Cairo University

Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Design and Production Department

Engineering
Solid
Mechanics
MDP
LOGO
3530 ❖ Dr. Sahour Sayed
 ❖The Concept of Strain

2
THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
I.1 INTRODUCTION

This section is concerned with the mechanics of deformable bodies, where

deformation is the main characteristic which distinguishes between these
bodies and the rigid ones. Here in this section we are going to define the small
strain components in Cartesian and cylindrical polar coordinates, then deduce
the strain transformation law and the principal strains. Finally, the concept of
compatibility will be discussed.

I-2 STRAIN COMPONENTS AND SIGN CONVENSION

The positions of points in a loaded body change under loading. These

changes may be due to rigid body motion and/or straining. Straining is related
to the change in distance and inclination between different points inside the
body.

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
The strain components at a point are classified into two types; the normal
strain and the shear stain. The normal strain is concerned with the change in
length while shear strain is concerned with the change of the originally right
angle. For illustration of these definitions, consider the point O inside the body
shown in Figure(1). Drawing the line OA from point O parallel to x axis and the
line OB parallel to y axis ( i.e. OA and OB are perpendicular to each other), the
deformation of body due to loading results changing in the position of its points,
such that O, A and B are moved to O', A' and B' respectively.

y B'
B
A'
y O'

A
y
O x
x

Figure (1) Definition of strain components

4
THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
The normal strain of point O in x direction (x) can be defined as:
O' A' −OA
 x = limOA →0
OA
while the normal strain of point O in y direction can defined as:
O' B' −OB
 y = limOB →0
OB

Normal strain is positive when the line elongates and negative when it
contracts. The shear strain is defined by the tangent of the change in angle
between two originally perpendicular lines. For small deformation the tangent
of an angle equals the angle itself in radians. Applying this concept, the shear
strain at point O is:
 
 xy = limOA ,OB →0  − B' O' A' 
2 
The shear strain is positive when the angle becomes less than the right
angle and vice versa.

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
I-3 INFINITESIMAL STRAIN AT A POINT IN TERMS OF DISPLACEMENT

For the loaded body shown in Figure (2), the point M is moved to the new
position M'. Considering the Cartesian coordinates x, y and z, the
displacement of point M may be decomposed into three components u, v and
w in the three directions respectively, such that:

MM' = u + v + w y
M'
v
w
x
M u

Figure (2) Loaded member and deformation of M to M'

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN

These displacement components varies according to the position of the point

inside the body i.e. u = u(x, y , z ), v = v(x, y, z) and w = w(x, y, z).

Now it is required to determine the relation between the strains and the
displacements using Cartesian and cylindrical polar coordinates.

I-3-1 CARTESIAN COORDINATES

For simplicity we are going to consider the strains and displacements in a

plane x-y and then estimate the relations for material continuum. Figure (3)
represents three points A, B and C that exist in a plane parallel to x-y plane
inside the body, such that AB is parallel to x-axis and AC is parallel to y-axis.

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN

y C''
C'
u
u+ dy
C  y
v
v+ dy
y B'


v+ v dx
dy
B''
A' x
v
B
A dx
y

x u u+ u dx x
x

Figure (3) Strains and displacements in x-y plane

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
After deformation these points are moved to the new positions A', B' and C'.
Since the displacement field for a continuum must be continues, then if u and v
are the displacement components for point A in x and y directions, then the
displacement components for points B and C can be obtained by partial
derivatives. These are for point B ( u + u dx , v + v dx ) and for point C
x x
u v
(u+ y
dy ,v+ y
dy ). Using the previous definitions for the normal and
shear strains yields:
u
(dx − u + u + dx) − dx
A' B  − AB x u
x = = =
AB dx x
v
(dy − v + v + dy ) − dy
A' C  − AC y v ……………………(1)
y = = =
AC dy y
 v u
 xy = − B' A' C ' =  +  = +
2 x y
where angles ,  are in radians and they are shown Figure (3).

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
Similarly considering the deformation of point O and another points around it
in y-z and z-x planes yields:

w w u v w
z = ,  xz = + ,  yz = +
z x z z y

Thus for material continuum and for infinitesimal deformation the strain at a
point can be expressed by strain variation as:

u v w
x = , y = , z = ,
x y z
v u w v w u
 xy = + , γ yz = + , γ zx = +
x y y z x z

……………………………………(2)

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
I-3-2 POLAR COORDINATES

In order to derive equations similar to eqns. (2) for strain displacement

relation in polar coordinates, the deformation of small element like that
shown in Figure (4) is studied.

Figure (4) Strains and displacements in polar coordinates

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
Here the u, v and w are the displacement components in r,  and z directions
respectively. The analysis yields the following relations:

u u 1 v w
r =  = + z =
r r r  z

1 u v v 1 w v u w
 r = + −  z = +  zr = +
r  r r r  z z r

………………………………(3)

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
I-4 STRAIN TRANSFORMATION LAW

In section (I-3), the strain is expressed in terms of the displacements w. r. t. a

particular set of axes, now it is required to determine the strain components
w. r. t. another set of axes inclined to the original one.
Q Q'
z r+dr
Q' (x+dx+u+du, y+dy+v+dv, z+dz+w+dw)
r Q (x+dx , y+dy, z+dz )

r+dr
P P'
r

y
x P (x,y,z) P' (x+u , y+v , z+w )

Figure (5) Deformation of an infinitesimal length

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
Consider a line (P Q) of infinitesimal length ( r ) inside a body shown in Figure
(5). This line is displaced to position P' Q' after deformation; such that the
displacement components for point P are u, v and w and for point Q are u+du,
v+dv and w+dw and its new length becomes ( r + dr ). If the initial coordinates of
P and Q are (x, y, z) and (x+dx, y+dy, z+dz) respectively; then its initial length
PQ is:

PQ 2 = r 2 = (dx ) + (dy ) + (dz )

2 2 2

After deformation the length of P'Q' becomes:

P' Q '2 = (r + dr ) = (dx + du ) + (dy + dv ) + (dz + dw)

2 2 2 2

Then the difference between the two lengths (after neglecting the second
ordered terms), yields:

(r + dr )2 − r 2 = 2rdr = 2dxdu + 2dydv + 2dzdw …………..(4)

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
Dividing the eq. (4) by 2r2 gives:

dr P' Q'− PQ 1 
=   i =  l du + m dv + n dw  ……………..(5)
r PQ r 
where l, m and are the direction cosines of the line PQ w. r. t. xyz axes.

Since u, v and w are continuous functions of x, y, and z then their total

derivatives du, dv and dw can be written as:

u u u
du = dx + dy + dz ,
x y z
v v v
dv = dx + dy + dz , …………………………..(6)
x y z
w w w
dw = dx + dy + dz
x y z
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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
Substitution of eq. (6) into eq. (5) reduces to

 i =  x l 2 +  y m 2 +  z n 2 +  xy lm +  yz mn +  zx ln ……….(7)

Equation (7) represents the normal strain of a point in ( i ) direction having

direction cosines l, m and n w. r. t. xyz axes. The comparison of this
expression with that extracted from eq. (4) in the first section of the concept of
stress for the normal stress i in direction (i), reveals that both the stress and
strain transformation laws are the same if we replace  by  and  by (/2).
Defining xy = (xy) /2 , yz = (yz)/2 and xz = (xz) /2, then the strain
transformation law becomes:

 i  i  i   l m n    x  xy  xz   l l  l  
     
 i     =  l m n   xy  y  yz  m m m
   
 i
      l  m n  xz  yz  z   n n n 
………………………………………(8)
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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
I-5 PRINCIPAL STRAINS, STRAIN INVARIANTS AND DILATATION

The principal axes of strain at a point are the three orthogonal axes which
become orthogonal after straining. This means that that the angles between
these angles are not distorted and then there no shear strain on principal
planes.

By analogy with eq. (10) in the first lecture of concept of stress, the
characteristic equation for strain will be:

x −  xy  xz
 yx y −  yz = 0 ……………………(9)

 zx  zy z −

which leads to the following equation after expansion:

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN

 3 − J1 2 + J 2   − J 3 = 0 …………………………(10)

where

J1 =  x +  y +  x
x  yx  y  zy  x  zx
J2 = + + =  x  y +  y  z +  z  x −  xy
2
−  yz
2
−  xz
2

 xy y  yz  z  xz  z
x  yx  zx
J 3 =  xy y  zy
 xz  yz z

……………………………………(11)

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
The roots of the Characteristic equation (10) are the principal strains. They
are three perpendicular normal strains at a point and they are denoted by 1,
2 and 3. The algebraically largest principal strains is represented by 1 and
the smallest by 3. Thus: 1> 2 > 3

To get the direction of the principal axes ( i.e. the direction of principal strains
which equivalent to the direction of principal planes), we have to substitute
the value of each principal strains in an equivalent equation to (9), together
with the relation l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1 . The solving of these equations together gives
the direction of this principal strain. Repeat that for the other two principal
strains and you will notice that the three principal axes are perpendicular.

The mean strain at a point is an invariant and it is defined as:

 m = ( 1 +  2 +  3 ) = ( x +  y +  z ) =
1 1 J1
………….(12)
3 3 3

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
So the strain in any direction is decomposed of two parts, these are the mean
strain and the deviatoric part ( / ) which is called the strain deviator.
i.e.
 = m +  /

In matrix form: [  ]xyz = [ m ]xyz + [ / ]xyz

x  xy  xz   m 0 0   ' x  xy  xz 
    …………………..(13)
 xy  y  yz  =  0  m 0  +  xy  ' y  yz 
 xz  yz  z   0 0  m   xz  yz  ' z 

Another strain term has to be defined is the volumetric strain (v) which is
called dilatation (). It is the first invariant of the strain tensor, i.e. :

 V =  = ( 1 +  2 +  3 ) = ( x +  y +  z ) = J1 ...….………(14)

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
I-6 MAXIMUM SHEARING STRAIN

By analogy with the definitions of maximum shearing stresses, the three

maximum shearing strains are:

 1max = 1 −  3 ,  2 max =  2 −  3 ,  3 max = 1 −  2 …….(15)

I-7 PLANE STRAIN – MOHR'S CIRCLE

Strain transformation at a point (in Plane Strain) is done in a similar manner

as for stresses. Simply substitute x for x and y for y. As we mentioned
before, because of the way the math works out, substitute /2 for . Generally
the state of strain at a point is known for a certain direction and it is required
to determine the strain for another set of coordinates as shown in Figure (6).

In this case, the strain transformation equations become:

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN

x +y x −y  xy
 x = + cos 2 + sin 2
2 2 2
x +y x −y  xy ……………….(16)
 y = − cos 2 − sin 2
2 2 2
 xy x −y  xy
=− sin 2 + cos 2
2 2 2

Figure (6) State of strain according to different set of planes

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
In most engineering machine structures the strains are very small and it is
required to get the stress state at a point on the free surface of a machine
element. As an experimental technique to indicate these stresses is measuring
the strains through electric resistance strain gauges. Three normal strains
at different directions can be measured at this point and by using the first
equation of plane strain transformation laws i.e. Equation (16) the state of
strains (x, y and xy) can be defined and hence through the stress – strain
relations, the stresses also can be indicated.

Principal strains are the maximum and minimum normal strains that occur at a
point as the set of axes is rotated by a certain angle θp. The Principal Strains
are called 1 and 2, and occur along the Xp-Yp axes. The principal strains for a
given strain state are given by:

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN

x + y x − y    xy 
2 2

1 =    +   …………………………(17)
2
2  2   2 
The Principal Strains occur when the element has been rotated by an
angle of θp as shown in Figure(7), where tan 2 =  xy : . Again
x −y
P
there are two angles for the principal strains.

Figure (7) Principal strains and their directions of a state of strain

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
The maximum in-plane shear strain occurs when the principal strain element
is rotated 45° to the principal direction and is given by:

x −y    xy 
2 2
 max 1 −  2
= =   +  
……………………(18)
2 2  2   2 
The angle at which the maximum shear occurs is given by;
x −y
tan 2 s = −
 xy
When the shear strain is maximum, the normal strains are equal to each
other and are the average of the Principal Strains.
Mohr's circle is also used as a tool to get the strains for another set of
coordinates knowing the state of strain at a point for a certain direction. As
for stress the horizontal axis represent the normal strain but the vertical axis
represents half of the shear strains. The rules used to draw the stress
Mohr's circle are also used for the strains Mohr's circle as shown in Figure
(8).
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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
γ/2 y

γmax / 2 = (I -II )/2

D
y y' y
y'

γxy / 2
y' x' 2θ

θ C I 
II 2θI
x
y
2θ γxy / 2
II E x'
I
II x
θI x

x'
x

I

Figure (8) Rules for drawing strain Mohr's circle

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
I-8 EQUATIONS OF COMPATIBILITY

If the strain field and hence the strains inside an elastic body is determined by
experimental or numerical techniques or even suggested, there must be a
relation between these strains to be valid for the same loaded body. For
example, in the unstrained body shown in Figure (9), the points C and D are
the same. If the strains expressing the deformation of the lines AC and that
expressing the strain of line BD in the loaded body give the shown strained
cases, this will indicate that we have discontinuous body. To have a continuous
body the strain fields should be related to each other such that to maintain
points C and D on the same position after deformation. The so-called equation
of compatibility gives us this relation.

Figure (9) Conditions of no compatibility

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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
The compatibility equations in Cartesian coordinates are given into two
groups, which are:

First Group

 2 x   y   xy  2 y 2 z   yz
2 2 2

+ 2 = , + 2 = ,
y 2 x xy z 2 y yz …………….(19)
 2 z  2 x  2 zx
+ 2 =
x 2 z zx

Second Group:

   yz  zx  xy   2 z
 + − =2 ,
z  x y z  xy
   zx  xy  yz   2 x ………………………………(20)
 + − =2 ,
x  y z x  yz
   xy  yz  zx   2 y
 + −  = 2
y  z x y  zx
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THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
The compatibility equations in cylindrical polar coordinates are:

 2  1  2 r 2   1  r 1  2 r 1  r
+ + − = + ,
r 2 r 2  2 r r r r r r r 2 
 2  1  2 z 1  z 1  2 z 1  zr
+ + = + ,
z 2 r 2  2 r r r z r z
 2 z  2 r  2 rz
+ 2 = ,
r 2 z rz
2  2 z 2  z   1  zr  z  r     z 
− 2 =  + − −  ,
r r r  z  r  r z  z  r 
2  2 r   1  zr  z  r
    z  2  r
=  − + −  + ,
r z r  r  r z
 r  r  r z
 2  2  r 2   1   1  zr  z  r  1    z 
2 − + = − + + +  ,
rz r z r z r   r  r z  r   r 

………………………………………………(21)

29