Assignment No # 02

Name: Muniba Ayub

Course code:
8604
Program: B.ED (1.5 YEARS)
Semester: Autumn 2022
Subject: Research Method in Education
Tutor Name: Khalid
Mehmood
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY,
ISLAMABAD
 Research Method in Education
Question # 01
What do you mean by research tool. Discuss different research tools.
What is meant by the validity and reliability of research tools.
Answer
Research Tool:
Data collection or research tools refer to the devices or instruments used
to collect data, such as a paper questionnaire or computer-assisted
interviewing system. They are used to measure a variable, or to collect
the information needed to answer a research question.
Data Collection:
A data collection tool or research tool is any tool used to measure a
variable, or to collect the information needed to answer a research
question. Careful selection of data collection tools can help the researcher
achieve goals and save time.Any research is only as good as the data that
drives it, so choosing the right technique of data collection can make all
the difference. In this article, and the next two articles to be published in
the coming days, we will look at three different data collection techniques
– observation, questionnaire and interview, and evaluate their suitability
under different circumstances.

Data Types
Qualitative: qualitative data are measures of ‘types’ and may be
represented by a name, symbol, or a number code.

Quantitative: quantitative data are measures of values or counts and are

expressed as numbers. They are data about numeric variables (e.g. how
many; how much; or how often).

Observation

Observation is one of the most important research tools in the social and
human sciences, having a vital role to play in helping to understand and
interpret the social, cultural and economic environment. Any research
benefits from observation, which entails use of senses to collect data from
the external environment, because this tool is widely used.

Different research tool:

Types of Online Research Tools

There are various types of online research tools:

1. EndNote 12.Project Gutenberg

2. Zotero 13.Perseus Digital Library
3. Todoist 14.Internet History Sourcebooks
4. DataElixir 15.Google Scholars
5. Plagiarism Checker 16.Google books
6. Paperpile 17.PubMed Central
7. RefWorks 18.Questia
8. EduGeeksClub 19.Web of Science group
9. Artcyclopedia 20.Science Direct
10.BioMedCentral 21.Ingenta Connect
11.FindArticles 22.IEEE Xplore
 23.JSTOR 28.S Government manual
24.Project MUSE 29.The Association for computing
25.Digital History machinery digital library
26.Library of congress 30.arXiv
27.Research guide for students

EndNote: - EndNote is a multidisciplinary research tool that supports

search for complete texts based on information and abstracts in online
databases, also handle and auto-complete all your references. Like
Todoist, EndNote also allows you to share your research information with
your colleagues.

Zotero: - Zotero is an important tool which all online learners must have
to use. After that, everything necessary for you to spare it to your own,
completely accessible library, which is another element in Zotero, in one
click. It supports PDF documents, image formats, audio and video files.

Todoist: - Research is a time escalated action, which implies a tool to put

together both in your expert and individual life. We recommend you to
give a shot to the Todoist. With the help of the Todoist, you can handle
all your projects and access them from any platform, together with your
laptop, desktop computer and portable devices. You can collaborate and
share your tasks with other people.

DataElixir: - Perhaps the most ideal approach to stay up with the latest
with all the most recent news, improvements and information in science
is to discover a site that minsters those consistently.

Plagiarism Checker: - To free your work of copy content, run it via

plagiarism checker, which will scan and decide whether there is any copy
content present.
Paperpile: - Paperpile is a software for reference management, which is
just like Zotero and works like an extension for Google chrome browser
and making it accessible for Linux, Mac and Windows users.

Google Scholar: - Google Scholar provides search results for

publication in innumerable academic journals. If you see the right-hand
side of the search result then Google Scholar will display a PDF that is
available for each article.

Google Books: - With the help of Google Books, we can search the full
texts of many books and get results that are related to our research. For
books that are no longer under copyright, you can see the book
completely directly on the site; others you can purcecially the students
who are in the humanities and social sciences, do research of hihase or
discover in nearby libraries.

PubMed Central: - PubMed Central is a research tool that is free to use.

PubMed Central search its database of approximately 4 million academic
articles in biological and medical sciences.

Questia: - The Questia is a digital library which is designed to help

students, espgh-quality and write papers.

Web of Science Group: - Web of Science is a publisher-neutral citation

index in which we can discover good, curated journal articles.

Science Direct: - Elsevier, perhaps the greatest distributer of science

content, offers access to their whole document via ScienceDirect.

Validity of research tool:

Research validity in surveys relates to the extent at which the survey
measures right elements that need to be measured. In simple terms,
validity refers to how well an instrument as measures what it is intended
to measure.

Reliability alone is not enough, measures need to be reliable, as well as,

valid. For example, if a weight measuring scale is wrong by 4kg (it
deducts 4 kg of the actual weight), it can be specified as reliable, because
the scale displays the same weight every time we measure a specific item.
However, the scale is not valid because it does not display the actual
weight of the item.

Research validity can be divided into two groups: internal and external. It
can be specified that “internal validity refers to how the research findings
match reality, while external validity refers to the extend to which the
research findings can be replicated to other environments”

Research reliability refers to whether research methods can reproduce the

same results multiple times. If your research methods can produce
consistent results, then the methods are likely reliable and not influenced
by external factors. This valuable information can help you determine if
your research methods are accurately gathering data you can use to
support the following work in your field:

 Studies
 Reviews
 Experiments

Question# 02
 What is the importance of sample in research? Discuss different
sampling
techniques in detail.
Answer

Sample:A small part or quantity intended to show what the whole is like.
Importance of sample in research:
Studies are conducted on samples because it is usually impossible to
study the entire population. Conclusions drawn from samples are
intended to be generalized to the population, and sometimes to the future
as well. The sample must therefore be representative of the population.

Sample size and Ethics:

A sample that is larger than necessary will be better

representative of the population and will hence provide more
accurate results. However, beyond a certain point, the increase
in accuracy will be small and hence not worth the effort and
expense involved in recruiting the extra patients. Furthermore,
an overly large sample would inconvenience more patients than
might be necessary for the study objectives; this is unethical. In
contrast, a sample that is smaller than necessary would have
insufficient statistical power to answer the primary research
question, and a statistically nonsignificant result could merely be
because of inadequate sample size (Type 2 or false negative
error). Thus, a small sample could result in the patients in the
study being inconvenienced with no benefit to future patients or
to science. This is also unethical.
In this regard, inconvenience to patients refers to the time that
they spend in clinical assessments and to the psychological and
physical discomfort that they experience in assessments such as
interviews, blood sampling, and other procedures.

Estimating Sample size:

So how large should a sample be? In hypothesis testing studies,

this is mathematically calculated, conventionally, as the sample
size necessary to be 80% certain of identifying a statistically
significant outcome should the hypothesis be true for the
population, with P for statistical significance set at 0.05. Some
investigators power their studies for 90% instead of 80%, and
some set the threshold for significance at 0.01 rather than 0.05.
Both choices are uncommon because the necessary sample size
becomes large, and the study becomes more expensive and more
difficult to conduct. Many investigators increase the sample size
by 10%, or by whatever proportion they can justify, to
compensate for expected dropout, incomplete records, biological
specimens that do not meet laboratory requirements for testing,
and other study-related problems.

Sample size calculations require assumptions about expected

means and standard deviations, or event risks, in different
groups; or, upon expected effect sizes. For example, a study may
be powered to detect an effect size of 0.5; or a response rate of
60% with drug vs. 40% with placebo. When no guesstimates or
expectations are possible, pilot studies are conducted on a
sample that is arbitrary in size but what might be considered
reasonable for the field.

The sample size may need to be larger in multicenter studies

because of statistical noise (due to variations in patient
characteristics, nonspecific treatment characteristics, rating
practices, environments, etc. between study centers).Sample size
calculations can be performed manually or using statistical
software; online calculators that provide free service can easily
be identified by search engines. G*Power is an example of a free,
downloadable program for sample size estimation. The manual
and tutorial for G*Power can also be downloaded.

The Importance of Selecting an

Appropriate Sampling Method

Sampling yields significant research result. However, with the

differences that can be present between a population and a

sample, sample errors can occur. Therefore, it is essential to use

the most relevant and useful sampling method.

Below are three of the most common sampling errors.

 ampling bias occurs when the sample does not reflect the

characteristics of the population.

  Sample frame errors occur when the wrong sub-population

is used to select a sample. This can be due to gender, race,

or economic factors.

 Systematic errors occur when the results from the sample

differ significantly from the results of the population.

What is your experience with research design and sampling

methods? Have you faced some of the challenges mentioned in

this article? Please share your thoughts in the comments.

Types of Sampling Methods

Illustration of the importance of sampling:

Sampling methods are as follows:

Probability Sampling is a method wherein each member of the

population has the same probability of being a part of the

sample.

Non-probability Sampling is a method wherein each member of

the population does not have an equal chance of being selected.

When the researcher desires to choose members selectively,non-

probability sampling is considered. Both sampling techniques

are frequently utilized. However, one works better than others

depending on research needs.

Sampling Techniques:
Qualitative and Quantitative

Research
In Qualitative research, non-numerical data is used to study

elements in their natural settings. This helps to interpret and

measure how these elements affect humans or other living

beings.

There are three main types of qualitative sampling:

 Purposive sampling: Pre-selected criteria related

to research hypothesis determines the participants for

 research, for example, a study on cancer rates for

individuals who live near a nuclear power station.

 Quota sampling: The researcher establishes participant

quotas before forming a sample. Selection of participants

that meet certain traits like gender, age, health, etc.

 Snowball sampling: The participants in the study

refer other individuals who fit the traits required for the

study, to the researcher.

Quantitative research is used to categorize, rank, and measure

numerical data. Researchers establish general laws of behavior

found in different contexts and settings. The goal is to test a

theory and support or reject it.

The three main types of quantitative sampling are:

 Random sampling: Random sampling is when all

individuals in a population have an equal chance of being

selected.

 Stratified sampling: Stratified sampling is when the

researcher defines the types of individuals in the population

based on specific criteria for the study. For example, a study

on smoking might need to break down its participants by

age, race, or socioeconomic status.

 Systematic sampling: Systemic sampling is choosing a

sample on an orderly basis. To build the sample, look at the

 target population and choose every fifth, tenth, or twentieth

name, based upon the needs of the sample size.

Question #03

Develop a research proposal on “Analysis of Reforms in Curriculum

for Secondary
Level in Pakistan” mention all necessary steps properly.
Answer
Research proposal :
A research proposal describes what you will investigate, why it's
important, and how you will conduct your research. The format of a
research proposal varies between fields, but most proposals will
contain at least these elements: Title page. Introduction. Literature
review.
Analysis of Reforms in Curriculum for Secondary Level in
Pakistan

INTRODUCTION
We all know the importance of education. It is a vital element in the
survival of any nation today. Education builds nations; determines the
future of the nation. That is why we must use our education policies very
carefully because our future depends on these policies. ISLAM also told
us that about Education and what is importance in orur life. The real
important of Education in ISLAM is “to know ALLAH” but I think in our
country we have truly lost. Our schools or madrassa’s (Islamic Education
Centers) do not really teach our youth about this. In schools, we just
prepare “Money” for them.
2. Problem Statemen
There are many examples of Islamic Scholars who not only study the
Holy Qur’an but also know other subjects such as Physics, Chemistry,
Biology, Astronomy and many more, with the help of the Holy Quran. I
think with the current education system we are narrowing down our
children’s path instead of raising it. Undoubtedly our children are very
talented, in schools and madrassas, we just need to give them the right
ways to prepare themselves, give them the space to be Quaid-E-Azam,
Allama Iqbal, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Alberoni, Abnalhasam, or Einstein,
Newton, Thomas Edison. The education system we are working with is
no longer working. We need to find a way to close the gap between the
school and the madrassa. Robert Maynard Hutchins describes it as “the
ultimate goal of education for young people to teach themselves
throughout their lives.” We must give our youth a way to teach ourselves.
Edward Everett said, “Education is a better protection for freedom than
the military.” Sadly, in Pakistan we spend more budgets in our arms than
in education that reflects our vision for education !!! Since 1947 no
government has been able to change this situation. With bomb prices
about 20 to 30 children can go to school all year and another picture …. a
bomb can kill 20 to 30 adults !!!!!!. So a deadly bomb hurts in two ways
to stop children’s education and kill innocent people !!! Why don’t the
authorities think about this? Answer …. we all know that !!! Don’t we?
3. Objectives

We are not just teaching them to prepare for the “Financial Machine”. We
are increasing the burden of books on our children and we are just
enrolling in a famous, big school, what is it just socially ??? On the other
hand in our madrassas we are preparing for people who find it very
difficult to adapt to modern society. Sometimes they look like they came
from another planet. A madrassa student cannot compete even in our
country where the Earth is so far away from him. She finds it very
difficult to even talk to a schoolboy. It is very clear that Islamic
Education is necessary for Muslims but it is also true that without modern
education no one can compete in this world.

Methodology
Now let’s discus about our Policy makers, it seems they are not working
enough. Every year the education policy is reviewed by the government
but the results are the same …. The illiteracy rate is rising in Pakistan
according to a recent study. Someone starting “Nai Roshni School”,
someone starting “Parha Likha Punjab” etc. What should Pakistan teach?
Well, I don’t think so. These “People” have been playing with our nation
for the past 60 years simply for the sake of profit and ambition. Should
we also consider our children’s education now as we teach them
properly? If not, what should we do? We have to work now otherwise it
will be too late in PAKISTAN !!!

Preliminary Literature Review

The main finding and recommendations of the report are Although its law
requires Pakistan to provide free and compulsory education to all children
between the ages of five and sixteen, millions are no longer studying,
which is the second highest number in the world. The level of education
in the public school sector remains low, failing to accommodate the
rapidly growing population in the labor market, while the flawed
curriculum promotes religious intolerance and xenophobia. Badly
controlled madrasas and religious schools fill the void of the dead
community education sector and contribute to religious zeal and sectarian
violence
The state must urgently change decades of neglect by increasing spending
on low-income education programs – ensuring that international aid in
this field adds, rather than holds, to the state’s financial commitment –
and chooses rational change in curricula, bureaucracy, educators and
methods.
Question # 04

Define research proposal and discuss it different component in

details.
Answer

Research proposal :
A research proposal describes what you will investigate, why it's
important, and how you will conduct your research. The format of a
research proposal varies between fields, but most proposals will
contain at least these elements: Title page. Introduction. Literature
review.

Components of research proposal:

Research proposals differ in terms of their presentation depending on
what each University department requires. In other words, there is no
set template for a research proposal. Please contact your
lecturer regarding the format you are expected to use for your research
proposal.Thus, the components of a research proposal include, but are
not limited to those mentioned in this guide.

1.The Title:

Try to come up with a title that is unique and at the same time easy to
remember. It should also make a lasting impression to the reader and
make them want to come back and read your proposal. The title must also
capture the main concepts of the study. As the research process
is lengthy, it is important that you choose a topic that you are so curious
about that you remain motivated for the duration of the research process.
Select a topic that you will be able to complete within the time
frame that you have for your research.

2.Introduction to the research :

This section of the proposal must provide a broad overview of the topic.
The jargon and key terms used in the particular topic must also be
thoroughly explained in order to avoid confusion. The interest of the
researcher in the particular topic must also be clearly outlined while at
the same time mentioning, albeit briefly at this point, a critical review of
the main literature that covers the topic. The researcher must also
provide the aim of the research by clearly and concisely stating the
problem, as well as the research questions to be dealt with. This
section must also indicate what the research study will not be covering.

3. The Bachground:

The background to the topic of your intended research must be clear and
precise. It must not only include an in-depth explanation of the key points
of your subject but also all the developments in the field as well as
their timelines. The researcher must also explain the compelling
interest in the research issue as well as the personal interest (if any) in
the topic. This section must also indicate the specific area within which
the topic falls in your particular field of study or subject. Aslo, how will
the proposed study contribute to a particular field? In other words, the
impact and the significance in a subject area must be clearly
outlined. The target audience must also be clearly described.

4. The Research Questions:

The research questions must state clearly what your proposed study is
meant to address or answer. Ensure that you use simple language that is
easy to understand, while being cognisant of the level of your intended
audience.

5. Objectives of the research:

It is important that the objectives are in alignment with the research

questions. The objectives must indicate what the aim of the research
study is. In fact, objectives give you a clear indication of the steps
that you will take to achieve the aim of the research. The objectives must
be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound.

6. Research Methodology/methods:

This section outlines the approach which the researcher will follow in
order to address the research problem and to answer all the research
questions from the researcher. The research design must be clearly
defined, e.g., is the research Descriptive, Correlational, Causal-
Comparative/Quasi-Experimental, Experimental, Diagnostic or
Explanatory.

State clearly

 how the research will be conducted in terms of the theoretical

resources that will be used
 the theoretical framework for conducting the research, which is
the theoretical approach drawn from your literature review to
support your research study
 proposed research method(s)
  a comparison of the advantages, limitations and suitability of the
available approaches and methods for conducting your research
 participants, instruments, procedure, analysis, etc.

7. Literature Review:

Collect and present relevant literature on your topic of choice. It is

important to include all the main authors or experts in a particular field.
Depending on your field of study or topic, ensure that you include recent
literature as well as literature that presents counterarguments to the
topic. The justification for the study needs to based on existing literature.
Click here for more information on how to write a literature review.

8. Limitation and delimitation of research:

The researcher must indicate the limitations of the study which are what
the researcher cannot do or factors that are beyond the researcher's
control, as well as delimitations that the researcher chooses not to
address for the purposes of the study. Delimitations are boundaries that
the researcher has set for the study. The reasons both for limitations
and delimitations must be discussed in this section.

9. Significance of the reseach:

The researcher must provide justification for the need to conduct the
study. What is the gap that the study will fill, and what is its contribution
to the existing body of knowledge? The originality and importance of
the research which will be level appropriate, must be clearly described,
for instance, the required level of originality for a fourth year research
project is different to that of a doctoral candidate.
The impact of the study for the subject field must be indicated. In other
words, how will the research improve the field, who will it impact, how
will it make changes in your industy or field etc.? Lastly, the proposed
resaerch must be relatable, interesting and engaging.

10. Work plan:

Your schedule for the research must be stated clearly including the
projected timelines for the various stages of your study

11. Bibligraphy:

All the sources that you have used for your proposal must be listed in
alphabetical order using a referencing style that your lecturer has
prescribed for your subject field.

Question # 05

Describe the use of observation, interview and content analysis in

qualitative
research.
Answer

Observation:

Observation is an act or instance of noticing or perceiving in the Natural

sciences and the acquisition of information from a primary source. In
living beings, observation employs the senses. In science, observation can
also involve the perception and recording of data via the use of scientific
instruments.

Use of Observation in Qualitative research:

Qualitative observation is a research method in which researchers
collect data using their five senses, sight, smell, touch, taste, and
hearing. It is a subjective method of gathering information as it depends
on the researcher’s sensory organs. This approach does not involve
quantitative measurement; it only deals with data you can observe with
your senses.

Qualitative observation enables the researcher to observe, interact and

gain a rich picture of participants in their natural environment. This data
collection method allows you to better understand the processes, culture,
or people under study. Qualitative observations are usually used by
social scientists, sociologists, and psychologists to gain a more
comprehensive understanding of human and animal behavior.

Types of qualitative observation:

There are several methods of qualitative observation. The main types of

qualitative observation that researchers use include:

Direct observation

Here, the researcher collects subjective data about an object,

phenomenon, or process without the participants knowing they are under
investigation.

Case studies

In this method, the researcher examines the participants based on

specific issues or contexts. Researchers use this type of qualitative
observation to identify trends or prove a hypothesis.

Researcher as participant

In this case, the researcher becomes a natural part of a group to better

understand the people or phenomenon under study. That is, you join the
group without the other participants knowing that you are the researcher.

Interviews

In this method, the researcher asks the participants direct questions

relating to the study. The interview is unstructured, so you can steer the
discussion in whatever direction you like.

Qualitative Interview:
A qualitative interview is a more personal form of research compared
to questionnaires. The interviewer can probe or ask follow-up research
questions of the interview participant. In some cases, subjects may
start to interview the interviewer. This fosters deep discussion of the
interview topic.

How to Conduct Interviews in Qualitative Research

1. Determine your goal. 2. Target people to

interview.

3. Design interview questions. 4. Prep the interview.

5. Conduct the interview. 6. Transcribe and

analyze the interview.

7. Optimize and evolve your interview guide.

The First Step in Qualitative Research: Determine Your Goal

Determine what you want to study:

 A current or potential product, service or brand positioning

 Strengths and weaknesses in products
 Purchasing decisions
 Reactions to advertising or marketing campaigns
 Usability of a website or other interactive services
 Perceptions about the company, brand or product
 Reactions to packaging and design

How Can You Decide a Goal for a Qualitative Interview?

Have your business team ask the following questions:

  What information do you want to get?
 Why do you want to pursue in-depth information about this
research topic?
 Why is a qualitative interview process the best solution for this
research?
 How will you use qualitative data to improve your business?

How to Determine the Right Interview Participants

When looking for people to talk to for a qualitative interview, consider

your goal. If you want to expand a product line, interview existing
customers about their needs. If you’re researching marketing, ask new
customers how they found your business. Match interview subjects
with the goal of the interview.

How to Design Interview Questions for Qualitative Research

When you’re creating an interview guide, it’s a good idea to:

 Plan structured interviews with open ended questions.

 Avoid leading questions.
 Create interview questions that are clear and easy to understand.
 Make research questions focused but flexible.
 Design questions that align with data collection and data
analysis goals.

Content Analysis:

Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the

presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within some
given qualitative data (i.e. text). Using content analysis,
researchers can quantify and analyze the presence, meanings,
and relationships of such certain words, themes, or concepts.
As an example, researchers can evaluate language used within
a news article to search for bias or partiality. Researchers can
then make inferences about the messages within the texts, the
writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of
surrounding the text.

Uses of Content Analysis

 Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an
individual, group or institution
 Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to
communications
 Determine the psychological or emotional state of persons or
groups
 Reveal international differences in communication content
 Reveal patterns in communication content
 Pre-test and improve an intervention or survey prior to launch
 Analyze focus group interviews and open-ended questions to
complement quantitative data

Advantages of Content Analysis

 Directly examines communication using text

 Allows for both qualitative and quantitative analysis
 Provides valuable historical and cultural insights over time
 Allows a closeness to data
 Coded form of the text can be statistically analyzed
 Unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions
 Provides insight into complex models of human thought and language
use
 When done well, is considered a relatively “exact” research method
 Content analysis is a readily-understood and an inexpensive research
method
 A more powerful tool when combined with other research methods

such as interviews, observation, and use of archival records. It is very

useful for analyzing historical material, especially for documenting
trends over time.
Disadvantages of Content Analysis
 Can be extremely time consuming
 Is subject to increased error, particularly when relational
analysis is used to attain a higher level of interpretation
 Is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to
draw meaningful inferences about the relationships and
impacts implied in a study
 Is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex
texts
 Tends too often to simply consist of word counts
 Often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as
the state of things after the text is produced
 Can be difficult to automate or computerize