……… ASIAN INSTITUTE OF MARITIME STUDIES

Pasay City, Philippines

SCHOOL OF MARITIME AFFAIRS

Department of MARINE TRANPORTATION

MODULE TITLE: FLUID STATICS AND DYNAMICS/HYDRAULICS

Course Code: NGEC 9

Course Title: MATH SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Developed by

ANGELINA R. DELA CERNA-AMONCEDA PhD (CAR)

MODULE CODE: MOD-NGEC 9 – M – 004
MODULE TITLE: FLUID STATICS AND DYNAMICS/HYDRAULICS

I. SCOPE
• Familiarization of the properties of common liquids in the study of hydraulics
• Application of fundamentals principles to solve problems involving liquid pressure and
corresponding forces resulting from this pressure.
• Applications of appropriate equations in performing calculations flow velocity, flow rate and
forces exerted by moving liquid in closed conduits and open channels.

II. COURSE OUTCOMES

CO2: Determine the importance of trigonometric functions and mathematical applications in solving
real physics problems particularly on engineering and navigational problems.

LO4.1: Discuss atmospheric, gauge and absolute pressure and their unit and the pressure
exerted by a liquid at any given vertical depth;

LO4.2: Discuss the equation F = 9.81 x head x density x area, to give the force on the surfaces
of a rectangular tank when filled with liquid

LO4.3: Explain Bernoulli’s Equation in the dynamic and static motion of the ship in narrow
channel and the continuity equation in navigation for collision avoidance;

LO4.4: Explain the motion of the ship according to the velocity of the water and give the
expression that gave the volumetric flow of liquid as its velocity x cross-sectional area,
measured in m3/second.;

LO4.5: Explain the concepts of Reynolds number, Froude number, turbulence, and dragging
force to problems concerning offshore engineering.

LO4.6: Explain the cushion, suction and wash effect by the fluid and determine the different
applications of:
- Poiseuille’s Law
- Flick’s law
- Stokes’s Law;

III. OVERVIEW OF THE MODULE

TLA No. 1 : Fluid Pressure

Fluids do not support shear stress or tensile stress; thus, the only stress that can be applied on an
object is that it is immersed in a rigid fluid that appears to compress the object from all directions. In
other words, the force applied by the static fluid on the object is therefore perpendicular to the
surface of the object. This activity help the students to define or describe different theoretical
terminologies and concepts used in fluid statics and dynamics.

TLA No. 2 : Pressure Head

Pressure head can be defined as the pressure exerted by a column of fluid on the bottom of a well.
It is the depth of fluid that will exert an equivalent pressure. It is given as the height of the column of
fluid and is also called static head. The pressure head can be determined by considering the
2
 pressure acting at any point in a static fluid. With this activity the students will be able to solve
problems based on fluid static using the equation F = 9.81 x head x density x area.

TLA No. 3 : Bernoulli’s Equation

Bernoulli's equation is a special case of the general energy equation that is probably the most
widely-used tool for solving fluid flow problems. It provides an easy way to relate the elevation
head, velocity head, and pressure head of a fluid. It is possible to modify Bernoulli's equation in a
manner that accounts for head losses and pump work. This activity will allow the students to
analyze and solve problems in Dynamics of fluid flow by applying Bernoulli’s Equation.

TLA No. 4 : Viscous Fluid Flow (viscosity)

Viscosity is the measure of resistance of a fluid to flow. A fluid that is highly viscous has a high
resistance (like having more friction) and flows slower than a low-viscosity fluid. To think of viscosity
in everyday terms, the easier a fluid moves, the lower the viscosity. In this activity the students will
able to explain the motion of the ship according to the velocity of the water and give the expression
that gave the volumetric flow of liquid.

TLA No. 5 : The Continuity equation, Reynolds Number, Froude number and Froude
Depth

Froude numbers express a relationship between the free-surface of a flow and the various waves
and ruffles that form there, and bed forms at the sediment-water interface. Reynolds numbers deal
to the bulk characteristics of flow – whether it has laminar or turbulent structure. This activity the
students will gain the knowledge on the Continuity equation, Reynolds Number, Froude number and
Froude Depth.

TLA No. 6 : Poiseuille’s Law

The flow of fluids through an IV catheter can be described by Poiseuille’s Law. It states that the flow
(Q) of fluid is related to a number of factors: the viscosity (n) of the fluid, the pressure gradient
across the tubing (P), and the length (L) and diameter(r) of the tubing. This activity will provide
knowledge to the students regarding the Poiseuille’s Law.

IV. REFERENCE/S

• Author, A.A. (Year, Month). Title of Article. Title of Magazine, vol#(issue#). Retrieved from URL
• Author’s Last Name, A.A. (Year). Title of the Book:
• Subtitle of the Book (x ed., Vol.). doi: xxxxxxxxx
• Paul G. Hewitt, (2006). Conceptual Physics.
• Paul W. Zitzewits and Robert F. Neff and Mark Davids, (1995). Merrill Physics Principles and
Problems
• https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/atmospheric-pressure/
• https://www.britannica.com/science/Pascals-principle
• https://www.britannica.com/science/metacentre
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Archimedes
• https://www.princeton.edu/~asmits/Bicycle_web/continuity.html
• https://www.pipeflow.com/pipe-pressure-drop-calculations/fluid-viscosity
• https://www.openanesthesia.org/poiseuilles_law_iv_fluids/
• https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zyjbqhv/revision/6#:~:text=Fick's%20Law%20describes%
20the%20relationship,the%20thickness%20of%20the%20membrane'.
3
 • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_resistance_and_propulsion
• https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/archimedes-
principle#:~:text=Archimedes'%20principle%20states%3A%20An%20object,gravity%20on%20t
he%20displaced%20fluid.
• https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/physics/concepts/archimedes-principle
• https://www.britannica.com/science/fluid-mechanics#ref611668

LEARNING OUTCOME NO. : 4.1

LEARNING OUTCOME STATEMENT: Explain atmospheric, gauge and absolute pressure and
their unit and the pressure exerted by a liquid at any given vertical depth;

I. CONTENT DISCUSSION

Topic 1: Pascal’s Principle

Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric Pressure, also known as barometric pressure (after the barometer), is

the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth. The air around you have weight, and it presses against
everything it touches. That pressure is called atmospheric pressure, or air pressure. It is
the force exerted on a surface by the air above it as gravity pulls it to Earth

Atmospheric pressure is commonly measured with a barometer. In a barometer, a column of mercury in

a glass tube rises or falls as the weight of the atmosphere changes. Meteorologists describe the
atmospheric pressure by how high the mercury rises.

An atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measurement equal to the average air pressure at sea level at a
temperature of 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit). One atmosphere is 1,013 millibars, or 760
millimeters (29.92 inches) of mercury.

Atmospheric pressure is an indicator of weather. When a low-pressure system moves into an area, it
usually leads to cloudiness, wind, and precipitation. High-pressure systems usually lead to fair,
calm weather.

In brief, it is very common for pressure gauges to ignore atmospheric pressure—that is, to read zero at
atmospheric pressure. We therefore define gauge pressure to be the pressure relative to atmospheric

4
pressure. Gauge pressure is positive for pressures above atmospheric pressure, and negative for
pressures below it.

Gauge Pressure, Absolute Pressure and Pressure Measurement

• Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure is positive
for pressures above atmospheric pressure, and negative for pressures below it.
In fact, atmospheric pressure does add to the pressure in any fluid not enclosed in a
rigid container. This happens because of Pascal’s principle. The total pressure, or absolute
pressure, is thus the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric
pressure: Pabs = Pg + Patm where Pabs is absolute pressure, Pg is gauge pressure, and Patm is
atmospheric pressure. For example, if your tire gauge reads 34 psi (pounds per square inch),
then the absolute pressure is 34 psi plus 14.7 psi (Patm in psi), or 48.7 psi (equivalent to 336
kPa).

• Absolute Pressure is the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure.

For reasons we will explore later, in most cases the absolute pressure in fluids cannot be
negative. Fluids push rather than pull, so the smallest absolute pressure is zero. (A negative
absolute pressure is a pull.) Thus, the smallest possible gauge pressure is Pg = −Patm (this
makes Pabs zero). There is no theoretical limit to how large a gauge pressure can be.

PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE

Pressure is defined as force divided by the area on which the force is pushing. You can write this as an
equation, if you wanted to make some calculations:

P = F/A

where

• P = pressure
• F = force
• A = area
• F/A = F divided by A

Pascal’s principle, also called Pascal’s law, in fluid (gas or liquid) mechanics, statement that, in a
fluid at rest in a closed container, a pressure change in one part is transmitted without loss to every

5
 portion of the fluid and to the walls of the container. The principle was first enunciated by the French
scientist Blaise Pascal.

A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to all portions of the fluid
and to the walls of its container.

• Illustration of Pascal's principle at work in a hydraulic press. According to Pascal's principle, the original
pressure (P1) exerted on the small piston (A1) will produce an equal pressure (P2) on the large piston
(A2). However, because A2 has 10 times the area of A1, it will produce a force (F2) that is 10 times
greater than the original force (F1). Through Pascal's principle, a relatively small force exerted hydraulic
press can be magnified to the point where it will lift a car.

Pascal also observed that the pressure at the point of the fluid at rest is the same in all directions; the
pressure will be the same on all planes going through a certain point. This fact is also known as the
theory of Pascal, or the law of Pascal.

Sample Problem#1:

• What if the water bed is replaced by a 300-lb regular bed that is supported by four legs? Each
leg has a circular cross section or radius 2.00cm. what pressure does this bed exert on the
floor?

Answer: The weight of the regular bed is distributed over four circular cross sections at the bottom of
the legs. Therefore, the pressure is

1𝑁
P= F/A = mg/4(𝝅𝒓𝟐 ) = 300-lb / 4 𝜋(0.020 0 m)2 (
0.225−𝑙𝑏
)

6
 P= 2.65 x 105 Pa

Sample Problem # 2:
Known:
The area of A1 = 10 cm2
The area of A2 = 100 cm2
Force 2 (F2) = 100 Newton
Wanted: Force 1 (F1)
Solution:
P=F/A
P = pressure, F = force, A = area

P1 = F1 / A1
P2 = F2 / A2

P1 = P2
F1 / A1 = F2 / A2

F1 / 10 cm2 = 100 N / 100 cm2

F1 / 10 = 1 N

F1 = (10)(1 N)

F1 = 10 Newton

Sample Problem #3
• If the area of A1 = 0.001 m2 and the area of A2 = 0.1 m2 , external input force F1 = 100 N, then
the external output force F2 ?
Known:
The area of A1 = 0.001 m2
The area of A2 = 0.1 m2
External input force F1 = 100 Newton

Wanted: External output force (F2)

Solution:
P1 =P2
F1 / A1 = F2 / A2

100 N / 0.001 m2 = F2 / 0.1 m2

100 N / 0.001 = F2 / 0.1

100,000 N = F2 / 0.1

7
 F2 = (0.1)(100,000 N)
F2 = 10,000 N

Topic 2: Fluids, Density, and Pressure

Characteristics of Fluids

Liquids and gases are considered to be fluids because they yield to shearing forces,
whereas solids resist them. Like solids, the molecules in a liquid are bonded to neighboring molecules,
but possess many fewer of these bonds.

(a) Atoms in a solid are always in close contact with neighboring atoms, held in place by forces represented here by springs.
(b) Atoms in a liquid are also in close contact but can slide over one another. Forces between the atoms strongly resist attempts to
compress the atoms. (c) Atoms in a gas move about freely and are separated by large distances. A gas must be held in a closed
container to prevent it from expanding freely and escaping.

Density

Suppose a block of brass and a block of wood have exactly the same mass. If both blocks are
dropped in a tank of water, why does the wood float and the brass sink ((Figure))? This occurs because
the brass has a greater density than water, whereas the wood has a lower density than water.

8
 (a) A block of brass and a block of wood both have the same weight and mass, but the block of wood has a much greater
volume. (b) When placed in a fish tank filled with water, the cube of brass sinks and the block of wood floats. (The block of
wood is the same in both pictures; it was turned on its side to fit on the scale.)

Density is an important characteristic of substances. It is crucial, for example, in determining whether

an object sinks or floats in a fluid.

𝑚
The average density of a substance or object is defined as its mass per unit volume, ρ=
𝑉
where the Greek letter ρ (rho) is the symbol for density, m is the mass, and V is the volume.

The SI unit of density is kg/m3. (Figure) lists some representative values. The cgs unit of density is the
gram per cubic centimeter, g/cm3, where

1g/cm3=1000kg/m3.

The metric system was originally devised so that water would have a density of 1g/cm3, equivalent
to 103 kg/m3. Thus, the basic mass unit, the kilogram, was first devised to be the mass of 1000 mL of
water, which has a volume of 1000cm3.

Densities of Some Common Substances

SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES

(0.0℃) (0.0℃) (0.0℃, 101.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

Substance ρ(kg/m3) Substance ρ(kg/m3) Substance ρ(kg/m3)

Aluminum 2.70×103 Ethyl alcohol 8.06×102 Air 1.29×100
Bone 1.90×103 Gasoline 6.80×102 Carbon dioxide 1.98×100
Brass 8.44×103 Mercury 1.36×104 Carbon 1.25×100

9
 monoxide
Copper 8.92×103 Olive oil 9.20×102 Hydrogen 9.00×10−2
Earth’s crust 3.30×103 Nitrogen 1.25×100
Gold 1.93×104 Oxygen 1.43×100
Iron 7.86×103 Helium 1.80×10−1
Platinum 2.14×104
Uranium 1.87×103

As you can see by examining (Figure), the density of an object may help identify its
composition. The density of gold, for example, is about 2.5 times the density of iron, which is about
2.5 times the density of aluminum. Density also reveals something about the phase of the matter
and its substructure. Notice that the densities of liquids and solids are roughly comparable,
consistent with the fact that their atoms are in close contact. The densities of gases are much less
than those of liquids and solids, because the atoms in gases are separated by large amounts of
empty space. The gases are displayed for a standard temperature of 0.0°C and a standard
pressure of 101.3 kPa, and there is a strong dependence of the densities on temperature and
pressure. The densities of the solids and liquids displayed are given for the standard temperature
of 0.0°C and the densities of solids and liquids depend on the temperature. The density of solids
and liquids normally increase with decreasing temperature.

(Figure) shows the density of water in various phases and temperature. The density of water
increases with decreasing temperature, reaching a maximum at 4.0°C, and then decreases as the
temperature falls below 4.0°C. This behavior of the density of water explains why ice forms at the
top of a body of water.

Densities of Water

SOLIDS
(0.0℃)

Substance ρ(kg/m3)

Ice (0°C) 9.17×102

Water (0°C) 9.998×102
Water (4°C) 1.000×103
Water (20°C) 9.982×102

10
 Water (100°C) 9.584×102
Steam (100°C,101.3kPa) 1.670×102
Sea water (0°C) 1.030×103

The density of a substance is not necessarily constant throughout the volume of a substance. If the
density is constant throughout a substance, the substance is said to be a homogeneous substance. A
solid iron bar is an example of a homogeneous substance. The density is constant throughout, and
the density of any sample of the substance is the same as its average density. If the density of a
substance were not constant, the substance is said to be a heterogeneous substance. A chunk of
Swiss cheese is an example of a heterogeneous material containing both the solid cheese and gas-
filled voids. The density at a specific location within a heterogeneous material is called local density,
and is given as a function of location, ρ=ρ(x,y,z) ((Figure)).

Figure. Density may vary throughout a heterogeneous mixture. Local density at a point is obtained from dividing mass by
volume in a small volume around a given point.

EXAMPLE

Wha t Forc e Must a Da m W ithsta nd?

Consider the pressure and force acting on the dam retaining a reservoir of water ((Figure)). Suppose
the dam is 500-m wide and the water is 80.0-m deep at the dam, as illustrated below. (a) What is the
average pressure on the dam due to the water? (b) Calculate the force exerted against the dam.

11
 The average pressure p due to the weight of the water is the pressure at the average depth h of
40.0 m, since pressure increases linearly with depth. The force exerted on the dam by the water is the
average pressure times the area of contact, F=pA.

Solution

1. The average pressure due to the weight of a fluid is

p=hρg.
Entering the density of water from (Figure) and taking h to be the average depth of 40.0 m, we
obtain
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
p = (40.0 m)(103 )(9.80 2)
𝑚3 𝑠
𝑁
=3.92 × 105 ) = 392kPa.
𝑚2

2. We have already found the value for p. The area of the dam is
A = 80.0 m × 500 m = 4.00 × 104m2,
so that

F= (3.92 × 105 N / m2)(4.00 × 104m2)

=1.57 × 1010 N.

Signific a nce

Although this force seems large, it is small compared with the 1.96×1013N weight of the water in
the reservoir. In fact, it is only 0.0800% of the weight.

Topic 3: ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

12
 “The upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether partially or
fully submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and acts in the upward
direction at the center of mass of the displaced fluid”.

The Archimedes law states that if an object is immersed in the static fluid then it will experience a
drag (upward)force equal to the volume of fluid that is removed. Therefore, if an object is immersed in
the static fluid, its weight will be reduced by the amount of the weight of the liquid that is removed,
the object’s weight in the static fluid is called as apparent weight.

Archimedes’ Principle with respect to the following:

- Metacentre

- Gravity

- Buoyancy and

- Keel

Archimedes, (born c. 287 BCE, Syracuse, Sicily [Italy]—died 212/211 BCE, Syracuse), the most-
famous mathematician and inventor in ancient Greece. Archimedes is especially important for his
discovery of the relation between the surface and volume of a sphere and its circumscribing cylinder.
He is known for his formulation of a hydrostatic principle (known as Archimedes’ principle) and a device
for raising water, still used in developing countries, known as the Archimedes screw.

The upward force of the fluid on any submerged object is called the buoyant force. By applying some
logic, we can evaluate the extent of the buoyant force. Imagine a beach ball, a parcel of water under

13
the surface of the water. Since this parcel is in equilibrium, there must be an upward force that offsets
the downward gravitational force of the parcel.

Metacentre, also spelled metacentre, in fluid mechanics, the theoretical point at which an imaginary
vertical line passing through the centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity intersects the imaginary
vertical line through a new centre of buoyancy created when the body is displaced, or tipped, in the
water, however little.

Archimedes’ principle states: An object immersed in a fluid experiences a buoyant force that is equal
in magnitude to the force of gravity on the displaced fluid. Thus, the objective of underwater vehicle
flotation systems is to counteract the negative buoyancy effect of heavier than water materials on
the submersible (frame, pressure housings, etc.) with lighter than water materials; A near neutrally
buoyant state is the goal. The flotation foam should maintain its form and resistance to water
pressure at the anticipated operating depth. The most common underwater vehicle flotation materials
encompass two broad categories: Rigid polyurethane foam and syntactic foam.

Although calculating the buoyant force in this way is always possible it is often very difficult. A
simpler method follows from the Archimedes principle, which states that the buoyant force exerted
on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid the body displaces. In other words, to
calculate the buoyant force on an object we assume that the submersed part of the object is made of
water and then calculate the weight of that water (as seen in).

14
Archimedes principle: The buoyant force on the ship (a) is equal to the weight of the water displaced
by the ship—shown as the dashed region in (b).

The principle can be stated as a formula:

FB= wfl

Buoyant Force: Cause and Calculation

The buoyant force is a result of pressure exerted by the fluid. The fluid pushes on all sides of an
immersed object, but as pressure increases with depth, the push is stronger on the bottom surface of
the object than in the top (as seen in).

You can calculate the buoyant force on an object by adding up the forces exerted on all of an object’s
sides. For example, consider the object shown in.

The top surface has area A and is at depth h1; the pressure at that depth is:

P1=h1ρg,

𝑚
where ρ is the density of the fluid and g≈9.81 is the gravitational acceleration. The magnitude of the
𝑠2
force on the top surface is:

F1=P1A=h1ρgA.

This force points downwards. Similarly, the force on the bottom surface is:

F2=P2A=h2ρgA.
15
and points upwards. Because it is cylindrical, the net force on the object’s sides is zero—the forces on
different parts of the surface oppose each other and cancel exactly. Thus, the net upward force on the
cylinder due to the fluid is:

FB=F2−F1=ρgA(h2−h1)

Comple te Subme rs ion

The buoyancy force on a completely submerged object of volume is FB=Vρg.

Ke y Points

• If an object is completely submerged, the volume of the fluid displaced is equal to the volume of
the object.

• The buoyancy force on hot-air balloons, dirigibles and other objects can be calculated by
assuming that they are entirely submerged in air.

• The buoyancy force does not depend on the shape of the object, only on its volume.

Ke y Te rms

• Archimedes principle: The buoyant force exerted on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the
weight of the fluid the body displaces.

The Archimedes principle is easiest to understand and apply in the case of entirely submersed objects.
In this section we discuss a few relevant examples. In general, the buoyancy force on a completely
submerged object is given by the formula:

FB=Vρg,

where V is the volume of the object, ρ is the density of the fluid, and gg is gravitational acceleration.
This follows immediately from the Archimedes’ principle, and the the fact that the object is completely
submerged (and so the volume of the fluid displaced is just the volume of the object).

He lium Airs hip

Consider the USS Macon, a helium-filled airship (shown in). Its envelope (the “balloon”) contained
184,059.5 cubic meters of helium. Ignoring the small volume of the gondola, what was the buoyancy
force on this airship? If the airship weighed 108,000 kg, how much cargo could it carry? Assume the
density of air is 1.225 kg per meter cubed. The buoyancy force on an airship is due to the air in which it
16
is immersed. Although we don’t know the exact shape of the airship, we know its volume and the
density of the air, and thus we can calculate the buoyancy force:

Helium airship: The USS Macon, a 1930s helium-filled airship.

𝑘𝑔 𝑚
FB=Vρg=184,059.5kg×1.225𝑚3 ×9.81 𝑠3 ≈2.212×106N

To find the cargo capacity of the airship, we subtract the weight of the airship from the buoyancy force:

𝑚
Fcargo=FB−mg=2.21×106N−1.08×105kg×9.81 3 =1.15×106N
𝑠

The mass the airship can carry is:

𝐹𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑜
mcargo= 𝑔
=1.2×105kg=120tons.

Flota tion

An object floats if the buoyancy force exerted on it by the fluid balances its weight.

Ke y Points

• The buoyancy force experienced by an object depends on its shape.

• The fraction of an object’s volume that’s submerged is given by the ratio of its average density to
that of the fluid: ¯ρobj/ρflρ

• An object floats if the buoyancy force exerted on it by the fluid balances its weight.

Ke y Te rms

17
 • Archimedes principle: The buoyant force exerted on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the
weight of the fluid the body displaces.

Flota tion a nd De ns ity

Density plays a crucial role in Archimedes’ principle. The average density of an object is what
ultimately determines whether it floats. If its average density is less than that of the surrounding fluid, it
will float. This is because the fluid, having a higher density, contains more mass and thus more weight
in the same volume. The buoyant force, which equals the weight of the fluid displaced, is thus greater
than the weight of the object. Likewise, an object denser than the fluid will sink. The extent to which a
floating object is submerged depends on how the object’s density is related to that of the fluid. For
example, an unloaded ship has a lower density, and less of it is submerged compared with the same
ship loaded with cargo. We can derive a quantitative expression for the fraction submerged by
considering density. The fraction submerged is the ratio of the volume submerged to the volume of the
object, or

Density and Submersion: An unloaded ship (a) floats higher in the water than a loaded ship (b).

Arc hime des Princ iple Solv e d Exa mples

Q1: Calculate the resulting force, if a steel ball of radius 6 cm is immersed in water.

Ans: Given parameters in the question

Radius of the steel ball, r = 6 cm = 0.06 m

4
Thus Volume of the steel ball will be, V= πr3
3

18
 4
i.e. V= 3
π(0.06)3

thus, V=9.05×10−4meter3

Density of water, ρ=1000kgm3

Acceleration due to gravity, g=9.8ms2

Now, the formula for Archimedes principle is:

Fb=ρ×g×V

Fb =1000kgm3×9.8ms2×(9.05×10−4meter3)
Fb = 8.87 N

Thus, resulting force will be 8.87 N.

Q2. Calculate the buoyant force, if a floating body is 95% submerged in water. The density of water is
1000 kg.m-3.
Ans: Given,
Density of water, p = 1000 kg.m-3
From Archimedes principle formula,
Fb = ρ × g × V
or
Vb × ρb × g = ρ × g × V

Where,

ρ,g, and V are the density, acceleration due to gravity, and volume of the water
Vb, ρb, and g are the volume, density, and acceleration due to gravity of body immersed
Rearranging the equation,
𝑉𝑝
ρb= 𝑉𝑏

Since 95% of the body is immersed,

0.95 × Vb = V
∴ρb = 950 kg.m-3

Topic 4: Fluid Flow Continuity

19
Now we apply the principle of mass conservation. Since there is no flow through the side walls of the
duct, what mass comes in over A_1 goes out of A_2, (the flow is steady so that there is no mass
accumulation). Over a short time interval \Delta t,

There are other methods of making the flow clear. For eg, the path taken by our fluorescent
drop can be traced using a long-exposure photograph. This line is called a pathline, and it's close to
what you see when you take a long-term shot of the car lights on the highway at night. It is possible
for the paths to intersect, as you might expect from the analog of the freeway: as the car switches
the route, the path line traced by the lights can cross another path line traced by the opposing
vehicle at a different time.

Another way to visualize flow patterns is by streaking. A streakline is a line traced by all the
particles that have gone through a given point at some earlier time. For eg, if we continually emit
fluorescent dye from a fixed point, the dye would make up a streakline as it moves downstream. To
begin the analog of the highway, the line consists of lights on all cars going through the same toll
booth. If they all take the same path (steady flow), a single line would result, but if they follow
separate paths (unsteady flow), the line will cross over itself. In unsteady flow, streamlines, pathlines
and streaklines are all distinct, but in steady flow, streamlines, pathlines and streaklines are the
same.

Sample Problem

A liquid flow through a pipe with a diameter of 10cm at a velocity of 9cm/s. If the diameter of the pipe
then decreases to 6cm, what is the new velocity of the liquid?

20
Rate of flow, A * v, must remain constant. Use the continuity equation, A1v1=A2v2.

Solving the initial cross-sectional area yields: A1=πr2=25πcm2. The initial radius is 5cm.

Then find the final area of the pipe: A2=πr2=9πcm2. The final radius is 3cm.

Using these values in the continuity equation allows us to solve the final velocity.

(25πcm2)(9cm/s)=(9πcm2)v2

v2=25cm/s

Topic 5: Bernoulli’s Equation

· Squat effect

In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. The
principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli who published it in his book Hydrodynamics in1738. Although
Bernoulli deduced that pressure decreases when the flow speed increases, it was Leonhard Euler who
derived Bernoulli's equation in its usual form in 1752. The principle is only applicable for isentropic
flows: when the effects of irreversible processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic
processes (e.g. heat radiation) are small and can be neglected.

Wha t is Be rnoulli's princ iple ?

Bernoulli's principle is a seemingly counterintuitive statement about how the speed of a fluid relates to
the pressure of the fluid. Many people feel like Bernoulli's principle shouldn't be correct, but this might
be due to a misunderstanding about what Bernoulli's principle actually says. Bernoulli's principle
states the following,
Bernoulli's principle: Within a horizontal flow of fluid, points of higher fluid speed will have less
pressure than points of slower fluid speed.

21
Bernoulli's theory can be extended to various kinds of fluid flow, resulting in different versions of
Bernoulli's equation; there are different forms of Bernoulli's equation for different types of flow. The
basic form of the Bernoulli equation is valid for incompressible flows (e.g. most liquid flows and gases
moving at low Mach number). More modern forms can be used for compressible flows at higher Mach
amounts (see the derivations of the Bernoulli equation).

In certain liquid and low-Machine gas flows, the density of the fluid parcel can be considered stable,
independent of the pressure difference in the flow. As a consequence, the stream may be found to be
incompressible and these currents are called incompressible flows. Bernoulli conducted his liquid tests,
but his equation in its original form is only applicable for an incompressible flow. The common form of
Bernoulli's equation, valid at any arbitrary point along a streamlining axis, is:

where:

v is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline,

g is the acceleration due to gravity,
z is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive z-direction pointing upward – so
in the direction opposite to the gravitational acceleration,
p is the pressure at the chosen point, and
ρ is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.

The constant on the right-hand side of the equation depends only on the streamline chosen,
whereas v, z and p depend on the particular point on that streamline.

The following assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply:

• the flow must be steady, i.e. the flow parameters (velocity, density, etc...) at any point cannot
change with time,

22
 • the flow must be incompressible – even though pressure varies, the density must remain
constant along a streamline;
• friction by viscous forces must be negligible.

For conservative force fields (not limited to the gravitational field), Bernoulli's equation can be
generalized as:

where Ψ is the force potential at the point considered on the streamline. E.g. for the Earth's
gravity Ψ = gz.

By multiplying with the fluid density ρ, equation (A) can be rewritten as:

• q = 1/2ρv2 is dynamic pressure,

• h = z + p/ρg is the piezometric head or hydraulic head (the sum of the elevation z and the
pressure head) and

p0 = p + q is the total pressure (the sum of the static pressure p and dynamic pressure q).

The constant in the Bernoulli equation can be normalized. A common approach is in terms of total
head or energy head H

The above calculations imply that there is a flow velocity at which the pressure is zero, and at even
higher rates the pressure is negative. Much of the time, gasses and liquids are not capable of negative
absolute pressure or even zero pressure, so it is clear that Bernoulli's equation is no longer valid until
zero pressure is achieved. In liquids, cavitation happens as the pressure becomes too low. The above
equations use a linear relationship between the squared rate of flow and the strain. At higher flow rates
in gases, or at sound waves in liquids, variations in mass density become important enough that the
concept of constant density is inaccurate.

What is Bernoulli’s equation?

Bernoulli's equation relates the pressure, speed, and height of any two points (1 and 2) in a steady

streamline flowing fluid of density ρ. Bernoulli's equation is usually written as follows,

1 1
P1+2𝜌𝑣12+ρgh1=P2+2𝜌𝑣22+ρgh2

23
The variables P1, v1, h1, refer to the pressure, speed, and height of the fluid at point 1, whereas the
variables P2, v2, and h2, refer to the pressure, speed, and height of the fluid at point 2 as seen in the
diagram below. The diagram below shows one particular choice of two points (1 and 2) in the fluid, but
Bernoulli's equation will hold for any two points in the fluid.

www.khanacademy.org

Sample Problem:

Water is flowing at a rate of 2m3s through a tube with a diameter of 1m. If the pressure at this point
is 80kPa, what is the pressure of the water after the tube narrows to a diameter of 0.5m?

ρwater=1.0kgl

We need Bernoulli's equation to solve this problem:

Solution:

1 1
P1+2𝜌𝑣12+ρgh1=P2+2𝜌𝑣22+ρgh2

The problem statement doesn't tell us that the height changes, so we can remove the last term on
each side of the expression, then arrange to solve for the final pressure:

P2=P1+12ρ(v21−v22)

24
 We know the initial pressure, so we still need to calculate the initial and final velocities. We'll use the
continuity equation:

V˙=vA

Rearrange for velocity:

v=V˙A

Where A is the cross-sectional area. We can calculate this for each diameter of the tube:

A1=πd24=π(1m)24=π4m

A2=πd24=π(0.5m)24=π16m

Now we can calculate the velocity for each diameter:

v1=2m3sπ4m=8πms

v2=2m3sπ16m=32πms

Now we have all of the values needed for Bernoulli's equation, allowing us to solve:

P2=(80,000Pa)+12(1000kgm3)(8π−32π)

P2=(80,000Pa)+(500)(−24π)=76.2kPa

Topic 6: Viscous Fluid Flow (viscosity)

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it
corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a higher viscosity
than water. viscous fluid, stress is linearly related to the rate of distortion. Consider, for example, the
simplest case in which an incompressible fluid is subject to a shear stress in the x-direction and
responds by distortion in the xy-plane. In that case, all velocity gradients are zero except for ∂ux/∂y,
and all components of shear stress are zero except for σyx. Normal stresses (i.e., pressure) acting on
the fluid may not be zero, but because the fluid is assumed incompressible, they do not affect fluid
distortion. For the case considered, the relationship between shear stress and rate of distortion can be
expressed as

25
WATER VELOCITY
Remember that flow rate(Q) is velocity (V) times pipe cross-sectional area (A). Therefore, the flow
(Q), is directly proportional to the velocity (V), if the pipe area (A) is constant. Within a given pipe, the
flow rate increases as the velocity increases.

Water velocity in a pipe is very important to the proper operation of an irrigation system.

There is a danger to increasing the velocity. A mass of fast-moving water can create a large force
within the enclosure if its path is suddenly blocked.

Closing a valve quickly can cause a surge pressure or water hammer in pipes filled quickly with high-
velocity water. It can occur when flow reverses direction and goes back against a stopped pump.

To prevent water hammer that might damage the pipes, limit water velocities to a maximum of 5 to 7
ft/sec (360 to 420 ft/min).

Fortunately, a table of values is available to help the pipe selection process.

A second danger to increasing velocity comes in the form of a loss of flow energy or pressure as
velocity increases.

At low velocities water flows over slight imperfections on the pipe walls smoothly. However, at high
velocities the imperfections cause turbulence in the fast-moving flow. The turbulence slows the water
flow and dissipates flow energy.

Viscosity, resistance of a fluid (liquid or gas) to a change in shape, or movement of neighbouring

portions relative to one another. Viscosity denotes opposition to flow. The reciprocal of the viscosity
is called the fluidity, a measure of the ease of flow. Molasses, for example, has a greater viscosity

26
than water. Because part of a fluid that is forced to move carries along to some
extent adjacent parts, viscosity may be thought of as internal friction between the molecules; such
friction opposes the development of velocity differences within a fluid. Viscosity is a major factor in
determining the forces that must be overcome when fluids are used in lubrication and transported in
pipelines. It controls the liquid flow in such processes as spraying, injection molding, and surface
coating.

FLUID VISCOSITY

Fluid Viscosity, also referred to as dynamic viscosity or total viscosity, is the resistance of the fluid to
flow, and is caused by shearing tension inside the moving fluid and between the flowing fluid and its
container.

Viscosity is usually denoted by the Greek symbol μ (mu) and is defined as the ratio of shearing
stress τ (Greek letter tau) to the rate of change of velocity, v, which in mathematical terms can be
expressed as dv/dy (where this is the derivative of the of the velocity with respect to the distance y).

The derivative dv/dy is called the velocity gradient.

This results in the important equation for fluid shear for viscous or laminar flow:

τ = μ•dv/dy

However, the above equation is not applicable to the turbulent flow where a significant volume of
shear stress is due to an exchange of momentum between the neighboring layers of the fluid. To
decide whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, you need to count the amount of moving fluids in
Reynold. Laminar flow happens when the amount of the Reynold is less than 2300.

From the above equation it can be determined that the dimensions of viscosity are force multiplied by
time divided by length squared or FT/L² The units of viscosity in the English system and the SI
system are:

lb•sec/ft² or Slug/ft•sec and N•s/m² or kg/m•s

27
The types of cargo ship motions at sea and their effects

When cargo ships travel across the sea, they are subjected to six types of ship motions due to wave
action. Both shipping containers being carried by the ship and the cargo these containers hold are
subject to the ship’s motions, which affect the ship, its containers and cargo in different ways.

The re a re s ix ge ne ra l types of s hip motions

The six types of wave action motion are constantly applied to the ship in varying degrees as it travels
across the water. This complex interaction of motions is why sailors often find it difficult to walk on a
deck.

Ship motions occur along the vertical, transverse or longitudinal axis, or around the center of gravity
for the ship. They are made up of three lateral movements and three rotations. The six ship motions
are:

➢ Heaving: vertical movement

➢ Swaying: transverse movement
➢ Surging: longitudinal movement
➢ Rolling: longitudinal rotation
➢ Pitching: transverse rotation
➢ Yawing: vertical rotation

Cargo ship movement types

28
A s pec ia l ca se of s hip motion: s la mming

Slamming is used to describe the motion where he bottom of the ship hull crashes into wave crests,
then abruptly becomes immersed in the sea. Slamming occurs when ships travel through the water
and are forced to move up and down in large waves. The bow of the ship rises from the water as it
goes over the crest of a wave, then drops to impact on the water below.

Move me nts a re more s ignific a nt tha n rota tions

In general, the rotational motions, such yawing, pitching and rolling, do not affect the ship as
severely as the lateral movements, i.e., heaving, swaying and surging. How the ship is affected by
the rotational and lateral forces (accelerations) applied by these ship motions depends upon several
major factors, including:

➢ Shape, size and weight of the ship

➢ Position of the center of gravity within the ship
➢ Position of the center buoyancy within the ship
➢ Maximum width at the waterline (beam) of the ship

Rotational motions are centrifugal forces (accelerations) that are directed outward from the center of
gravity and buoyancy. The stresses and pressures that result from these forces are at a maximum at
the ship extremities (e.g., bow, stern and outer walls) and diminish to zero as they move to the
center point of rotation. Lateral movements typically apply stress and pressure at a constant rate
along the length of ship or the section of ship to which they are applied.

Sea wave action that causes rotational movement does not move the ship as much the same wave
action that generates lateral movements. The lateral forces from heaving, swaying, surging and
slamming can produce extremely high stresses and pressures to a ship relative to rotational forces –
so much so that their effects have to be taken into careful consideration when designing ships.

DYNAMIC VISCOSITY / ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY

The Pascal unit (Pa) is specifies pressure, or stress = force per area

Pascals can be combined with time (seconds) to define dynamic viscosity.

μ = Pa•s
1.00 Pa•s = 10 Poise = 1000 Centipoise

29
Centipoise (cP) is commonly used to describe dynamic viscosity because water at a temperature of
20°C has a viscosity of 1.002 Centipoise.

This value must be converted back to 1.002 x 10^-3 Pa•s for use in calculations.

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY

Viscosity can be measured by timing the flow of a known volume of fluid from a viscosity measuring
cup. The timings can be used in a formula to estimate the kinematic viscosity value of the fluid in
Centistokes (cSt).

The guiding force moving the fluid out of the cup is the head of the fluid, which is also found in the
equation that makes up the volume of the fluid. As the equations are rationalized, the fluid head
concept is discarded leaving the Kinematic Viscosity Units as area/time.

v = m²/s

1.0 m²/s = 10000 Stokes = 1000000 Centistokes

Water at a temperature of 20°C has a viscosity of 1.004 x 10^-6 m²/s

This evaluates to 1.004000 Centistokes.
This value must be converted back to 1.004 x 10^-6 m²/s for use in calculations.

The kinematic viscosity can also be determined by dividing the dynamic viscosity by the fluid density.

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY AND DYNAMIC VISCOSITY RELATIONSHIP

Kinematic Viscosity = Dynamic Viscosity / Density

v = μ/ρ

Sample Problem

A fluid with absolute viscosity of 0.98 Ns/m2 and kinematic viscosity of 3 m2/s. Determine the
density of fluid?

Answer:
Given

Absolute viscosity μ = 0.98 Ns/m2

30
kinematic viscosity ν = 3 m2/s

ν = μ/ρ

The density is given by,

ρ = ν/μ

ρ = 3/(0.98)

ρ = 3.0612 kg/m3

Therefore, the density of a fluid is 3.0612 kg/m3.

What is volume flow rate?

You know all about the motion of individual objects. Now, let's talk about how to analyze the motion of
a fluid.

Wha t does v olume flow rate mea n?

You might hear the term volume flow rate and think it sounds boring, but volume flow rate keeps you
alive. I'll tell you how in a second, but first we should define volume flow rate. The volume flow
rate Q of a fluid is defined to be the volume of fluid that is passing through a given cross sectional area
per unit time. The term cross sectional area is just a fancy term often used to describe the area
through which something is flowing, e.g., the circular area inside the dashed line in the diagram
below.
[Why is the letter Q used for flow rate?]

31
Since volume flow rate measures the amount of volume that passes through an area per time, the
equation for the volume flow rate looks like this:

In S.I. units (International System of Units), volume flow rate has units of meters cubed per
𝑚3
second, since it tells you the number of cubic meters of fluid that flow per second.
𝑠

So how does volume flow rate keep you alive? Your heart pumps a volume of blood roughly equal to
the volume of a can of soda every four seconds.
[What is the volume flow rate for the heart?]

Is the re a nothe r formula for v olume flow ra te ?

𝑉
It turns out there's a useful alternative to writing the volume flow rate as Q = .
𝑡

The volume of a portion of the fluid in a pipe can be written as V=Ad, where A is the cross sectional
area of the fluid and d is the width of that portion of fluid, see the diagram below. We can substitute
this formula for volume V into the volume flow rate to get the following:
[Does the pipe have to be cylindrical?]

32
 𝑑
But the term is just the length of the volume of fluid divided by the time it took the fluid to flow
𝑡
𝑑
through its length, which is just the speed of the fluid. So we can replace with v in the previous
𝑡

equation and get

A is the cross sectional area of a section of the pipe, and v is the speed of the fluid in that section. So,
we get a new formula for the volume flow rate Q=Av that is often more useful than the original
definition of volume flow rate because the area A is easy to determine. Most pipes are cylindrical—
which means the area can be found with A=πr2—and the speed v of the fluid is a quantity that is of
particular interest in many situations.
Be careful though, we're now dealing with two terms that look very similar. The volume is represented
with a capital letter V, and the speed is represented with a lowercase letter v. People often mix up the
notation for volume, V, and speed, v, since they look so similar.

Inc ompre ss ibility of liquids

It turns out that most liquids are nearly incompressible. This means that a gallon of milk can be put into
a differently shaped gallon-sized container, but you wouldn't be able to squeeze that entire gallon of
milk into a half-gallon-sized container no matter how hard you squeeze.
[Is that really true?]
Because liquids are incompressible, any portion of liquid flowing through a pipe could change shape,
but it must maintain the same volume. This is true even if the pipe changes diameter. In the diagram
below, the volume, V, of liquid on the left changes shape as it enters a narrow section of pipe, but it
maintains the same volume since liquids are incompressible.

33
Wha t is the e quation of c ontinuity?

Liquids must maintain their volume as they flow in a pipe since they are nearly incompressible. This
means that the volume of liquid that flows into a pipe in a given amount of time must equal the
volume of liquid that flows out of a pipe in the same amount of time. For instance, if in one hour you
pump 2 m3 of water into a pipe that is already full of water, 2 m 3 has to flow out of that pipe during
that same hour. The only alternatives would be for the liquid to compress inside the pipe—which
shouldn't happen—or the pipe balloons in size—which we assume doesn't happen if the pipe is rigid.
Remember, you're not confined to considering points only at the beginning or end of the pipe, this
argument works just as well for water entering and exiting any two sections of the pipe.
So, the volume flow rate Q for an incompressible fluid at any point along a pipe is the same as the
volume flow rate at any other point along a pipe.

This can be represented mathematically with the formula Q=constant or—choosing any two points in
the pipe—we can state mathematically that the volume flow rate is the same at any two points by
writing

Q1=Q2
34
 𝑉
Now if we substitute the formula Q = , we get
𝑡

Alternatively, we could plug in the alternative form of the volume flow rate, Q=Av, into the formula,
Q1=Q2, which would give us

A1v1=A2v2,

This equation is known as the equation of continuity for incompressible fluids—the previous two
equations are also sometimes referred to as the equation of continuity. The equation isn't really as
mysterious as the name suggests since we found it simply by requiring that volumes be
incompressible as they flow through a pipe.
The equation is quite useful though, particularly in this form, since it says that the value of Av, v has a
constant value throughout the pipe. In other words, no matter where in the pipe you choose to find Av
v, the value will always come out to be the same number for a given pipe, if the fluid is incompressible.

So, if the area, A, of a section of pipe decreases, the speed, v, of the liquid there must increase so that
the product, Av, v, remains the same. This means that fluids speed up when they reach a narrow
section of a pipe and slow down when they reach a wider section of a pipe. This matches everyday
experience—think about what happens if you block a portion of the water hose with your thumb,
effectively reducing its area, A. The water must come out with higher speed, v, to ensure the volume
flow rate, Av, remains the same. This is why narrow nozzles, which reduce the area (A), attached to
water hoses cause a significant increase in the speed, v, of the fluid at that point.

Wha t do s olve d ex a mple s inv olv ing v olume flow rate look lik e ?

Ex a mple 1: Mounta in De w dre a m hous e

A very wealthy woman who loves soda builds her house with a cylindrical pipe that transports
Mountain Dew from downstairs to her upstairs bedroom. The Mountain Dew enters the house
downstairs via a pipe with a cross sectional area of 0.0036 m2 where it is traveling with a speed of 0.48

35
meters per second. At the wealthy lady's bedroom, the faucet pipe through which the Mountain Dew
exits has an area of 0.0012 m2.

What is the speed of the Mountain Dew as it exits the faucet pipe in the lady's bedroom?

A1v1 =A2v2 (Start with the equation of continuity since liquids are incompressible.)
𝐴1
v2 = ( ) v1 (Solve symbolically for the speed of the liquid at the bedroom.)
𝐴2
0.00362
v2 = 0.0012m2 (0.48 m/s) (Plug in the values for the areas and speed.)
v2 = 1.44 m/s (Calculate and celebrate!)

Note: We could have also solved this problem just by noticing that the area, A2, start subscript, of the
1
pipe in the bedroom was the area of the pipe downstairs, A1. This means that the speed of the
3

Mountain Dew has to be going three times as fast in the bedroom pipe, compared to the downstairs
pipe, in order for the factor Av, v to remain the same.

Ex a mple 2: Coc onut -milk c upca kes

A chef wants to make sure he always has coconut milk ready for all his cupcake recipes, so he creates
a cylindrical pipe that goes from the storeroom to the kitchen. The pipe at the storeroom has a radius of
4 cm where the coconut milk has a speed of 0.25 meters per second. The coconut milk exits the tube in
the kitchen with a speed of 1 meter per second.

What is the radius of the tube at the kitchen through which the coconut milk exits?

A1v1=A2v2 (Start with the equation of continuity since liquids are incompressible.)

π(r1)2v1=π(r2)2v2 (Plug in the formula πr2 for the cross-sectional area of the cylindrical pipe.)

(r1)2v1=(r2)2v2 (Cancel the common factor of π.)

𝑣
(r2)2=(r1)2 𝑣1 (Symbolically solve for the square of the radius of the pipe at the kitchen.)
2

𝑣
r2 = r1√𝑣1 (Take a square root of both sides.)
2

36
 0.25 𝑚/𝑠
r2=(4 cm) √ (Plug in values for the radius and speeds.)
1.0 𝑚/𝑠

r2=2 cm or 0.02 m (Calculate and celebrate!)

Note: We plugged in our radius, r1=4 cm, in units of centimeters, which just means that our answer
came out in units of centimeters.

Topic 7: The Continuity equation, Reynolds Number, Froude number and Froude Depth.

REYNOLDS NUMBER ( Re )
The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. The Reynolds number is
a dimensionless number used to categorize the fluids systems in which the effect of viscosity is
important in controlling the velocities or the flow pattern of a fluid. Mathematically, the Reynolds
number, NRe, is defined as:

𝑝𝑣𝑙 𝑣𝑙
Re= =
μ v

Where:
v = Velocity of the fluid
l = The characteristics length, the chord width of an airfoil
ρ = The density of the fluid
μ = The dynamic viscosity of the fluid
v = The kinematic viscosity of the fluid

What is the Reynolds Number?

The dimensionless Reynolds number plays a prominent role in foreseeing the patterns in a fluid’s
behavior. The Reynolds number, referred to as Re, is used to determine whether the fluid flow is
laminar or turbulent. It is one of the main controlling parameters in all viscous flows where a numerical
model is selected according to pre-calculated Reynolds number.

Although the Reynolds number comprises both static and kinetic properties of fluids, it is specified as a
flow property since dynamic conditions are investigated. Technically speaking, the Reynolds number is
the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces. This ratio helps to categorize laminar flows from the
turbulent ones.

37
Inertial forces resist a change in the velocity of an object and are the cause of the fluid movement.
These forces are dominant in turbulent flows. Otherwise, if the viscous forces, defined as the resistance
to flow, are dominant – the flow is laminar. The Reynolds number can be specified as below:

𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠

Re = =
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠

For instance, a glass of water which stands on a static surface, regardless of any forces apart from
gravity, is at rest and flow properties are ignored. Thus, the numerator in equation is “0”. That results in
independence from the Reynolds number for a fluid at rest. On the other hand, whilst water is spilled by
tilting a water-filled glass a Reynolds number can be estimated to predict fluid flow that is illustrated in
Figure.

Figure : A glass of water a) at rest; b) flows. Fluid flow occurs due to imbalanced forces thus defining flow
characteristics that the Reynolds number can quantify.

The dimensionless Reynolds number predicts whether the fluid flow would be laminar or turbulent
referring to several properties such as velocity, length, viscosity, and also type of flow. It is expressed
as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces and can be explained in terms of units and parameters
respectively, as below:

𝑝𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐿
Re= μ
= v

𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 × 𝑠 ×𝑚 𝐹
𝑚3
Re = = =𝐹
𝐹𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝑎 × 𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
where ρ ( ) is the density of the fluid, V ( 2 ) is the characteristic velocity of the flow, and L (m) is the
𝑚3 𝑠
characteristic length scale of flow. Equation is the derivation of units at which the Reynolds number is
specified as non-dimensional. Variations of the Reynolds number are shown in equation

38
 𝑚2
where μ (Pa × s ) is the dynamic viscosity of fluid and v ( ) is the kinematic viscosity. The transition
𝑠
between dynamic and kinematic viscosity is as follows:
μ
v=
ρ

Froude number (Fr), in hydrology and fluid mechanics, dimensionless quantity used to indicate the
influence of gravity on fluid motion. This is written as Fr = v/(gd)1/2, in which d is depth of flow, g is the
gravitational acceleration (equal to the specific weight of the water divided by its density, in fluid
mechanics), v is the celerity of a small surface (or gravity) wave, and Fr is the Froude number. When Fr
is less than 1, small surface waves can move upstream; when Fr is greater than 1, they will be carried
downstream; and when Fr = 1 (said to be the critical Froude number), the velocity of flow is just equal
to the velocity of surface waves. The Froude number enters into formulations of the hydraulic jump (rise
in water surface elevation) that occurs under certain conditions, and, together with the Reynolds
number, it serves to delineate the boundary between laminar and turbulent flow conditions in open
channels.

𝑉
Fr = (𝑔𝐷)1/2

Fr = Froude number
V = average velocity of the liquid in a channel ( feet/second or meters/second)
g = acceleration due to gravity ( 32.17 ft/sec2 or 9.81 m/sec2 )
D = hydraulic depth
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
D=
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

Froude number was titled after William Froude is a dimensionless number known as the ratio of
characteristic velocity to the gravity wave velocity.

Where the characteristic velocity is v and

the characteristic wave velocity is c,

gravity in terms of the Froude number is articulated as,

39
 Where,
Froude number is Fr,

velocity is v,

gravity is g,

characteristic length is l.

Sample Problem:

Calculate Reynolds number, if a fluid having viscosity of 0.4 Ns/m 2 and relative density of 900
Kg/m3 through a pipe of 20mm with a velocity of 2.5 m.

Solution 1 – Given that,

Viscosity of fluid μ
μ=0.4Nsm2
Density of fluid ρ

ρ=900Kg/m2
Diameter of the fluid

L=20×10−3m
Re=ρVLμ
=900×2.5×20×10−30.4
=112.5

Importance of Dimensionless Numbers

� The use of dimensionless numbers in engineering and physics allows the important task of data
reduction of similar problems. This means that a lot of experimental runs are avoided if data is
correlated using appropriate dimensionless parameters.
� Dimensionless numbers often correlate with some performance parameter and greatly aid
engineering analysis and design.
� The value of the dimensionless numbers often reflects certain properties. For example, a flow
problem with a low Reynolds Number will be laminar, while a larger value will imply turbulent behaviour.
� The number of dimensionless numbers determines the dimensionality of the space of solutions. For
example, if a problem has two dimensionless numbers, then by varying both numbers, all the different
behaviours in the problem can be accounted for.
40
� A dimensionless number can be used in the analysis of prototype models, to predict behaviour in
similar full-scale systems. Dimensionless numbers help to compare two systems that are vastly
different by combining the parameters of interest. For example, the Reynolds number, Re = velocity *
length / kinematic viscosity. If an airfoil has to be tested with a particular Re, and simulation is
conducted on a scaled-down model (length is smaller), one could increase fluid velocity or lower
kinematic viscosity (change fluids) or both to establish the same Re and ensure working under
comparable circumstances.

Table List of few dimensionless numbers

Dimensionless Group of
Significance Application
No. Variables
1. Reynolds Laminar viscous
Numbers flow in confined
passage (pipes)
Free surface
2. Froude’s
flow where
Number effect of gravity
is important.
Capillary &
Sheet flow
3. Weber’s
where surface
Number tension is
important.

There are in general three types of fluid flow in pipes

• laminar

• turbulent

• transient

La mina r flow

Laminar flow generally happens when dealing with small pipes and low flow velocities. Laminar flow can
be regarded as a series of liquid cylinders in the pipe, where the innermost parts flow the fastest, and
the cylinder touching the pipe isn't moving at all.

Shear stress in a laminar flow depends almost only on viscosity - μ - and is independent of density - ρ.

T urbule nt flow
41
In turbulent flow vortices, eddies and wakes make the flow unpredictable. Turbulent flow happens in
general at high flow rates and with larger pipes.

Shear stress in a turbulent flow is a function of density - ρ.

T ra ns itiona l flow

Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow, with turbulence in the center of the pipe, and
laminar flow near the edges. Each of these flows behave in different manners in terms of their frictional
energy loss while flowing and have different equations that predict their behavior.

Turbulent or laminar flow is determined by the dimensionless Reynolds Number.

Re ynolds Numbe r

The Reynolds number is important in analyzing any type of flow when there is substantial velocity
gradient (i.e. shear.) It indicates the relative significance of the viscous effect compared to the inertia
effect. The Reynolds number is proportional to inertial force divided by viscous force.

The flow is

• laminar when Re < 2300

• transient when 2300 < Re < 4000
• turbulent when 4000 < Re

The influence of turbulence on dragging force

The use of the Reynolds number as the only correlating factor for drag force measurements may
be inadequate in circumstances involving highly turbulent flows. The results of previous
investigations relating to the effects of turbulence scale and intensity are examined. Of special
interest is the possibility of a drag minimum, even at low Reynolds number, for a free-stream
turbulence intensity of about 5%. This appears to be the result of interaction between the free
stream and the boundary layer. As intensity increases beyond 5%, the minimum may be
succeeded by an increase in drag to values exceeding the laminar flow values. Further
elucidation of the subject is required, particularly because of its importance in various problems
related to geophysical flows.

42
Topic 8: Application of Drag Force in ship handling and maneuvering in shallow and
Deepwater with respect to the channel or fairway

The vessel must be designed to pass safely through the water with a minimum of external force. For
thousands of years, ship designs and builders of sailing vessels have applied thumb rules, based on
the midship area, to the scale of the sails of the vessel. For e.g., the shape of the hull and the sail plan
for the clipper ships emerged from practice, not from theory. It wasn't until the introduction of steam
power and the development of massive iron ships in the mid-19th century that it became apparent to
ship owners and builders that a more systematic solution was required.

FROUDE’S EXPERIMENTS

When evaluating ship models and then comparing the findings with real ships, the models appear to
over-predict the ship's resistance.

Froude had observed that when a ship or model was at its so-called Hull speed the wave pattern of the
transverse waves (the waves along the hull) have a wavelength equal to the length of the waterline.
This means that the ship's bow was riding on one wave crest and so was its stern. This is often called
the hull speed and is a function of the length of the ship

where constant (k) should be taken as: 2.43 for velocity (V) in kn and length (L) in metres (m) or, 1.34
for velocity (V) in kn and length (L) in feet (ft).

Observing this, Froude realized that the ship resistance problem had to be broken into two different
parts: residuary resistance (mainly wave making resistance) and frictional resistance. To get the proper
residuary resistance, it was necessary to recreate the wave train created by the ship in the model tests.
He found for any ship and geometrically similar model towed at the suitable speed that:

There is a frictional drag that is given by the shear due to the viscosity. This can result in 50% of the
total resistance in fast ship designs and 80% of the total resistance in slower ship designs.

To account for the frictional resistance Froude decided to tow a series of flat plates and measure
the resistance of these plates, which were of the same wetted surface area and length as the model
ship, and subtract this frictional resistance from the total resistance and get the remainder as the
residuary resistance.

43
Topic 9: Application of cushion, suction and wash effects according to safe watch
keeping during navigating to narrow channel or with ship interaction.

When a ship passes into restricted areas, owing to limited navigable depth, it must pass close to the
shore and other man-made structures. The deeper water and the proximity of the side of the canal have
an impact on the vessel traveling through the restricted waters. These results cause maneuvering
errors that can lead to grounding or crash.

Any ship (regardless of its size) traveling along restricted waterways is heavily influenced by
hydrodynamic effects. In this post, we will explain three of the most common ship effects – Squat, Bank
and Bank Cushion Effects.

Squat Effect: As a ship passes through deeper water, some of the displaced water rushes under the
vessel to surface again at the stern. This lowers the upward pressure on the hull, letting the ship sink
lower into the water than usual and slowing down the vessel. This is known as the squat effect, which
raises the speed of the vessel.

Bank Effect: Bank Effect refers to the inclination of the ship's stern to swing to the close bank while the
ship is operating in a river or in a confined waterway.

Bank Cushion Effect: When the ship is near the bank, the water is squeezed between the closing
distance between the bow of the ship and the bank. This water continues to pile up on the starboard
side of the dock, allowing the ship to fall away from the bank.
44
Before we go on, let's explain some of the fundamental concepts of physics that we're going to use to
understand these impacts.

Consider a horizontally placed hourglass-shaped transparent cylinder. Let us make an arrangement

wherein water passes through that cylinder which is partially constricted at the middle as shown.

What do you notice?

You will notice that the liquid flows at a faster pace in the constricted area (fig).

Why does this happen?

There is an equation in physics that is known as “ Continuity Equation” which states that when a fluid is
in motion, it must move in such a way so that the mass is conserved. This means that in a continuous
flow of fluid in fig, the mass of fluid passing through point A is equal to that at B and also at C, in unit
time.

Clearly, the mass of the fluid passing through the cross section (shaded area) at point A will be equal to
that passing through point C or B.

To make this happen, the rate of flow of water at constricted point C must be more than that at A or B.
This also means that the velocity of flow at a constricted point is always greater so as to satisfy the
Continuity Equation.

Theoretically, if A is the cross section of the cylinder and v is the velocity of an inviscid (non sticky) fluid,
then A is inversely proportional to v, i.e., Av = constant.

45
Now one may ask why we are delving into all these when the topic is Squat effect and Bank effects on
ships passing through restricted waters? Simple, to clearly understand these effects we will have to
realize a few basic principles.

The second is the Bernoulli Theory, which states that an increase in the speed of the fluid (i.e., its
kinetic energy) happens at the same time as a reduction in the pressure or decrease in the potential
energy of the fluid (i.e., its kinetic energy). In truth, this theory is a corollary of the Law on the
Conservation of Energy, which states that the cumulative number of all energies in an isolated system
(about no energy to be shifted into or out of this system) is always the same.

Thus, in our first experiment (fig), the increased speed at constricted point C caused a decrease in
pressure at that point. If you want to see an experiment you can watch the video below:

Thus, theoretically, if P is the pressure at a point and v is the velocity of an incompressible fluid, then:

v = 1/P

THE SQUAT EFFECT

Without going into anymore mathematical complexities, let us now understand the Squat Effect.

Let us consider the figure of a ship in restricted waters:

A ship S is plying in shallow water.

46
If z and z' are the underwater clearance at fore and aft, so it is obvious from the diagram that z> z' is.
As a result, the clearance under the keel at point A is higher than at point B. Now, from the Continuity
Equation, we realize that the amplitude of the water flow (it is known to be non-viscous and
incompressible) at the stern is greater than that of the bow, or literally the flow is asymmetrical.

But Bernoulli's theory tells us that with a rise in the flow rate at B, there is a reduction in all round
pressure at B, which means that at B (at the stern) the ship will sink deeper and may hit the channel
bed. If the vessel is trim by the head, the bow appears to rest in the mud due to less friction. It's the
Squat Effect.

Squat effect increases doubly with speed. If the ship sinks x cm due to Squat Effect due to y speed
then it will sink 4x cm in 2y speed.

Thus, in order to eliminate squat, the pilot or master of the vessel must maintain a slow speed. If the
pilot sees that, without a noticeable change in shaft speed, the vessel is slowing down, so the Squat is
going on. In order to mitigate the Squat effect, it should immediately reduce the speed.

BANK EFFECT

Till now we have considered the keel’s proximity to the river or channel bed. Now we will consider the
hull’s proximity to the bank. Let’s refer to the figure 3.

We see the ship is close to the stern on the Starboard side. While the port side is wide open. When the
ship plies with considerable speed parallel to the bank, water flow rushing below from the vicinity of the
starboard bow towards the stern gets bottled at the constricted space at the stern. But to satisfy the
Continuity Equation, its speed increases below the Starboard Quarter. This increase of the speed of the
passing water decreases the pressure at the Zs zone than the Zp zone on the Port Quarter.
47
Consequently, water pressure at the port quarter will push the stern more towards the bank making the
bow swing towards the center of the channel. This effect of stern moving towards the bank is called the
Bank Effect.

A pilot, when maneuvering near a bank, must slow down to mitigate this impact and use the rudder's
support to fight it as best he can. Otherwise, he could be compelled to step out of the channel. Two
ships moving close to each other would have similar results in close proximity. Slowing down is the only
option, as is normal with all boats.

BANK CUSHION EFFECT

When the ship is approaching a steep bank as in fig, the water pressure at the starboard bow being
less than the port bow (due the asymmetric flow, explained earlier), the bow is pushed towards the port
as to dampen the speed of the fall. This is called Bow cushioning effect.

To minimize these effects, the pilot must slow down to avoid any untoward incident or accident.

Over to you.

Have you experienced these forces affecting your ship in restricted waters? Let us know about your
experiences and what have you done to minimize these effects.

Topic 10: The Maritime Application of:

48
 • Poiseuille’s Law

• Flick’s Law

• Stokes’s Law

POISEUILLE’S LAW

The flow of fluids through an IV catheter can be described by Poiseuille’s Law. It states that the flow (Q)
of fluid is related to a number of factors: the viscosity (n) of the fluid, the pressure gradient across the
tubing (P), and the length (L) and diameter(r) of the tubing.

Important points:

Tubing diameter: An important and frequently cited relationship is that of the tubing’s radius. Doubling
the diameter of a catheter increases the flow rate by 16 fold (r4). The larger the IV catheter the
greater the flow.

Fluid Viscosity: Flow is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid. Increasing viscosity
decreases flow through a catheter. Viscosity of commonly infused intravenous solutions range from
1.0 centiPoise to 40.0 cP (Reference: viscosity of water is 1.002 cP).

Viscosity of common infusions:

• 1.0 cP Lactated Ringers

• 4.0 cPHetastarch
• 40.0 cP 5% albumin

Of note, the viscosity of blood increases with increasing hematocrit and decreasing temperature, hence
one the rationales for fluid warmers: Warming and diluting blood prior to administration increases flow
rates.

Pressure: Increasing Pressure further maximizes flow as described by Poiseuille’s

Equation. This can be achieved by elevating fluid containers (IV bags). Utilizing pressure bags or
pressurized infusion devices are additional ways to increase the pressure gradients to optimize flow
rates.

49
To maximize flow, an ideal rapid infusion system would consist of the largest diameter and shortest
length tubing possible. Infused fluid should be of the lowest possible viscosity and it should be delivered
under maximum possible pressure.

Subs pec ia lty

General
Re la te d Me dia

FLICK’S LAW
The Law describes the relationship between the rate of diffusion and the three factors that affect
diffusion. It states that 'the rate of diffusion is proportional to both the surface area and concentration
difference and is inversely proportional to the thickness of the membrane'.

Fick's law can be written as:

means 'is proportional to'.

The rate of diffusion will double if:

1. surface area or concentration difference is doubled or

2. thickness of the exchange membrane is halved.

All of the exchange surfaces consist of cell membranes which are very thin. This explains why diffusion
is very fast across membranes.

50
 STOKES’S LAW

The mathematical equation that expresses the settling velocities of small spherical particles in
a fluid medium. The law, first set forth by the British scientist Sir George G. Stokes in 1851, is derived
by consideration of the forces acting on a particular particle as it sinks through a liquid column under
the influence of gravity. The force acting in resistance to the fall is equal to 6πrηv, in which r is the
radius of the sphere, η is the viscosity of the liquid, and v is the velocity of fall. The force acting
downward is equal to 4/3πr3 (d1 - d2)g, in which d1 is the density of the sphere, d2 is the density of the
liquid, and g is the gravitational constant. At a constant velocity of fall the upward and downward forces
are in balance. Equating the two expressions given above and solving for v therefore yields the
required velocity, expressed by Stokes’s law as v = 2/9(d1 - d2)gr2/η.

Stoke’s Law

Fs = 6πrηv,

Where

r is the radius of the object

η is the viscosity of the fluid, and

v is the object’s velocity.

II. PERFORMANCE TASK

2.1 Activity No. 1: Fluid Pressure

Write a 200 word Essay regarding the topic stated below:

1. Explain atmospheric Pressure.

2. How does gravity cause fluid pressure?
3. Properties that may affect fluid pressure?

2.1 Activity No. 2: Pressure Head

Answer the following problems given below:

1. A cubic meter of air at barometric pressure weighs 12 Newtons. What is its specific volume?

51
2. If the pressure 3m below the free surface of a liquid is 14 KPa, what would be its relative
density?
3. Find the Bulk Modulus of Elasticity of a liquid in ksi, if a pressure of 150 psi applied to 10 cu.ft.
of the liquid causes a volume reduction of 0.02 cu. Ft.
4. A submarine is cruising 600 ft below the ocean’s surface. Determine the absolute pressure on
the submarine’s surface. Assume acceleration due to gravity to be constant even at that depth.
5. A beer barrel has a mass of 20 lbs and a volume of 5 gallons. Assuming the beer’s density is
like that of water, what would be the total mass and weight of the beer barrel when it is filled
with beer?
6. A city of 6,000 population has an average total consumption per person per day of 100 gallons.
Compute the daily total consumption of the city in cu.m. per seconds.
7. A lunar excursion module (LEM) weighs 1500 kgf on earth where go = 9.75 m/ s2. Whatwould
be its weight in the moon’s surface where go = 1.70 m/ s2?
8. The mass of a given airplane at sea level (go = 32.1 fps2) is 10 tons. Find its mass in lbsm,
slugs, and gravitational weight when it is travelling at a 50,000 ft elevation. The acceleration of
gravity, go decreases by 3.33 x 10-6 for each foot of elevation.
9. The wreckage of the ship the Titanic is under 3800 m of ocean water. If the density of the cold
saltwater above the Titanic is 1050 kg/m3, what is the pressure at that depth?
10. Area of A is 60 cm2 and area of B is 4,200 cm2, determine the external input force of F.

2.1 Activity No. 3: Bernoulli’s Equation

A. Answer the following questions given below:

1. What are the different types of fluid flow?
2. What does the continuity equation tell us?
3. What are two traits of Bernoulli's principle?

B. Solve the following problems:

1. At a dock, a metal plate is completely submerged and attached to an underwater

wall. The side of the metal plate is exposed to the ocean, and to the flow of water
caused by tides. The plate has dimensions of height=2.3m and width=19m. If the
current has a speed of v=3ms at maximum tidal flow, how much force will the water
exert on the metal plate?

2. Water flows in the pipeline (see fig.). Calculate maximum velocity umax in the pipe
axis and discharge Q. Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent (T = 12oC).
The mercury differential manometer (Hg =
13600 kgm-3 ) shows the difference between
levels in Pitot tube Hm = 0,02 m. Diameter of the
52
 pipe is D = 0,15 m. Velocity coefficient of Pitot tube is  = 1,0. Mean velocity is
considered to be v = 0,84 umax.

2.1 Activity No. 4: Viscous Fluid Flow (viscosity)

A. Answer the following questions given below:

1. How does viscosity affect fluid flow?

2. What is the difference between flow rate and viscosity?
3. Does volume flow rate change with pressure?
4. What is relation between flow and pressure?
5. Does decreasing pipe size increase pressure?

B. Solve the following problems:

1. The absolute viscosity of a flowing fluid is given as 0.67 N s per square m. If the density is
known to be 10 kg per cubic m, calculate its kinematic viscosity coefficient using Kinematic
Viscosity Formula.
2. Water travels through a hose at 0.8 meters per second. If the cross-sectional area of the
exit nozzle is one-fifth that of the hose, at what speed does water exit the hose?
calculate its volume flow rate using Equation of continuity Formula.
3. The volume flow rate through pipe 1 is 2.5 times that of pipe 2. If the cross-sectional
area of pipe 1 is one-half that of pipe 2, what is the ratio of the flow speed in pipe 1 to
that in pipe 2?

2.1 Activity No. 5: The Continuity equation, Reynolds Number, Froude number and
Froude Depth

A. Answer the following questions given below

1. Why is Froude number dimensionless?

2. What is the difference between Reynolds number and Froude number?
3. What is the significance of the Reynolds number in practice?

B. Solve the following problems:

1. Calculate the velocity of the fish moving through the water if its length 0.3 m and Froude
number is 0.9.
2. Calculate Reynolds number, if a fluid having viscosity of 0.4 Ns/m2 and relative density
of 900 Kg/m3 through a pipe of 20 mm with a velocity of 2.5 m.

2.1 Activity No. 6: Poiseuille's

Write a 300 word Essay explaing Poiseuille's law.

53
III. SELF-ASSESMENT

A. Answer the following questions given below:

1. What is the relationship between the Archimedes Theory and the Maritimes? Explain
Metacenter, Gravity, Buoyancy, and Keel briefly.
2. If a stone of mass 250 g is thrown in water. Calculate the buoyant force acting on it? Show your
solution.
3. An object weighs 36 g in air and has a volume of 8.0 cm3. What will be its apparent weight
when immersed in water?
4. How is Archimedes Principle used today?
5. An object will be partially submerged in a fluid if ____.
6. A pipe with a diameter of 4 centimeters is attached to a garden hose with a nozzle. If the
velocity of flow in the pipe is 2ms, what is the velocity of the flow at the nozzle when it is
adjusted to have a diameter of 8 millimeters?
7. Why is there a Drag Force on a vessel? Can we remove the drag force of the vessel?
8. How the ship affects the use of cushion, suction and wash effects in its maneuver on a shallow
water or canal? Explain why cushion, suction, and wash effects can maneuver probable on a
small area or canal.

B. Solve the following problems:

1. A vertical rectangular sluice gate at the bottom of the dam is 0.6m wide and 1.8m high and
is exposed to water pressure on one side corresponding to a head of 15m above its center.
Assuming the gate on stem to weigh 2.23 kN and the coefficient of friction of gate on
runners to be 0.25, find the hydrostatic force acting on the depth, the frictional force between
the gate and runners, and the force necessary to raise the gate.

2. In the figure shown, the gate is 1.2m square and weighs 6.69 kN. Neglecting the thickness
of the gate and the weight of the chain, compute the minimum force required to open the
gate provided that the water exerts a force of 12, 714 N on the gate.

54
3. From the composite layers of fluids stored on a vessel shown, how far along the rectangular
gate’s surface is the hydrostatic force acting?

4. A ship travels from the sea and onto a lake. As it went from salt water into fresh water, it
sinks by 7.62 cm. To compensate for the “sagging” it uses the 72, 730 kg coal onboard
rising to a height 15.24 cm. a. Find the original draft in salt water. b. Find the original draft in
fresh water c. Find the weight of displaced seawater.

5. A composite cubical block having an edge equal to 3m has its upper half of sp. gravity =
0.80 and its lower half of sp. gravity 1.4. It is resting on two layers fluid with an upper sp.

55
 gravity of 0.90 and a lower sp. gravity of 1.2. Find the height of the top of the cube above the
interface of the two layer fluid.

6. Three different liquids with properties as indicated fill the tank and manometer tubes as
shown. Determine the specific gravity of fluid #3

7. Compartments A and B of the tank are closed and filled with air and a liquid with a specific
gravity equal to 0.6. Determine the manometer reading, h, if the barometric pressure is of
standard value, and that the gage pressure reads 0.5 psi…

IV. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READINGS

56
• https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/atmospheric-pressure/
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/11-6-gauge-pressure-absolute-pressure-
and-pressure-measurement/
• https://www.britannica.com/science/Pascals-principle
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/11-5-pascals-principle/
• https://byjus.com/physics/archimedes-principle/
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osuniversityphysics/chapter/14-1-fluids-density-and-
pressure/
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/archimedes-principle/
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RefIvqaYg8
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRfX9xQXtyI
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSMswMR4UfM
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bC8v6hlXnSk
• https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/fluids/fluid-dynamics/a/what-is-bernoullis-
equation
• Chakrabarty, Amitava (February 20, 2020). In: Marine Navigation
• https://www.marineinsight.com/marine-navigation/how-squat-bank-and-bank-cushion-effects-
influence-ships-in-restricted-waters/
• https://www.britannica.com/science/viscosity
• https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/fluids/fluid-dynamics/a/what-is-volume-flow-rate
• https://www.freightforwarderquoteonline.com/news/six-types-of-cargo-ship-motions-at-sea-and-
their-effects/
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q7VZh0dI35M
• https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/reynolds-
number#:~:text=The%20Reynolds%20number%20is%20the,NRe%2C%20is%20defined%20as
• https://www.simscale.com/docs/simwiki/numerics-background/what-is-the-reynolds-number/
• https://www.britannica.com/science/Froude-number
• http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.php?id=147054
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vcZOk5jZtMA
• https://geology-fundamentals.fandom.com/wiki/4247538/froude-number-
• https://darchive.mblwhoilibrary.org/bitstream/handle/1912/191/chapter%202.pdf?sequence=9&i
sAllowed=y
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h5t07S3C-B0
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I19FuTimlww
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wykn-JTnacE
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DxX6XLEdcAw
• https://www.princeton.edu/~asmits/Bicycle_web/continuity.html
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bC8v6hlXnSk&feature=youtu.be
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j1OgcZxCwcM
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cg4KlmI_acs&feature=youtu.be
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/stokes-law-definition-application.html

57