DIPLOMA IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 213

NAME: ANLOWUTSU FELICIA

INDEX NUMBER: 3621822

QUESTION 1
Write short notes on 10 operating systems.
Operating system is a program that acts as interface between users and computer hardware and
controls the execution of other programs.
a. Windows: Developed by Microsoft, Windows is one of the most widely used operating
systems for personal computers. It offers a user-friendly interface and supports a vast array
of software and hardware. Widows has undergone numerous iterations since its inception.
Some notable versions include:
Windows 1.0 released in 1985, it was Microsoft’s first graphical user interface-based
operating environment.
Windows 95/98/ME, these versions introduced significant improvements in user interface,
multimedia support, and networking capabilities.
Windows Vista/7/8/8.1, these versions brought enhancements in performance, security,
and user interface design, although Vista received mixed reviews initially.
Windows 10, the latest major release as of my last update, Windows 10 introduced a
unified platform across multiple devices, including PSs, tablets, smartphones, and Xbox
consoles.

b. Linux: Linux is a Unix-like operation system kernel first released by Linus Torvalds on
September 17,1991. It’s the cornerstone of many operating systems commonly referred to
as “Linux distributions” or “distros.” Linux is open-source, meaning its source code can be
freely modified, distributed, and used by anyone. This openness has fostered a vibrant
community of developers contributing to its evolution.
Linux distributions vary widely in their intended use, target audience, included software,
and package management system. Some popular distributions included Ubuntu, Debian,
Fedora, CentOS, and Arch Linux, each catering to different user preference and needs.
Linux is renowned for its stability, security, and flexibility. It’s widely used in servers,
embedded systems, supercomputers, and even smartphones (through Android).
Additionally, it’s favored by developers and enthusiasts for its extensive customization
options and robust command-line interface.
c. VMS (Virtual Memory System): is a robust and secure operating system developed by Digital
Equipment Corporation (DEC), now part of Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE). Initially
released in the late 1970s, VMS has a long history and is known for its stability, security
features and scalability. VMS offers compatibility with various programming language and
applications.it supports languages like FORTRAN, C, Pascal as well as industry-standard APIs.
VMS supports network protocols and can be used in networked environments. It has
features for distributed computing and communication. VMS uses a hierarchical file system
like UNIX, where files are organized into directories. It supports various file attributes and
access control mechanisms. VMS is also known for its robust security features, including
access control lists (ACLs), auditing, and encryption. These features make it suitable for use
in environments where security is atop priority, such as government and financial
institutions.

d. OS/400: is an operating system developed by IBM for AS/400 (Application System/400)

midrange computer systems, now known as IBM. It was first introduced in 2988 and has
undergone several updates and versions since then. OS/400 is designed for business
computing and offers features such as integrated database management, security,
networking, and support for multiple programming language including RPG (Report
Program Generator), COBOL, and Java. One of the notable features of OS/400 is its
integration of the database system with the operating system itself, providing a seamless
environment for applications to access and manipulate data. This tight integration has
made AS/400 systems popular in industries such as finance, manufacturing, and
distribution.

e. AIX: which stands for Advance Interactive eXecutive, is a Unix-based operating system
developed and sold by IBM (International Business Machines Corporation). Initially released
in 1986, AIX is designed primarily for IBM’s System p (Power) and System I (formerly
AS/400) servers. It’s known for its scalability, reliability, and advanced features, making it a
popular choice for enterprise-level computing environments. AIX supports a wide range of
programming languages, development tools, and applications, making it compatible with
many existing software and development environments. AIX supports a wide range of
hardware configurations, from small servers to large-scale enterprise systems, allowing for
scalability as computing needs grow. AIX provides robust security features, including Role-
Based Access Control (RBAC), encryption, and auditing capabilities, to help protect sensitive
data and ensure compliance with security standards. Overall, AIX is a mature and powerful
operating system that continues to be widely used in enterprise environments, particularly
in industries such as finance, healthcare, and manufacturing where reliability, scalability, and
security are paramount.
f. z/OS: is an operating system developed by IBM for mainframe computers. It's part of
the larger z/Architecture mainframe systems family. Originally introduced in 2000,
z/OS is designed to handle a wide range of computing tasks, from transaction
processing to batch processing to large-scale data processing. It's known for its
robustness, scalability, and reliability, making it a popular choice for organizations
with demanding computing needs, such as large corporations, financial institutions,
and government agencies. z/OS supports various programming languages like
COBOL, PL/I, Java, and others, and it offers a rich set of system management and
administration tools to efficiently manage mainframe resources.

g. Android: The Android operating system is a mobile operating system developed by Google.
Initially released in 2008, it’s based on the Linux kernel and designed primarily for
touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. Android has become the
most popular operating system for mobile devices globally, powering millions of
devices from various manufacturers. One of the key features of Android is its open-
source nature, which allows manufacturers to customize the operating system
according to their preferences and needs. This flexibility has contributed to the wide
variety of Android devices available on the market. Android offers a vast ecosystem
of apps through the Google Play Store, where users can download and install
applications for various purposes, including productivity, entertainment,
communication, and more. Additionally, Android supports extensive customization
options for users, including themes, widgets, and third-party launchers, enabling
users to personalize their devices to suit their preferences. Over the years, Android
has undergone numerous updates and iterations, with each new version introducing
enhancements in performance, security, and features. It's continuously evolving to
meet the changing demands of users and advancements in technology.

h. iOS isa mobile operating system developed by Apple Inc. It is the operating system that
powers Apple's iPhone, iPad, iPod Touch, and Apple TV. iOS is known for its sleek
user interface, smooth performance, and tight integration with other Apple devices
and services. It offers a wide range of features including the App Store, Siri (Apple's
virtual assistant), iCloud, FaceTime, iMessage, and many others. iOS is designed to
be secure, with features like Touch ID and Face ID for biometric authentication, as
well as regular security updates. Apple releases periodic updates to iOS, introducing
new features, improvements, and bug fixes.
I. The macOS operating system is the proprietary operating system developed by
Appl Inc. for their Macintosh line of computers. It's known for its user-friendly
 interface, stability, and integration with other Apple devices and services. macOS
is built on a Unix-based foundation, which provides a stable and secure platform
for users. It offers a wide range of features including the Finder file manager,
Spotlight search, Siri integration, and various built-in applications like Safari, Mail,
and iTunes. Over the years, macOS has gone through numerous updates and
versions, each introducing new features and improvements.
j.
The Chrome Operating System (Chrome OS) is a Linux-based operating system
developed by Google. It's designed primarily to work with web applications and cloud-
based services. Chrome OS is built around the Google Chrome web browser, serving as
the platform for running web apps and accessing online resources. One of the key
features of Chrome OS is its simplicity and speed. It boots up quickly and focuses on
providing a streamlined experience for tasks like web browsing, email, document
editing, and multimedia playback. It's also known for its security features, with
automatic updates and sandboxing to protect against malware and other security
threats. Chrome OS devices, such as Chromebooks, are often lightweight, affordable,
and have long battery life compared to traditional laptops. They have gained popularity
in education and enterprise markets, as well as among users who primarily use their
computers for web-based activities.

QUESTION 2

1. Kilobyte (KB): 1 Kilobyte = 1,024 bytes

2. Megabyte (MG): 1 Megabyte = 1,024 Kilobytes

1 Megabyte = 1,048,576 bytes

3. Gigabyte (GB): 1 Gigabyte =1,024 Megabytes

1 Gigabyte = 1,073,741,824 bytes

4. Terabyte (TB): 1 Terabyte = 1,024 Gigabytes

1 Terabyte = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes

5. Petabyte ( PB): 1 Petabyte = 1,024 Terabytes
1 Petabyte = 1,125,899,906,842,624 bytes

The duration taken to transfer files in megabyte (MB) can vary depending on several
factors:

a. File Size: Larger files will take longer to transfer than smaller ones.
b. Internet connection speed: The speed of your internet connection, measured in
Mbps (megabits per second), will affect transfer times. Higher Mbps means faster
transfers.
c. Network Congestion: If there is a lot of traffic on your network or the destination
network, it could slow down the transfer speed.
d. Protocol and Method: The method used for transferring files, whether it's through
direct connection, cloud services, FTP, etc., can impact transfer speeds.
e. Distance: If you're transferring files over the internet, physical distance between the
sender and receiver can affect transfer times due to latency.

Duration (in seconds) = file size (in Megabytes)/Transfer Speed(Megabits per

second) *8

The duration to transfer files in (GB) gigabytes can vary significantly depending on
several factors:
a. Internet Connection Speed: The faster your internet connection, the quicker files
can be transferred. Common connection types include DSL, cable, fiber-optic,
and satellite, each with varying speeds.

b. File Size: Larger files will naturally take longer to transfer than smaller ones.
c. Network Congestion: If there is heavy internet traffic or congestion on the
network, it can slow down file transfer speeds.
d. Quality of Service (QoS): Some networks may prioritize certain types of traffic
over others, affecting file transfer speeds.
e. Distance: If you're transferring files over a long distance, such as between
continents, it can introduce latency and slow down transfer speeds.

Duration=Transfer Speed (in GB/s)/File Size (in GB)

 The duration taken to transfer files in Terabyte (TB)

The duration taken to transfer files in terabytes (TB) can vary significantly
based on several factors:

1. Transfer Speed: The speed at which you can transfer data, usually
measured in megabytes per second (MB/s) or gigabytes per second
(GB/s). This could be influenced by the type of connection (e.g., USB 2.0,
USB 3.0, Thunderbolt, Ethernet, Wi-Fi), the quality of the cables or
wireless signals, and the capabilities of the devices involved (e.g., hard
drive, SSD, network interface).
2. File Size: The total size of the files being transferred. Larger files will
obviously take longer to transfer than smaller ones.
3. Transfer Method: Whether you're transferring files locally within a
device, over a local network, or over the internet can all impact transfer
speeds. Local transfers are typically faster than those over a network,
and network transfers can vary in speed depending on factors like
network congestion and bandwidth limitations.
4. System Overhead: There may be overhead involved in the transfer
process, such as file encryption/decryption,
compression/decompression, or protocol overhead.
5. Network Congestion: If transferring over a network, the level of
congestion on that network can impact transfer speeds.
6. Hardware Limitations: The capabilities of the hardware involved, such as
the read/write speeds of the storage devices or the processing power of
the devices involved in the transfer.

To calculate the duration taken to transfer files in TB, you can use the
following formula:

Transfer Time (in seconds)=Total File Size (in bytes)Transfer Speed (i

n bytes per second)Transfer Time (in seconds)=Transfer Speed (in bytes per sec
ond)Total File Size (in bytes)

The duration taken to transfer files in (PB) petabyte range can vary significantly
depending on various factors such as:
 1. Transfer Speed: The speed at which data can be transferred, typically
measured in bytes per second (Bps) or bits per second (bps).
2. Network Infrastructure: The quality and capacity of the network
infrastructure being used for the transfer, including factors like
bandwidth, latency, and congestion.
3. File Size: The size of the files being transferred. Transferring a single
large file may be more efficient than transferring many small files.
4. Protocol and Technology: The specific protocol and technology being
used for the transfer. For example, transferring data over a high-speed
fiber optic connection will be faster than using a slower satellite link.
5. Hardware: The hardware being used on both the sending and receiving
ends, including the speed of storage devices and processing power.

Without specific details about these factors, it is challenging to provide an

exact duration. However, transfers involving petabytes of data are typically
measured in hours, days, or even weeks, especially if the infrastructure and
technology used are not optimized for high-speed data transfer.
QUESTION 3

Handling competition among processes include.

Scheduling: Employing scheduling algorithms to allocate CPU time among

processes fairly and efficiently. Techniques like round-robin, priority scheduling, and
multi-level feedback queues help manage competition for CPU resources.

Resource Allocation: Managing access to shared resources like memory, disk

I/O, and network bandwidth. Techniques such as semaphore, mutex, and monitors
help synchronize access to shared resources, preventing conflicts and ensuring fair
utilization.

Priority Management: Assigning priorities to processes based on factors like

importance, urgency, or resource requirements. This ensures that critical processes
receive necessary resources promptly while lower-priority tasks wait their turn.

Inter-Process Community (PIC): Facilitating communication and coordination

among processes. IPC mechanisms such as message passing, shared memory, and
sockets enable processes to exchange data and synchronize their activities
effectively.

Concurrency Control: Implementing mechanisms to control concurrent access

to shared data structures, preventing data corruption and ensuring consistency.
Techniques like locks, transactions, and optimistic concurrency control help manage
concurrent access safely.

Fairness and Transparency: Ensuring fairness and transparency in resource

allocation to prevent any process from being unfairly disadvantaged. Fair scheduling
algorithms and transparent resource allocation policies promote equity among
competing processes.

QUESTION 4

Below are the general procedures for performing defragmentation on a windows machine;

1. You can access Disk Defragmenter by searching for it in the Start menu
or by typing "defragment" in the search bar.
2. Once Disk Defragmenter is open, you'll see a list of drives on your
computer. Select the drive you want to defragment. Typically, this is the
C: drive where your operating system is installed.

3. Before defragmenting, you can choose to analyze the selected drive to

see if it needs to be defragmented. This step provides insights into the
fragmentation level of your disk.
4. After analyzing the drive, you can proceed with defragmentation by
clicking on the "Defragment disk" or "Optimize" button (the wording
may vary depending on your Windows version).

5. The defragmentation process may take some time depending on the

size of the drive and the level of fragmentation. During this process, it's
best not to use the computer extensively to allow the defragmenter to
work efficiently.

6. Once the defragmentation process is complete, you can review the

results to see if any significant improvements were made in disk
performance.

7. Windows also offers the option to schedule defragmentation tasks to

run automatically at specified intervals. You can configure this through
the Disk Defragmenter tool by clicking on "Configure schedule" or
"Change settings" and setting up a schedule that suits your preferences.

8. Regularly check the fragmentation level of your disks and perform

defragmentation as needed to maintain optimal performance. This is
particularly important for mechanical hard drives, although modern
SSDs benefit less from defragmentation due to their different storage
technology.