Kt – torque constant
TL – load torque
Back EMF voltage of the DC motor e  Kv     NL 
R
T Φ – flux per pole
K t KV 2 R – resistant of the armature
Torque of the DC motor T  Kt  i V – supplied voltage of the armature
Speed
Torque – speed characteristic of a DC motor [rpm]
NL
[rad/s]
V  Ri V Ri V R
     T
KV  KV  KV  KV  K t KV 2
V R
  T
KV  K t KV 2
Torque [Nm]
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 DC Motors – Equivalent Circuit DC Motors – Example
Example:
Equivalent circuit of a DC motor; e  Kv  
A DC motor rated at 5HP, 500rpm.
R L
Ra=2.21 Ω (at 25oC), La=0.036H,
+ e  KV  KT=4.27 Nm/A, KV=4.10V/(rad/s),
i +
e Motor has field winding losses of 200W at rated field current. Assume that
iF
V
_ T  Kt  i field flux is not changed
_ VF
(Use hot resistance values (75oC values) for all calculations)
T
T  KT i
R1 T1  235 2.21 25  235
Armature circuit equation   R2  2.65
R2 T2  235 R2 75  235
V  Ri  e Speed
[rpm]  P 5 * 746W
NL Rated torque T    71.24Nm
[rad/s]  2500 rad / s
60
V R T 71.24Nm
  T Rated motor current I   16.7 A
KV KT KV KT 4.27Nm / A
Torque [Nm]
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DC Motors – Example DC Motors – Example

Speed
For motoring operation at rated condition V R
  T 62.72rad / s
Rated point
KV KT KV
Va  Ra i a  e  Rai a  KV  599rpm
2500 2.652
Va  2.65x16.68  4.27x  267.8 V   62.72  T
60 4.27x 4.27 52.36rad / s
Efficiency; 500rpm
  62.72  0.14545 T 71.24 Torque [Nm]
Pout 5 x 746
   %80
Pin  Wf 267.8 x16.68  200

No load speed of the motor;

V R What happens on the left side of the torque-speed curve?
  T
KV KT KV
V 267.8
NL    62.72 rad / s  599 rpm
KV 4.27

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Page 6
 DC Motors – Example DC Motors – Example

For generating operation at rated condition

2.652
+ +   62.72  T
4.27x 4.27
V V 2.652
  62.72  71.24
- -
4.27x 4.27
+ VF - + VF -

motoring
  73.08 rad / s
generating 73.8rad / s
697.9rpm Speed 697.9 rpm
V  KV  V  KV 
T  KT  T  KT
Ra Ra 62.72rad / s 599rpm

V R

V

R
T   T
KV KT KV KV KT KV
52.36rad / s 500rpm
2.652
  62.72  T
4.27x 4.27
 71.24 71.24 Torque [Nm]
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DC Machine Losses DC Machine T-W Curve

V R
1. Armature resistance losses   T
2. Brush losses KV KT KV
3. Field winding losses (resistive) V R
4. Iron core losses If Kv = KT =K   2T • if there is no load,
K K
5. Friction and windage losses V
NL 
Losses Speed
K

PlossTOT  PBrush  PaCu  PfCu  Pc  Pfw

V
Pin  Pout  PlossTOT K TL

Pout Pout
Motor efficiency   
R
Pout  PlossTOT Pin K2

ei ei e e Wf=0 ise
   
ei  ( Ri 2  Wf ) ei  Ri 2 e  Ri v (PM motor) Torque [Nm]

• e and V have to be close to each other for efficient motors

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Page 7
 DC Machine T-W Curve DC Machine Speed Control
Torque VK
 Thinking about the speed-torque equation, the speed control methods are;

≈
R
V R
  T
Torque-speed KV KT KV
curve of the LOAD
K2 1. Changing the armature voltage  V
 powerful and expensive
R TL
2. Changing the armature resistance  R more economical, extra I2R loss
New operating point
of the motor 3. Changing the flux  Φ

1 Torque 2 Torque
Increasing R
V' V Speed
K K

Say Original operating

V’=V/2 point of the motor

V' V Speed V Speed

Now let’s look at the speed control methods of DC motors: K K K
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DC Machine Speed Control DC Motor Speed Control – Example

Field Control Example:
V R
3
Decreasing flux   T A DC motor rated at 5HP, 500rpm.
Torque KV KT KV
Ra=2.21 Ω (at 25oC), La=0.036H,
KT=4.27 Nm/A, KV=4.1V/(rad/s),
K'
2 Motor has field winding losses of 200W at rated field current. Assume that
K2 
 R field flux is not changed
R

Hot resistance value : R2  2.65

V V Speed
Rated torque T  71.24Nm
K K' Rated motor current i a  16.7 A
K '  0.5K
Armature voltage Va  Rai a  KV   258.9 V
Think about the consequences of field control

T K i Original
1) What would be the motor speed and efficiency at half the armature
voltage (and rated torque) assuming no change in the field current and field
T  0.5K i Modified
losses?
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Page 8
 DC Motors – Example DC Motors – Example

Va  258.9 / 2  129.45 V • Keep in mind that you can use the similarity of the two triangles to find out
the new speed at reduced voltage.
T 71.24
T  KT i i   16.7 A Same, did not change!
KT 4.27
New efficiency;
71.24x 2198.5 / 60
Speed
Rated point Pout T
    %62.7
599rpm At rated armature voltage Pin  Wf Pin  Wf 129.45x16.68  200
500rpm

At half the rated armature No load speed of the motor at reduced voltage;
300 rpm voltage
V R
  T
??? KV KT KV
71.24 Torque [Nm] V 129.45
NL    31.57 rad / s  301.5 rpm
V R 129.45 2.65 KV 4.1
  T   x 71.24  20.79rad / s
KV KT KV 4.1 4.27x 4.1
  198.5rpm
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DC Motors – Example DC Motors – Example

2) What would be the motor speed and efficiency at full armature voltage
(and rated torque) if the armature resistance is doubled assuming no Speed
Rated point
change in the field current and field losses?
603rpm At rated armature voltage
R  2.65x 2  5.3
500rpm
T 71.24
T  KT i i   16.7 A Same, did not change! 397 rpm At half the rated armature
KT 4.27 301.5 rpm voltage
V  258.9V

V R 258.9 2.65x 2 ???

  T   x 71.24  41.58rad / s 71.24 Torque [Nm]
KV KT KV 4.1 4.27x 4.1
  397rpm

New efficiency;
At rated armature voltage
Pout T 71.24x 2397 / 60 with doubled resistance
    %65.5
Pin  Wf Pin  Wf 258.9 x16.68  200
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Page 9
 DC Machine Capability Curves DC Machine Capability Curves
Torque Constant
torque regime
Constant power regime
Constraints:
K2 (Field weakening)

• Voltage Source  Vo (max value)  This constraints the speed R

• Current limit  Io (max value)  This constraints torque To 2

K'

• Field flux limit  Φo R   o

Voltage
and V
Io Speed
current K
Voltage
Vo

Vo

Speed
c
Speed
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DC Machine Capability Curves DC Machine Capability Curves

Corner speed
Torque Our limits: Vo, Io, Φo
Torque Constant To Constant
torque regime power region
Constant power regime
(CTR)2 Constant   o
K (CPR)
 torque region Practical info:
R (Field weakening)
For DC machines;
To
c
Speed c 1
max 
  o Io max 3
Voltage&
e
Current Vo Flux line o


V Speed Speed
K
Pc Po
Power Definition of
• In theory, any point in the CTR and CPR can be achievable. However, in corner point
Corner point
practice, yellow and green regions are the areas motor can run within the power
limits of voltage and current.
Speed
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 DC Machine Capability Curves DC Machine Capability Curves - Limits
V R
c Corner speed   T
KV KT KV
V R
c  o  To
Ko KoKo To  KoIo
V R
c  o  KoIo 
R Ko KoKo
Io
c 
Vo  RIo 
Ko
Vo ec

Full
voltage Tlim it  KT 1Io
ec  Kv 1lim it

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DC Motor Dynamics DC Motor Dynamics

Mathematical Model of a DC Motor:

• The number of energy storage components will define the order of the system. L
R

• Assumptions: + i +
Field flux = constant e iF
V
• There are two energy storage mechanisms in DC motors: _ VF
_
• Mechanical energy  J  Tm (mech. time constant) T 
• Electrical energy  L (enj storage comp)  Ta (elec. (armature) time
constant) Load: J
• This means we have a second order system in DC motors
A differential equation for the equivalent circuit can be obtained using KVL:
• Small DC machines Tm>>Ta
• Large DC machines Ta>>Tm
V  VR  VL  e Electrical equation

di
V L  Ri  K
dt
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Page 11
 DC Motor Dynamics DC Motor Dynamics

Mathematical Model of a DC Motor: Combining both equations:

Performing energy balance on the system, the sum of the torques must be di
V L  Ri  Kv
equal to zero. dt

d
J  KTi  TL  B
dt
Te  Td  Tw  TL  0 Mechanical equation
E-Mag. Torque due to Torque due to
torque rotor velocity mechanical load

Te  Ki
Torque due to
rotational acc. Tw  B
d
Td  J
dt

d
J  Ki  TL  B Mechanical equation
dt
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DC Motor Dynamics DC Motor Dynamics

Large machines: (Tm<<Ta)
Equations of the system:
di
L  Ri  V  K  cons tan t di
dt di

1
i C V L  Ri  K Electrical equation
L dt a dt
  a  Electrical time constant d
0
R J  Ki  TL  B Mechanical equation
dt
Small machines: (Tm>>Ta)
L ~ 0 since mechanical dynamics dominates
Here, J is the combined moment of intertia (load+motor), B is the
d T equivalent viscous friction constant (load+motor). B is used for
K2
J  T  TL  Ki  TL  approximating the frictional losses. Taking Laplace transforms and
dt R
using “p” instead of “s” as operator
 V  K 
 K   TL 
 R  V  Ls.I (s )  RI (s )  K(s )
d K 2
KV TL
    Linear first order dif. equation
dt RJ RJ J Js(s )  KI(s )  B(s )  TL
RJ J J
m   2  Mechanical time constant Keep in mind that input is voltage and output is speed!
K2 K / R slope of T  w
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Page 12
 DC Motor Dynamics – Transfer Function DC Motor Dynamics – Transfer Function
V  Ls.I (s )  RI (s )  K(s ) Recall the basic feedback loop:

Js(s )  KI(s )  B(s )  TL X Y

G
From mechanical eq.  X G Y
1  FG
Input-V,
F

Torque
Voltage

output-w

Current

Speed
TL

V  1
KT
1 
  pL  Jp TL

E
R B
V 1
KT
1 
  pL  Jp

KV
R B

From electrical eq. KV

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DC Motor Dynamics – Transfer Function DC Motor Dynamics

Again, for a separately excited DC machine: Special case: For small machines where L~0
KT 1
TL
 KT KT / RJ RJ m
   
V 1 1 0
 V RJp  KT KV KT KV 1
 R  pL
KT
Jp  B p p
RJ m
Going back to original transfer function:
KV KT R
 KT JR L
Machine transfer function:  
V JLp2  RJp  KT KV R K K
p2  p  T V
KT
L JL
 ( R  pL )Jp KT
  1  1 1 
V 1  KT KV ( R  pL )Jp  KT KV  
 KT  Kv  a m  JR L
( R  pL )Jp   where m  a 
V JLp2  RJp  KT KV V 1 1 1 Kv KT R
p 
2
p
 KT / JL a a  m

This is a second order system V 2 R K K
p  p T V This is the transfer function of a separately excited DC motor. If we know Ta and
as seen from the TF. L JL Tm, we can understand the nature of the system
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Page 13
 DC Motor Dynamics DC Motor Dynamics- Limiting Cases
1 a a
Small machines   1 Large machines   1
 1 a  m m m
 0 ignore
V Kv p 2  1 p  1 When we solve the characteristic equation, we 1 1 4 1 1 4
a a  m can get information about the stability of the p  1 a p  1 a
motor.
2a 2a m 2a 2a m
1 1 1
p , 0 p j
Characteristic equation: 1 1 a 2a a  m
p 
2
p 0
a a  m
• The system is a second order system
2 but acts like a first order system because • We have a second order system because
1 1  1 4 we have complex roots
p     1/Ta is not dominated and dies out quickly
2a 2  a  a  m • The response is dominated by Tm • The response will have a decaying term
because Tm>>Ta and 1/Tm which is a and a sinusoidal term t / 2Ta
  Ae cos(...)
pole close to the origin.
1 1 4
p1,2    1 a
2 a 2 a m
1  e t / 2Ta
1  e t / Tm
As seen here, eigenvalues of the system depends on the electrical and
mechanical time constants.
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DC Motor Dynamics – Root Locus DC Motor Dynamics – Root Locus

Movement of eigenvalues as we adjust Ta/Tm Standard form for a 2nd order system:
Im
1 1
p2  p 0 Our equation
a a  m
1
X a  m
Increasing
>

Ta/Tm p2  2N p  N 2  0 Standard form

X > < X Re If we have a 2nd order system with complex

1

1  poles,
a 2 a X • they both have complex conjugates
>

  cos 
1  •   cos 
X 
a  m

• Natural frequency of the 2nd order system

4 m X
1 a  0 a  1
• Both poles meet along the real axis if 4 N 
m m a  m
• 2 real poles if a 
4 m 1 1 1 m
• 2 complex poles if a  • Damping factor:   
4 2N a 2 a
MA -55 MA -56

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 DC Motor Dynamics DC Motor Dynamics – Response to TL Disturbance
Rule of thumb: Choosing TL as output;
max   final
%overshoot  max x100 1 R 1 1
final p   p  
final  J L  J  a 

   
  
 2 
TL R R K2 TL p 2  1 p  1 1
  p  p
2
e  1 
x100 L L JR a a  m

4 8
Settling time   Note that;
 N a
• The characteristic equation is the same
• Eigenvalues of the system are the same
Example: • Still a second order system
• Have a zero (p+R/L)
%overshoot  0
1  e t / Tm
Settling time  4

MA -57 MA -58

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