Molecules of life

 Carbohydrates:
 Made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
 Used as a source of energy for the body.
 Three types: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
 Monosaccharides are the simplest sugars and cannot be broken down
further.
 Disaccharides are two monosaccharides joined together.
 Polysaccharides are large chains of monosaccharides.
 Examples: starch, glycogen, cellulose.
 Fats/Oils:
 Made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (lower oxygen content than
carbohydrates).
 Serve various purposes in the body.
 Source of energy (higher energy content than carbohydrates).
 Heat insulation, myelin sheath and cell membrane formation.
 Composed of three fatty acid units attached to glycerol.
 Proteins:
 Made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur or
phosphorus.
 Important for growth, tissue repair, cell membrane formation, and
energy.
 Composed of long chains of amino acids chemically bonded.
 Different combinations of amino acids create different proteins.
 Protein's 3D structure determines its function.
 Examples of protein sequences and their resulting structures.
 Food Testing:
 Tests for starch, monosaccharides, proteins, and fats.
 Starch test: iodine solution turns blue/black in the presence of starch.
 Benedict's test: color change indicates the presence and quantity of
monosaccharides.
 Biuret test: violet color indicates the presence of protein.
 Emulsion test: white emulsion signifies the presence of fat.
 DNA Structure:
 Double helix structure with two coiled strands.
 Strands contain bases that pair up in specific ways (A with T, C with
G).
 Bases attracted to each other, forming pairs across the strands.
 Water:
 Essential for the human body.
 Important solvent for transportation of nutrients and waste.
 Majority of chemical reactions in the body require water/enzymes
work in the presence of water.
Enzymes.
 Catalysts and Enzymes:
 Catalysts increase the rate of chemical reactions without being
changed themselves.
 Enzymes are biological catalysts necessary for sustaining life.
 Enzymes are specific and bind to substrates at their active sites.
 Enzyme-substrate complex forms, reactions occur, and products are
released.
 Enzyme Activity and Temperature:
 Enzymes have an optimum temperature for optimal function.
 Extreme temperatures can denature enzymes and change their active
site shape.
 Low temperatures reduce reaction rates due to lower molecular
energy.
 High temperatures increase reaction rates but can denature enzymes.
 Enzyme Activity and pH:
 Enzymes have an optimum pH for optimal function.
 Deviation from the optimum pH can denature enzymes.
 Different enzymes have different optimum pH values.
 Pepsin works best in acidic conditions (pH 2), while amylase works
best in neutral conditions (pH 7).
Nutrition in plants
 Photosynthesis is the process by which plants produce carbohydrates using
light energy.
 Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis, as it converts light energy into
chemical energy.
 Glucose produced during photosynthesis is converted to sucrose for
transport or starch for storage.
 Limiting factors can restrict photosynthesis, such as a shortage of carbon
dioxide or chlorophyll.
 Investigations can be conducted to demonstrate the necessity of chlorophyll,
light, and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
 Starch tests can be used to determine if photosynthesis has occurred in
plants.
 Light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature can affect the
rate of photosynthesis.
 The structure of a leaf, including the cuticle, epidermis, mesophyll layers,
stomata, and vascular bundles, is adapted for photosynthesis.
 Nitrate ions and magnesium ions are important minerals for plant growth
and photosynthesis.
 Nitrate ion deficiency can lead to weakened growth and yellowing leaves.
 Magnesium ion deficiency can result in a lack of chlorophyll, yellowing
leaves, and reduced growth.
Animal nutrition
 A balanced diet contains all essential ingredients in correct proportions
 Factors affecting diet: age, gender, activity level, pregnancy, breastfeeding
 Malnutrition can lead to obesity, starvation, coronary heart disease,
kwashiorkor, constipation
 Alimentary canal processes: ingestion, egestion, mechanical digestion,
chemical digestion, absorption, assimilation
 Mouth: ingestion, mechanical digestion by chewing, chemical digestion by
amylase enzymes
 Esophagus: passage of food through peristalsis
 Stomach: mechanical digestion through squeezing, chemical digestion by
gastric juices containing pepsin and hydrochloric acid
 Pancreas: secretes pancreatic juice with enzymes for digestion
 Duodenum: first part of small intestine, receives pancreatic juice for
chemical digestion
 Ileum: second part of small intestine, contains villi for nutrient absorption
 Liver: produces bile for emulsifying fats and neutralizing stomach acidity
 Colon: reabsorbs water and bile salts
 Rectum: stores feces before egestion
 Anus: controls egestion of feces
 Cholera infection: bacterial release of toxins causing chloride secretion and
diarrhea
 Treatment of diarrhea: oral rehydration therapy with water, sugar, and salts
 Types of human teeth: molars, premolars, canines, incisors
 Dental decay caused by bacteria and plaque formation
 Proper dental care: avoid sugary food, regular cleaning, flossing, dentist
visits
 Chemical digestion breaks down food with enzymes
 Enzymes involved in digestion: amylases, proteases, lipases
 Absorption through diffusion or active transport in small intestine walls
 Villi increase surface area for absorption in small intestine
  Transportation in plants
 Xylem transports water, minerals, and solutes from roots to leaves
 Phloem transports nutrients from leaves to the rest of the plant
 Xylem and phloem are present in the leaf, stem, and root
 Water, minerals, and nutrients are absorbed by root hair cells
 Water moves from the soil into the xylem through osmosis
 Water moves up the xylem through transpirational pull, root pressure, and
cohesion
 Transpiration is the loss of water vapor from leaves through stomata
 Factors affecting transpiration rate: temperature and humidity
 Translocation is the movement of sucrose and amino acids in the phloem
from source to sink
 Leaves are usually the source, but can also act as a sink during growth
periods
 The circulatory system consists of blood vessels, a pump, and valves to
ensure one-way flow of blood.
Animal transportation
 There are two types of circulation: single circulation (found in fish) and
double circulation (found in mammals).
 Double circulation is advantageous as it maintains higher blood pressure.
 Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium and ventricle, then gets pumped
to the lungs to become oxygenated.
 Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium and ventricle, then gets pumped to
the rest of the body.
 The heart has various structures and functions: atria and ventricles pump
blood, valves prevent backflow, and the septum separates oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
 Physical activity increases heart rate to meet the increased oxygen and
nutrient demands of muscles.
 An electrocardiogram (ECG) tracks heart activity.
 Coronary heart disease occurs when the coronary artery becomes blocked,
leading to a heart attack.
 Risk factors for coronary heart disease include poor diet, stress, smoking,
genetics, and age.
 Treatments for coronary heart disease include medications, stents,
angioplasty, and bypass surgery.
 Blood vessels include arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, and
shunt vessels.
 Arteries carry blood away from the heart and have thick muscular walls.
  Capillaries allow for nutrient and waste exchange between blood and tissues.
 Veins carry blood towards the heart and have thin walls with valves to
prevent backflow.
 Shunt vessels provide an alternative route for blood flow.
 Tissue fluid bathes body tissues and facilitates nutrient and waste exchange.
 The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes,
involved in draining tissue fluid and producing lymphocytes for immunity.
 Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells
(WBCs), and platelets.
 RBCs transport oxygen with the help of hemoglobin.
 WBCs are involved in immune responses, including phagocytes and
lymphocytes.
 Platelets form blood clots to prevent excessive bleeding.
Pathogens and immunity
 tion.
 Antibodies have a complementary shape to antigens on pathogens.
 Vaccination triggers the production of antibodies and memory cells to
provide immunity to specific antigens.
 Herd immunity occurs when a majority of the population is immune,
reducing the spread of disease.
 Personal hygiene, food hygiene, waste disposal, and sewage treatment are
important for controlling the spread of disease.
 Passive immunity involves the transfer of antibodies from one individual to
another.
 Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system attacks the body's
own cells.
Respiration
 The respiratory system facilitates gas exchange in humans.
 Air enters through the nasal cavity, travels down the trachea, and reaches the
lungs through bronchi and bronchioles.
 The trachea is supported by cartilage, and the rib cage protects the lungs.
 Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli, which have a large surface area and are
surrounded by capillaries.
 Inhalation and exhalation are the processes of obtaining oxygen and
excreting carbon dioxide.
 Thoracic volume affects air pressure and determines inhalation and
exhalation.
 Inhalation increases thoracic volume through muscle contractions (external
intercostal muscles and diaphragm).
  Exhalation decreases thoracic volume through muscle relaxation (intercostal
muscles and diaphragm).
 Inspired air has more oxygen, while expired air has more carbon dioxide.
 Limewater can be used to test for the presence of carbon dioxide in expired
air.
 Physical activity increases the rate and depth of breathing.
 Increased carbon dioxide concentration in the blood triggers an increase in
breathing rate and depth.
 The brain detects blood acidity and regulates breathing to remove carbon
dioxide and supply oxygen to cells.
 Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to break down nutrients and release energy.
 The energy released from respiration is used for various functions in the
body.
 Oxygen uptake by respiring organisms can be measured using a
respirometer.
 The effect of temperature on the rate of respiration can be investigated using
germinating seeds.
 Anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen and releases less energy than
aerobic respiration.
 Anaerobic respiration in muscles produces lactic acid as a waste product.
 Oxygen debt occurs when muscles rely on anaerobic respiration during
vigorous exercise.
 Lactic acid is removed through aerobic respiration in the liver.
 Fast heart rate and deep breathing rate help transport lactic acid to the liver
and supply oxygen for its removal.
Excretion
 Excretion involves removing toxic materials, metabolic waste products, and
excess substances from the body.
 Kidneys excrete urea, excess water, and salts to form urine.
 Lungs excrete carbon dioxide.
 Urea is formed in the liver through deamination of excess amino acids.
 The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureter, bladder, and urethra.
 Urea enters the kidneys and combines with water and other substances to
form urine.
 Urine is stored in the bladder and eventually excreted through the urethra.
 The volume and concentration of urine depend on factors like hydration and
temperature.
 The kidney's medulla contains nephrons, which filter and reabsorb
substances from the blood.
  Kidney dialysis is a method of removing urea from the blood using a
dialysis machine.
 Kidney transplant provides a long-term solution, but finding a suitable donor
and the risk of tissue rejection are challenges.
Coordinate and response
 The human nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS)
and the peripheral nervous system.
 Nervous impulses transmit information to and from the brain through
neurons.
 Sense organs detect stimuli and send raw information to the brain via
sensory neurons.
 The brain interprets the information and sends impulses to muscles through
motor neurons for action.
 Voluntary actions are consciously decided by the brain, while involuntary
actions are instinctive.
 Sensory neurons carry impulses from sense organs to the brain, motor
neurons carry information from the brain to effectors, and relay neurons
connect sensory and motor neurons in reflex arcs.
 Synapses are junctions between neurons where neurotransmitters transmit
impulses from the pre-synaptic to post-synaptic neuron.
 The structure and function of the human eye involve the cornea, lens, iris,
pupils, optic nerves, retina, and fovea.
 Pupil reflex controls the amount of light entering the eye through the iris
muscles.
 Accommodation adjusts the lens shape to focus light onto the fovea.
 Hormones are chemical substances produced by endocrine glands that
regulate target organs.
 Homeostasis maintains a constant internal environment through positive and
negative feedback loops.
 Blood sugar levels are controlled by insulin and glucagon hormones secreted
by the pancreas.
 Type 1 diabetes results from insufficient insulin production and requires
management through sugar control, monitoring, and insulin injections.
 Body temperature is maintained through mechanisms such as fat insulation,
shivering, vasoconstriction, vasodilation, and sweat evaporation.
 Auxins are plant growth substances that move away from sunlight and
towards gravity.
 Gravitropism is the plant's response to gravity, with positive geotropism in
roots and negative geotropism in shoots.