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Metabolism e
Metabolism e
Donald K. Layman
Cataiog Data
Layman, D.K. (2002). Role of leucine in protein metabolism during exercise and recovery.
Can. J. Appi. Physioi. 27(6): 646-662. ©2002 Canadian Society for Exercise Pbysiology.
Abstract/Resume
Exercise produces changes in protein and amino acid metabolism. These changes include
degradation ofthe branched-chain amino acids, production of aianine and glutamine, and
changes in protein tumover. One ofthe amino acid most affected by exercise is the branched-
chain amino acid leucine. Recently, there has been an increased understanding ofthe role
of leucine in metabolic regulations and remarkable new findings about the role of leucine in
intracellular signaling, Leucine appears to exert a synergistic role with insulin as a regula-
tory factor in the insulin/ phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3-K) signal cascade. Insulin
serves to activate the signal pathway, while leucine is essential to enhance or amplify the
signal for protein synthesis at the level ofpeptide initiation. Studies feeding amino acids or
leucine soon afier exercise suggest that post-exercise consumption of amino acids stimulates
recovery of muscie protein synthesis via translation regulations. This review focuses on the
unique roles of leucine in amino acid metabolism in skeletal muscle during and afier exercise.
L 'exercice modifie le metaboUsme des proteines et des acides amines. Parmi tes changements,
notons la degradation des acides amines a chaine ramifiee, la production d'aianine et de
glutamine ainsi que ie taux de renouveliement des proteines. La leucine, un acide amine a
chaine ramifiee, est un des acides amines les plus touches par I'exercice, Au cours des
demiires annees, de nombreuses etudes ont contribue a I 'enrichissement des connaissances
sur le role de la leucine dans la regulation du metaboUsme; les etudes ont egalement devoile
The author is with the Department of Rood Science and Human Nutridon, University
of Illinois, Urbana, IL.
646
Leucine in Protein Metabolism • 647
Introduction
Dietary protein has been assumed to be important for physical performance since
ancient times when consumption of meat was thought to enhance strength and
endurance. However, lipids and carbohydrates are clearly established as the major
fuels for muscle contraction (Wolfe, 1998) and relatively little additional protein is
believed necessary for muscle hypertrophy (RDA, 1989). Still most current day
athletes consume copious quantities of protein under the belief that protein intake
is a key to muscle development (Hickson and Wolinsky, 1996). For reviews of
exercise and protein metabolism see Paul et al. (1997), Wagenmakers (1998a), and
Rennie and Tipton (2000).
Evaluating the roles of protein and amino acids in maintaining the structure
and function of skeletal muscle is complicated by the diversity of the individual
amino acids. For carbohydrates and lipids, the basic molecules are glucose and
palmitate and the functions are largely limited to generation of energy via ATP or
storage as glycogen or fat. On the other hand, there are twenty different amino
acids required for protein structures and many of these amino acids also partici-
pate in numerous other metabolic reactions. In skeletal muscle, the amino acid
with the most complex of these metabolic roles may be the branched-chain amino
acid leucine.
Anabolic effects of leucine on muscle protein have been reported for over
twenty years (Buse and Reid, 1975; Li and Jefferson, 1978; Tischler et al, 1982),
however, only recently have researchers begun to understand and integrate the
overall metabolic roles of this amino acid (Hutson and Hards, 2001). Leucine
participates in metabolism in diverse ways including 1) as a substrate for protein
synthesis, 2) as a fuel, and 3) as a metabolic signal. The most obvious role for any
atnino acid is as the fundamental unit for building protein. As a substrate for muscle
protein synthesis, leucine's role is similar to the other twenty amino acids; how-
ever, in skeletal muscle leucine is disproportionately incorporated into proteins
accounting for approximately 9% of muscle atnino acids (RDA, 1989). Leucine
also functions as a metabolic fuel in muscle. Skeletal muscle is the principle site
for degradation of the three branched-chain amino acids, leucine, isoleucine and
valine. Degradation of these three amino acids in muscle provides carbon for use
as a direct energy source and also provides the stimulus for synthesis of alanine
and glutamine. Finally, the most recent and perhaps most intriguing role for leu-
cine is its participation in intracellular signal transduction as part of the insulin
signal cascade. Recent discovery of leucine's participation in signaling begins to
suggest links among the diverse metabolic roles of this essential atnino acid.
648 • Layman
BCAA
leucine
Isoleucine
valine
alanine
glutamine
Intestine
Figure 1. Picture represents movement of the BCAA from viseral tissues (liver and gut)
through blood circulation to uptake by skeletal muscle. In muscle tissue, BCAA are used
for protein synthesis, production of energy, and synthesis of alanine (Ala) and glutamine
(Gin). Alanine and glutamine are released from muscle and return to the liver and gut as
substrates for endogenous production of glucose. Abbreviations: BCAA branched-chain
amino acids, a-kg alpha-ketoglutarate.
Leucine in Protein Metabolism • 649
tissues where tbe liver removes alanine and tbe gut, kidney and liver remove
glutamine. Tbis interorgan movement of amino acids serves multiple purposes
including delivering BCAA to muscle as a source of energy, supplying potential
intermediates for tbe TCA cycle, and providing a constant supply of alanine and
glutamine for endogenous production of glucose (Harper et al., 1984; Wagenmaker,
1998a; Young and Ajami, 2001).
Degradation of tbe tbree BCAA in skeletal muscle is largely dependent on
increases in tbe concentration of tbe amino acids (Harper et al., 1984). Tbe first
step in degradation is an aminotransferase tbat is sbared by tbe tbree BCAA and
driven by concentration. Tbe BCAA aminotransferase is predominately found in
muscle tissue and essentially absent in liver. Absence of tbe aminotransferase in
liver results in constant release of BCAA from visceral tissues, movement tbrougb
tbe blood and extraction by skeletal muscle. Witbin muscle, tbe aminotransferase
removes tbe a-amino group from tbe BCAA and transfers it either to pyruvate
forming alanine or to a-ketoglutarate forming glutamate. The second step in deg-
radation ofthe BCAA is also a shared enzyme known as the branched-chain ketoacid
debydrogenase (BCKAD) (Harris et al., 2001). BCKAD removes tbe alpha-car-
bon and comtnits the amino acid to complete degradation to energy.
Extraction of BCAA from plasma circulation increases during exercise in
proportion to intensity and duration (Ahlborg et al., 1974; Paul et al., 1996; Van
Hall et al., 1996). Movement of the BCAA into skeletal muscle stimulates their
oxidation (Wolfe et al., 1982). Early in exercise, changes in plasma amino acids
reflect an increased visceral release of BCAA and increased muscle production of
alanine. As the level of work progresses, production of alanine gives way to pro-
duction of glutatnine (Van Hall et al., 1995). These changes in tbe non-essential
amino acid products appear to be associated with the availability of pyruvate de-
rived from either blood glucose or muscle glycogen. At tbe beginning of exercise,
pyruvate appears to be readily available resulting in alanine production. As the
activity progresses, alanine production is replaced by production of glutamine from
a-ketoglutarate and glutamate. These reactions suggest a link between BCAA
metabolism and the balance of fuels during exercise (Wagenmaker, 1998a).
Supplementation of BCAA as ergogenic aids for muscle activity has been
tested with apparently minimal or no effects on performance (Blomstrand et al.,
1991; lackson et al., 1997; Madsen et al., 1996). However, the rate of BCAA deg-
radation is not insignificant with leucine oxidation ranging from 30 to 70 |xmol/
kg-hr for cycling activities at intensities of 30 - 55% VO^^^ (Evans et al., 1983;
Wolfe et al., 198^2). Depending on the size of the athlete and the intensity of tbe
exercise, leucine oxidation may reach nearly 1.0 g/hr. During intense exercise, we
observed a decline in plasma levels of BCAA after 90 minutes of intense cycling
and tbis decline continued into recovery (Paul et al, 1996).
* — Control
12 -
•*• Exercised
Protein ^
Synthesis
(%/day) 8 "
6 -
4 -
-2-1 0 1 2 3
Time (hours)
Figure 2. Time course changes in muscle protein synthesis after exhaustive exercise.
Rats were exercised for 2 hrs on a motor-driven treadmill at 36 m/min (~70% V02max) af-
ter a 12-hour fast. Rates of protein synthesis were determined by ineorporation of H-iso-
leucine into muscle protein using short-term bolus methods. Each data point represents 4
animals.
Initiation Termination
Elongation
\
elF4
5"-mRNA —
AUG
ribosome peptide
RNA and at the level of translation of individual mRNA into peptides. In general,
transcription adjusts the capacity for synthesis of a protein. Short-term, minute-
by-minute controls of protein synthesis occur by regulation of the translation of
mRNA into individual proteins (Pain, 1996; Figure 3). Short-term controls are
modified by factors including hormones and the availability of energy or aniino
acids. These controls are exerted through at least twelve regulatory proteins called
eukaryote initiation factors (elF). Of these initiation factors, at least two of these
factors, eIF2 and eIF4 are subject to physiological regulations (Campbell et al.,
1999; Pain, 1996). Within skeletal muscle, the initiation factor eIF4 exhibits unique
regulation by the BCAA leucine (Anthony et al., 2001).
The first evidence that leucine could stimulate muscle protein synthesis ap-
peared in the 197O's. Using isolated diaphragm muscle and perfused himblimb
preparations, researchers demonstrated that supplementing the plasma or media
with a complete mixture of essential amino acids stimulated protein synthesis (Fulks
et al., 1975; Li and Jefferson, 1978). Further evaluation ofthe impact of individual
amino acids revealed that the stimulatory effect of the complete mixture could be
reproduced by the single amino acid leucine (Buse and Reid, 1975; Hong and
Layman, 1984; Tischler et al., 1978). Initially, these findings were interpreted to
suggest that leucine might have potential to stimulate muscle growth or reduce
muscle wasting in the critically ill. However, subsequent studies failed to show
anabolic effects of leucine during extended catabolic conditions (McNurlan et al.,
1982). Now it is recognized that leucine exerts its effect on short-term transla-
Leucine in Protein Metabolism • 653
tional controls of protein synthesis and this translational effect is synergistic with
insulin (Anthony et al., 2001; Kimball et al., 1999).
Insulin is an anabolic hormone with a critical role in maintenance of muscle
protein synthesis (Kimball and Jefferson, 1994). The importance of insulin is clearly
demonstrated through use of chemical-induced diabetes (Flaim et al., 1980) or
anti-insulin antibodies (Preedy and Garlick, 1986) resulting in suppression of protein
synthesis. While insulin is essential for normal development, it is not sufficient
alone to stimulate muscle protein synthesis in postabsorptive conditions (Anthony
et al., 2000; Gautsch et al., 1998; Yoshizawa et al., 1998) unless supraphysiological
levels of insulin (>700 pmol/L) are provided (Garlick et al., 1983). Use of food
deprived rats demonstrates that feeding carbohydrates alone significantly increases
levels of plasma glucose and insulin but produces no effect on muscle protein
synthesis while feeding protein or amino acids can fully restore rates of protein
synthesis (Anthony et al, 2000; Gautsch et al., 1998). The anabolic effect of a
complete mixture of amino acids can be reproduced with the BCAA leucine alone
(Anthony et al., 2000). These findings suggest that the role of insulin in muscle
protein synthesis is more to potentate the translational system than for direct regu-
lation (Gautsch et al., 1998). The individual roles of insulin and leucine in intrac-
ellular signaling have begun to be elucidated (Anthony et al., 2001).
Insulin
Glucose
Protein Synthesis
Figure 4. The intracellular signaling pathway illustrates the interaction of the hormone
insulin with the amino acid leucine. Leucine appears to amplify transmission of down-
stream signals via interaction at mTOR and has proposed upstream effects represented by
the dashed lines. Abbrevations: IRS-1 insulin receptor substrate-1, PI3-K
phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase, PKB protein kinase B, mTOR mammalian target of
rapamycin, eIF-4E is the 4E subunit ofthe eIF4 initiation complex, 4E-BP1 is an inhibi-
tory binding protein for eIF-4E.
The molecular mechanisms linking leucine and the signal pathway to con-
trol of muscle protein synthesis have begun to be elucidated (Hara et al., 1998;
Patti et al., 1998; Xu et al., 1999). The first critical finding was that leucine modi-
fies translational activity by stimulating a downstream protein kinase recognized
as mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin). Through stimulation of mTOR, leu-
cine has the abihty to activate the initiation factor eIF4 and the 70-kDa ribosomal
protein S6 kinase (p70^*K) (Anthony et al., 2000; Hara et al., 1998; Xu et al.,
1999). The initiation factor eIF4 (also known as eIF4F) is a complex of three sub-
units: eIF4E, eIF4G and eIF4B, required for the initial recognition and unfolding
of secondary structure of the 5'-end of mRNA. To activate the eIF4 complex, first
requires release ofthe eIF4E subunit from an inhibitory binding protein (4E-BP1)
through phosphorylation of the binding protein by mTOR. Leucine serves to acti-
vate mTOR stimulating phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 causing release ofthe eIF4E
subunit. Once eIF4E is released from 4E-BP1, it is free to bind with the remaining
subunits (eIF4G and eIF4B) to form the active eIF4 initiation complex. Likewise,
mTOR also stimulates phosphorylation of p70^*K, which in tum activates the S6
ribosomal protein. Together, activation of eIF4 and p70^*K serve to initiate trans-
Leucine in Protein Metabolism • 655
lation of significant components of muscle mRNA (Kimball and Jefferson, 2000).
These findings serve to link the anabolic response of dietary protein to muscle
protein synthesis through the ability to mTOR to detect changes in cellular leucine
concentrations.
Protein Synthesis'
Protein Synthesis^
'Rats were exercised for 2 hrs on a motor-driven treadmill at 36 m/min (~70% VO^^^) after
a 12-hour fast. •^Protein synthesis determined by incorporation of ^H-isoleucine into muscle
protein and expressed as a percentage of the control. Measurements were made 1 hr after
completion of exercise. ^Complete meal provided 43.9 kJ and consisted of 5 ml of Ensure"*
administered by oral gavage immediately after exercise. "Carbohydrate supplement provided
43.9 kJ and consisted of 5 ml of a mixture of 50% glucose and 50% sucrose in water (525g/L)
administered by oral gavage immediately after exercise. 'Protein supplement provided 0.5 g
protein in 5 ml water. 'Leucine supplement provided 0.27 g leu in 5 rril water. 'Mixture of leu
and carhhydrate provided 43.9 kJ and consisted of 0.27 g leu in the Carbohydrate supplement.
(Summarized from Gautsch et al., 1998 and Anthony et al., 1999.)
Summary
Exercise produces changes in protein and amino acid metabolism, however the
impact of these changes on amino acid requirements remains unclear. Current evi-
dence indicates that supplementation of amino acids during exercise has little or
no beneficial effects on performance. On the other hand, emerging data suggests
that supplementation of amino acids soon after exercise may enhance the anabolic
nature of the post-exercise period.
During exercise, there is increased oxidation of the three branched-chain
amino acids in skeletal muscle. While oxidation ofthe BCAA contributes to muscle
energy needs the contribution appears minimal. A more likely role for the BCAA
in energy balance appears either through maintenance of TCA cycle intermediates
or through contributions to production of alanine and glutamine. Among the three
BCAA, oxidation of leucine appears to be the most dramatic reaching levels of
658 • Layman
perhaps 1 g of leucine per hour of exercise. Still, supplementation of the BCAA
during endurance exercise does not appear to enhance performance.
Changes in protein tumover associated with a bout of exercise remain con-
troversial. The majority of studies report that a single bout of intense or exhaustive
exercise produces a catabolic period for whole body protein tumover. This cata-
bolic period may be caused by depression in the rate of protein synthesis, increases
in protein breakdown, or both. \Vhile understanding changes in protein synthesis
and breakdown are of equal importance, current methods limit our evaluation of
molecular mechanism to studies of protein synthesis. Recently, there has been an
increased understanding of the role of leucine in metabolic regulations and re-
markable new findings about the role of leucine in intracellular signaling. It now
appears that leucine has a synergistic role with insulin as regulatory factors in the
PI3-K signal cascade. Insulin serves to activate the signal pathway, while leucine
is essential to enhance or amplify the signal for protein synthesis at the level of
peptide initiation factors. Studies feeding amino acids soon after exercise suggest
that post-exercise consumption of protein or amino acids stimulates recovery of
muscle protein synthesis via translation regulations. Presently the significance of
these molecular findings with experimental animal models to human perfonnance
or muscle development is unknown. It will be important to test these new findings
as components of defined training programs.
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