Solar Energy 198 (2020) 202–211

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Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Experimental study on the performance of a solar photovoltaic/thermal T

system combined with phase change material
⁎
Hongtao Xua, Chenyu Zhanga, Ning Wanga,b, Zhiguo Qub, , Shuanyang Zhanga
a
School of Energy and Power Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, PR China
b
MOE Key Laboratory of Thermo-Fluid Science and Engineering, School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710049, PR China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: We present a comprehensive analysis of a solar photovoltaic/thermal system combined with phase change
Photovoltaic/thermal system material, i.e., a PV/T-PCM system. A fatty acid was chosen as the PCM with a phase transition temperature of
Phase change material 37 °C. A solar collector filled with PCM, which contained rectangular metal fins to enhance heat transfer, was
Dual-axis tracker used to cool the PV. Four-day experimental measurements were carried out under real outdoor climatic con-
Photoelectric efficiency
ditions in Shanghai, China. During the experiment, we examined two different intermittent thermal regulation
Photothermal efficiency
strategies using a water circulation loop in the PV/T-PCM system to improve the overall solar energy utilization
efficiency, and detailed comparisons were performed. The results indicated that the use of PCM in the solar
collector could significantly mitigate the temperature fluctuation of the PV panel and improve the photoelectric
efficiency. Due to the low thermal conductivity of fatty acid, the temperature stratification in the solar collector
was still significant even with the addition of metal copper fins. The thermal regulation strategy of setting the
temperature at 45 °C gave better performance and the overall efficiencies of Case 1 and Case 3 could reach
approximately 91%. The overall efficiency of Case 3 and Case 4 was approximately 85% with the thermal
regulation strategy of setting the temperature at 50 °C. More heat could be removed from the PCM in the solar
collector using the relatively low temperature setting of the thermal regulation strategy. It was concluded that
the overall energy utilization ratio of the PV/T-PCM system can be improved through a reasonable thermal
regulation strategy; however, further work on the economics analysis of the system is still needed.

1. Introduction
Renewable energy has been used to mitigate environmental pollu-
tion caused by long-term usage of traditional fossil fuel (Al-Waeli, et al.,
2019). As the inexhaustible and sustainable source of renewable en-
ergy, solar energy can be used to generate thermal energy through a
solar thermal (ST) system and electrical energy through photovoltaic
(PV) system (Jia, et al., 2019). Moreover, both electricity and heat can
be generated simultaneously in the integrated solar photovoltaic/
thermal (PV/T) system. The photoelectric conversion efficiency of PV
systems often decreases when the operation temperature of the PV cells
increases (Yuan, et al., 2017). Normally, the conversion efficiency drops
approximately 0.5% when the PV cell temperature increases 1 °C
(Karimi, et al., 2017). Accordingly, various cooling media have been
adopted in the solar collector to improve the photoelectric conversion
efficiency of PV cells and simultaneously collect thermal energy in a
PV/T system (Hasan, et al., 2018, Joshi and Dhoble, 2018, Sun, et al.,
2016).
Cooling media such as air, water, and nanofluid were investigated in
PV/T systems by many researchers. Dubey and Tay (2013) evaluated
the performance of a PV/T system cooled by water and found that the
electrical efficiency was significantly improved compared to a PV
system. Özakin and Kaya (2019) investigated the performance of an air-
cooled PV/T system with fins. The use of fins increased the exergy ef-
ficiency of PV cells approximately 30%. Nasrin et al. (2018) experi-
mentally compared the cooling effects of water and nanofluid in a PV/T
system. The results indicated that the electrical efficiency of nanofluid-
cooling is 3.67% higher than with water-cooling.
The intermittent input of solar energy normally results in the vo-
latility of energy utilization. Because phase change material (PCM) has
large energy storage capacity and nearly constant charging/discharging
temperature during phase change transitions (Asgharian and Baniasadi,
2019), it can be used to regulate the PV cell temperature and store the
thermal energy for solar heating systems (Asgharian and Baniasadi,
2019, Avci and Yazici, 2018). Thaib et al. (2018) reported that the
photoelectric conversion efficiency of a PV system was improved by

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zgqu@mail.xjtu.edu.cn (Z. Qu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.01.064
Received 30 September 2019; Received in revised form 15 December 2019; Accepted 22 January 2020
Available online 28 January 2020
0038-092X/ © 2020 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Xu, et al. Solar Energy 198 (2020) 202–211

Nomenclature n the number of equalized PCMs, n = 9

Pmax the maximum power obtained during the measured time,
Symbols W
Tm phase change temperature of PCM, °C
Aeff effective radiation area of PV/T-PCM collector, m2 Tip,final the temperature of PCM at the end of the experiment, °C
APV the area of the photovoltaic cell, m2 Tp,initial the temperature of PCM at the beginning of the experi-
Cp,w the specific heat capacity of the circulating water, kJ/ ment, °C
(kg·°C) Tc,out circulating water temperature at the outlet of the col-
Cp,s the specific heat capacity of solid state PCM, kJ/(kg·°C) lector, °C
Cp,l the specific heat capacity of liquid state PCM, kJ/(kg·°C) Tc,in circulating water temperature at the inlet of the collector,
EG the sum of the radiation densities during the experiment, °C
kJ Vp volume of PCM, m3
Ew the total heat gained by the water, kJ
Ep the heat stored by the PCM, kJ Greek symbols
Eth the total thermal energy received by PV/T-PCM system, kJ
Eel the output power of the PV module, kJ ηth total thermal efficiency, %
G the radiation density measured by the radiation sensor, ηel electrical efficiency, %
W/m2 ηtotal overall efficiency,%
Geff the radiation density through the Plexiglas cover, W/m2 ρp density of PCM, kg/m3
L latent heat of PCM, kJ/ kg τ time interval of measurement, s
mw the mass flow of circulating water, kg/s τg the glass cover transmissivity, %

9.3% using paraffin wax as the PCM. Waqas and Ji (2017) numerically completed. Hence, the cooling effect of the PCM is greatly weakened in
investigated the effect of RT 44, with a melting point of 35 °C, on the a PV/T-PCM system. In addition, the performance of the PV/T-PCM
electrical efficiency of PV cells. The results revealed that the photo- system is influenced by many factors, such as the solar collector
electric conversion efficiency could be improved by up to 9%, com- structure and the physical properties of PCMs, and an appropriate
pared with the conventional PV cell without PCM, and the PV cell thermal regulation strategy of heat storage and removal in the solar
temperature could drop to 42 °C during peak hours. collector filled with PCM becomes crucial. In this study, a solar col-
Because a PV-PCM system cannot make use of the heat stored in the lector filled with PCM and metal fins was constructed in a PV/T-PCM
PCM, it is not economical to use PCMs alone to cool PV cells (Smith, system to control the temperature of the PV cells. A serpentine copper
et al., 2014). However, a PV/T-PCM system can effectively recover the tube was installed in the solar collector for thermal regulation when the
waste heat stored in PCMs, thereby improving the comprehensive uti- temperature of the PV cells exceeded a set value. Two different thermal
lization rate of solar energy. Fayaz et al. (2019) carried out an ex- regulation strategies were proposed, and the comprehensive energy
perimental study on a PV/T-PCM system, and found that the electrical utilization rate of the PV/T-PCM system was analyzed in detail. This
performance was increased by 9.2% and 12.75% compared with PV and work can provide guidance for the actual operation optimization of the
PV/T systems, respectively. Browne et al. (2016) found that a PV/T- solar PV/T-PCM system performance.
PCM system can extract the heat from PV cells by up to seven times
compared with a PV/T system, with an increase in water temperature of
2. Experimental system
approximately 5.5 °C. Yang et al. (2018) experimentally compared the
overall performance efficiencies of PV/T and PV/T-PCM systems, and
2.1. Experimental schematic and solar collector configuration
found that the total efficiency of a PV/T-PCM system was 20.24%
higher than that of a PV/T system. Modjinou et al. (2019) pointed out
This study was conducted in Yangpu district, Shanghai, China
that the adoption of encapsulated PCM in the PV/T system can improve
(longitude 121.52 °E, latitude 31.27 °N). Fig. 1(a) presents a schematic
the overall efficiency of the system, and can help to prevent damage to
diagram of the experimental setup of the PV/T-PCM system. It is
the PV/T system during the cold season.
composed of a PV module, solar collector, dual-axis tracker, water tank,
However, the major limitation of PCMs is the relatively low thermal
and various measurement elements and data acquisition devices. The
conductivity, which leads to a low heat transfer rate. This limitation
PV panel is 0.5 m × 0.2 m and is attached to the top copper surface of
reduces the thermal storage capacity and utilization rate of PCMs. Some
the solar collector by high thermal conductivity silicone grease. The
researchers have begun to optimize the heat transfer in PV/T-PCM
structures of the PV panel from top to bottom is composed of a single-
systems by incorporating different heat transfer enhancements. Huang
layer transparent PET (Polyethylene terephthalate), EVA (Ethylene-
et al. (2011) adopted metal fins to promote the heat transfer in the solar
vinyl acetate), single-crystal silicon cell, EVA, and a PCB (Printed cir-
collector behind the PV cells. The experimental results showed that the
cuit board) backplane. The rated output power of this PV panel is 17 W
addition of fins could effectively decrease the surface temperature of
under the standard operation conditions (1000 W / m2, 25 °C). A dual-
the PV cells. By adjusting the fin distance, the melting rate of the PCM
axis tracker is installed under the solar collector to produce the max-
can be improved and the photoelectric conversion efficiency increased
imum input of solar energy during the experiment. With the continuous
accordingly. Al-Waeli et al. (2017) presented a novel design of a PV/T
input of solar radiation, the PCM near the top copper plate melts
system combined with nano-PCM and nanofluid. Compared with the
quickly causing further increases of the PV panel temperature if the
PV/T system, the photoelectric conversion efficiency increased from
heat cannot be well transferred to other parts of the PCM. Therefore, a
7.1% to 13.7% and the photothermic efficiency was 72%.
thermal regulation loop that uses water flowing in a copper tube is
From the above literature review, we see that previous studies
integrated in the PV/T-PCM system. The extracted heat from the PCM is
mainly focused on a short-term experiment or artificial environment
transferred to the water tank for heat users by a pump with a constant
test, and a long-term operation report of an actual PV/T-PCM system is
mass flow rate (1.7 L/min) after the thermal regulation has started. The
still lacking. With a continuous solar energy input, the overall tem-
volume of the water tank is 0.027 m3 and all tubes and the outer surface
perature of the PCM rises again once the phase transformation is
of the water tank are well insulated by polyethylene insulating layers,

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H. Xu, et al.
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic diagram of the PV/T-PCM experimental system, and (b)
photograph of the water tank.
as indicated in Fig. 1(b).
A detailed configuration of the solar collector is presented in Fig. 2.
The top is covered by transparent Plexiglas to prevent dust entry and
possible damage to the PV panel. The PCM storage capacity in the solar
collector is 7 kg. Copper fins (0.15 m × 0.02 m × 0.005 m) are in-
stalled below the upper copper plate to enhance heat transfer. The
serpentine copper tube (φ0.01 m) is arranged near the upper plate to
remove heat from the top of the solar collector. A fatty acid is adopted
as the PCM in this experiment, and its physical parameters are listed in
Table 1. Except for the top transparent Plexiglas, the whole exterior
frame of the collector is well insulated by polyethylene thermal in-
sulation material.
2.2. Apparatus and measuring point layout
Table 2 presents the details of the apparatus including the radiation
sensor, atmosphere temperature sensor, wind speed sensor, turbine
flowmeter, programmable DC electronic load, etc. These are used to
measure solar radiation density, environmental temperature and wind
speed, water flowrate, voltage, current, and output power of the PV
module. T-type thermocouples record the temperatures of the water,
PCM, and PV module. The NI 9213 and NI 9203 data loggers are used to
record the signals of the thermocouples and current, respectively.
Owing to the low thermal conductivity of fatty acid, significant tem-
perature stratifications exist in the PCM. Hence, the PCM measurement
points are divided into three groups, denoted A, B, and C. Three rows of
copper columns (φ0.004 m) are placed in the PCM for temperature
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Solar Energy 198 (2020) 202–211
measurements. Details of the arrangement of the copper columns are
indicated in Fig. 3. Three measuring points are fixed on each column to
identify the temperature differences in the PCM during the experiment.
For example, TI,1, TII,1, and TIII,1 represent the temperatures of the
upper, middle, and lower PCM at point 1. To facilitate the data analysis,
the PCM temperature at group A was recorded as TI-a (mean values of
TI,1, TI,2 and TI,3), TII-a (mean values of TII,1, TII,2 and TII,3), and TIII-a
(mean values of TIII,1, TIII,2 and TIII,3). Fig. 3(b) shows photographs of
the top and back of the PV module, and the back temperature mea-
surement point positions are marked as Tce1, Tce2, and Tce3. The average
temperature of the PV module and PCM in the PV/T-PCM system is
denoted as Tcell,PV and Tcell,PV-PCM, respectively.
2.3. Uncertainty analysis
To ensure the accuracy of the experimental results, we conducted an
uncertainty analysis based on Kline and McClintock method (1953).
The uncertainty analysis of the experimental results is calculated by the
following equation (Al-Waeli, et al., 2019).
2 2 2 0.5
WR = ⎡ ⎛ ∂R ⎞ ⎛ ∂R ⎞ ⎛ ∂R ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ∂x1 w1 + ∂x2 w2 +…+ ∂x n wn ⎥
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦ (1)
where WR denotes the uncertainty, R is a given function of independent
variables (x1, x2…xn), and w1, w2…, and wn denote the uncertainties of
x1, x2…, and xn.
Based on Eq. (1), the uncertainty in the thermal efficiency mea-
surements is:
WR1 = [(1.5)2 + (0.3)2 + (1.0)2 + (0.5)2]0.5 = 1.8947
The uncertainty in the electrical efficiency measurements is:
WR2 = [(0.025)2 + (0.05)2]0.5 = 0.0559
Accordingly, the overall experimental uncertainty is:
WR = WR1 + WR2 = 1.9506
It is concluded that the uncertainty during the experimental testing
is less than 2%, and the experimental accuracy is guaranteed.
2.4. Experimental cases
The experiment was conducted from 9:30 to 15:00 between
September and October 2018 and typical experimental results of four
days are presented. Two thermal regulation strategies based on dif-
ferent temperature settings at point TI,1 were compared during the
experiment. The temperature regulation settings were chosen as 45 °C
and 50 °C and the regulation period was 30 min in each case. The water
flow rate was kept constant at 1.7 L/min when the thermal regulation
was triggered by the temperature setting of TI,1. Two cases (Case 1 and
Case 2) were performed with the operation of the dual-axis tracker. The
solar collectors of Case 3 and Case 4 were kept stationary, facing to the
south with an angle of 30°to the ground. The details of the four ex-
perimental cases are summarized in Table 3.
2.5. System performance evaluation
The total effective solar irradiation EG during the experimental
process can be expressed as follows:
τ2 τ2
EG = ∫ Geff Aeff dτ = ∫ Gτg Apv dτ
τ1 τ1 (2)
where Geff denotes the effective solar radiation, and Aeff is equal to the
area of the PV panel Apv. τg is the glass cover transmissivity, and G
denotes the total solar radiation.
The total thermal energy Eth received by the PV/T-PCM system can
be expressed as follows:
H. Xu, et al. Solar Energy 198 (2020) 202–211

Fig. 2. (a) Schematic diagram of the solar collector, and (b) photograph of the assembly.

Table 1 where mw denotes the mass flow rate of the water through the solar
Thermophysical properties of fatty acid. collector, and Cp,w denotes specific heat capacity of water. Tc,in and
Phase change Density Specific Thermal Heat of Tc,out denote water inlet and outlet temperatures, respectively.
temperature (°C) (kg/m3) heat (kJ/ conductivity fusion Eq. (4) indicates the sensible heat absorbed by the water. The
(kg·K)) (W/(m·K)) (kJ/kg) thermal energy stored in the PCM can be expressed as follows:
Solid 37 920 2.2 0.25 216 n = 9 τ2
Liquid 840 2.6 0.15 T i p, final < Tm, Ep = ∑ ∫ ρp,s Vp [Cp,s (T i p,final − Tp,initial )] dτ
i τ1 (5)

Eth = Ew + Ep (3) Tp, initial ⩽ Tm ⩽ T i p, final, Ep

n = 9 τ2
where Ew denotes the thermal energy obtained by the circulation water, = ∑ ∫ ρp,l Vp [Cp,l (T i p,final − Tm) + L + Cp,s (Tm − Tp,initial )] dτ
and Ep denotes the energy stored in the PCM. i τ1
Ew can be defined as follows: (6)
τ2 where ρp,s and ρp,l denote the density of solid phase and liquid phase of
Ew = ∫ mw Cp,w (Tc,out − Tc,in ) dτ the PCM, and Vp denotes the PCM volume in the solar collector. Cp,s and
τ1 (4) Cp,l denote the specific heat of the solid and liquid phase of the PCM.

Table 2
Details of measuring apparatus used in the experiment.
Measuring apparatus Type Measuring range Experimental uncertainty

Radiation sensor YGC-TBQ-24 V-A1 0–2000 W/m2 ± 1.5%

Atmospheric temperature sensor YGC-QW-24 V-A1 −20–50 °C ± 0.3 °C
Wind speed sensor YGC-FS-24 V-A1 0–45 m/s
Circulating pump ORS20-16G-320 W ~110 L/min
Turbine flowmeter LWSY-4 40–250 L/h ± 1.0%
Programmable DC electronic load IT8511A+ – Voltage ± 0.025%
Current ± 0.05%
T-type thermocouple TT-T-30-SLE −120–150 °C ± 0.5 °C
Data acquisition instrument NI 9213, NI 9203 –

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H. Xu, et al. Solar Energy 198 (2020) 202–211

Fig. 3. (a) Measuring point arrangement in the solar collector (back view), and (b) top and back views of the PV panel.

Tp,initial and Tip,final denote the initial and end temperatures of the PCM be expressed as follows:
during the experiment, respectively. L denotes the heat of fusion, and
Tm denotes the phase change temperature of PCM. Eth
ηth =
The output power of the PV module can be expressed as follows: EG (8)

τ2
Eel
Eel = ∫ Pmax dτ ηel =
EG (9)
τ1 (7)

where Pmax denotes the instantaneous output power of the PV module; Accordingly, the overall efficiency can be written as follows:
it is recorded by the programmable DC electronic load.
ηtotal = ηth + ηel (10)
The thermal and electrical efficiencies of the PV/T-PCM system can

Table 3
Four different cases in the experimental study.
Experimental case Experimental Collector Start time of thermal regulation Times of regulation Regulation temperature Regulation time
time

Case 1 9:30–14:30 Tracking 11:24 am Two TI,1 = 45 °C 60 min

13:03 pm
Case 2 9:30–14:30 Tracking 12:47 am One TI,1 = 50 °C 30 min
Case 3 10:00–15:00 Stationary 11:25 am Two TI,1 = 45 °C 60 min
13:13 pm
Case 4 10:00–15:00 Stationary 12.35 am One TI,1 = 50 °C 30 min

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H. Xu, et al. Solar Energy 198 (2020) 202–211

3. Results and discussion PCM increases again, and the overall temperature change in Tcell,PV/T-/
PCM shows a serrated periodicity form. In the two 30-minute regulation
3.1. Photothermal performance analysis periods of Case 1, Tcell,PV/T-/PCM dropped by 16.9 °C and 12.6 °C,

The variations of solar radiation intensity with respect to time are

shown in Fig. 4 for the four representative days. The average radiation
intensities of these four days are 929.6 W/m2, 853.2 W/m2, 863.5 W/
m2, and 833.1 W/m2 for Case 1 through 4, respectively. The thermal
regulation start time is determined by the topmost temperature point TI-
a, which is the average temperature of TI,1, TI,2, and TI,3.
Temperature variations of the PCM with respect to time for Case 1
and Case 2 are presented in Fig. 5. The temperature stratification is
clearly observed in the solar collector, though copper fins are installed
in PCM to enhance the heat transfer. The temperature of the PCM
gradually increases with the continuous input of solar radiation before
the thermal regulation is started. The upper thermocouples measuring
the average temperatures of TI-a, TI-b, and TI-c are close to the copper
plate, and the corresponding temperature increases rapidly with the
input of solar radiation. Owing to the low thermal conductivity of the
fatty acid, temperatures in the middle (TII-a, TII-b, and TII-c) and lower
(TIII-a, TIII-b, and TIII-c) PCM are relatively low. The temperature differ-
ences between TII-a and TIII-a (or TII-b and TIII-b, or TII-c and TIII-c) are not
significant, because the middle and lower PCM does not reach the phase
transition temperature before the thermal regulation starts. When the
temperature at TI-a reaches the temperature regulation setting, the
circulation water starts to flow in the serpentine copper tube to remove
heat from PCM, and the overall PCM temperature decreases sig-
nificantly. TI-a decreases sharply because the temperature difference
between the upper PCM and the circulation water is greatest. This in-
dicates that the cooling effect on the PV panel by the thermal regulation
strategy is significant. After 30 min of thermal regulation is completed
in Case 1, the PCM temperature gradually increases again until the
second regulation time begins. The regulation temperature of Case 2 is
50 °C, and a similar trend can be observed in Fig. 5(b). However, there
is only one thermal regulation time in Case 2.
Table 4 summarizes the values of effective radiation, water tank
temperature changes, and thermal efficiencies. With the operation of
the dual-axis tracker, Case 1 and Case 2 received more effective ra-
diation than Case 3 and Case 4. The thermal efficiencies of the four
cases were 77.8%, 73.5%, 78.7%, and 72.6%, respectively. As indicated
in Fig. 5(a), Case 1 (regulation temperature 45 °C) has two regulation
times, i.e., a total regulation of one hour. With more regulation time,
more heat can be stored in the water tank, and the total heat can be
deduced by the initial and end water temperature difference. Accord-
ingly, the photothermal efficiency of Case 1 is larger than that of Case 2
with one 30-minute regulation time (regulation temperature 50 °C).

3.2. Photoelectric performance analysis

Fig. 6 shows temperature variation comparisons of the PV panel

with respect to time between the PV and PV/T-PCM systems during the
four experimental days. Without a solar collector filled with PCM, the
PV panel temperature Tcell,PV fluctuated significantly due to the in-
stability of solar energy input. The variation trend of Tcell,PV is essen-
tially in accord with the variation of solar radiation intensity (see
Fig. 4). In the PV/T-PCM system, the PCM absorbs the heat from the PV
panel and a significant reduction of temperature Tcell,PV/T-/PCM can be
observed compared with Tcell,PV. The results also indicate that Tcell,PV/
T-/PCM is lower than Tcell,PV before the thermal regulation starts. Tcell,PV/
T-/PCM changes smoothly during the whole experimental period, and
this directly results from the buffering function of instantaneous heat
transfer by the PCM. With continuous solar energy input, Tcell,PV/T-/PCM
increases gradually until the thermal regulation by the water circula-
tion starts. For Case 1, Tcell,PV/T-/PCM significantly decreases after the
circulating water flows into the PCM for thermal regulation at 11:24 am Fig. 4. Variations of solar radiation intensity during the four different experi-
and 13:03 pm (two times). When the regulation is completed, Tcell,PV/T-/ mental days.

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H. Xu, et al. Solar Energy 198 (2020) 202–211

day. The output power increase can also be observed in Case 3 and Case
4. From the experimental results, we conclude that the appropriate
thermal regulation strategy can improve the photoelectric performance
of the PV/T-PCM system.
To better analyze the photoelectric performance characteristics, I-V
and V-P curves of the PV panel in Case 3 and Case 4 are presented in
Fig. 8. During the measurement process, the voltage from the PV panel
changed between 0 V and 20 V, and the current decreased gently and
then sharply within the range of 0–0.8 A. Accordingly, the output
power gradually increased and then decreased within the range of
0–12 W. The programmable DC electronic load can record the max-
imum output power. When the first thermal regulation started, the
output power of Case 3 increased from 10.9 W to 11.3 W, and the
electric efficiency increase was approximately 4.1%. The second output
power increment was relatively small after the thermal regulation in
Case 3. The electric efficiency increase was 5.8% for Case 4.
The experimental results of the PV/T systems are summarized in
Table 5. With the operation of the dual-axis tracker (Case 1 and Case 2),
the total output power of the PV panel in the PV/T-PCM system was
relatively larger than that of Case 3 and Case 4. The average electric
conversion efficiencies of Cases 1 to 4 were 13.2%, 12.0%, 12.1%, and
11.85%, respectively. After the start of the thermal regulation, the
average electric efficiency of the PV panel increased by 3.0%, 1.7%,
3.3%, and 2.5%, respectively. The PV/T-PCM system showed better
performance at a regulation temperature of 45 °C than at 50 °C. The
average photoelectric and thermal efficiencies of Case 1 were larger
than for Case 2 by 6.4% and 5.9%, and the efficiencies of Case 3 were
larger than Case 4 by 7.5%, and 8.4%. The overall efficiencies of the
four cases were in the range of 84.5% to 91.0%.
Fig. 5. Temperature variations of PCM for Case 1 and Case 2 during the ex-
periment. 4. Conclusions

respectively. Compared with the first regulation temperature drop of
ΔTce1, the second temperature drop in Case 1 and Case 3 was reduced
by 4.3 °C and 2.8 °C. The reduction is due to the increased temperature
of the tank water from the heat stored in the water tank after the first
thermal regulation. The average temperature drop ΔTce of the PV panel
is 14.75 °C and 12.4 °C for Case 1 and Case 3, respectively (regulation
temperature 45 °C). With respect to Case 2 and Case 4 (regulation
temperature 50 °C), only one regulation occurs and the temperature
difference between the PV panel and circulation water is relatively
large, resulting in a larger temperature drop of the PV panel, i.e., ΔTce
of the PV panel is 18.3 °C and 17.8 °C, respectively.
Fig. 7 presents the output power variations of the PV panel for the
four cases. The overall trend is also consistent with the variation of
solar energy input intensity (see Fig. 4). As indicated in Fig. 7(a), the
first thermal regulation was performed from 11:24 am to 11:54 am, and
a peak output power of the PV panel occurred accordingly due to the
combined cooling effect by PCM and circulation water. The output
power increased from approximately 11.5 W to 12.0 W in Case 1. When
the thermal regulation was completed, the output power decreased
accordingly until next regulation time started. As shown in Fig. 7(b),
the output power of Case 2 also increased after the thermal regulation,
though the solar input radiation fluctuations were very intense on this
This study presents detailed experimental measurements of a PV/T-
PCM system under real outdoor climatic conditions in Shanghai, China.
A solar collector filled with PCM was used to cool the PV panel. To
avoid the continuous increase of the PV panel temperature, a thermal
regulation strategy was proposed to maintain the maximum tempera-
ture of the PV panel below a temperature regulation setting. Detailed
photoelectric and photothermal efficiencies were compared for the PV/
T-PCM system.
The PV panel could be effectively cooled by a solar collector filled
with PCM. The temperature fluctuation influenced by outdoor climate
was mitigated, and the photoelectric efficiency of the PV panel could be
improved. The temperature of the PCM gradually increased with the
continuous input of solar radiation before the thermal regulation was
started. Owing to the low thermal conductivity of fatty acid, the tem-
perature stratification in the solar collector was still significant even
with the addition of metal copper fins.
A lower temperature setting leads to more regulation times, and
more heat can be stored in the water tank. For example, two regulation
times occur in Case 1, and the PV panel temperature Tcell,PV/T-/PCM
dropped by 16.9 °C and 12.6 °C during the regulation times. The
average photoelectric and thermal efficiencies of Case 1 were larger by
6.4% and 5.9% compared with Case 2, and Case 3 was larger by 7.5%
and 8.4% compared with Case 4. The overall efficiencies of the four

Table 4
Summary of the thermal storage in the PV/T-PCM system.
Experimental case Total effective radiation (kJ) Thermal energy (kJ) Water tank temperature (°C) Thermal efficiency (%)

PCM Water Total Initial Final

Case 1 (2018.9.24) 1556.3 560.2 650.3 1210.5 8.4 26.4 77.8

Case 2 (2018.10.3) 1428.3 662.7 386.7 1049.4 6.8 19.6 73.5
Case 3 (2018.10.1) 1349.0 421.4 639.8 1061.2 8.4 25.3 78.7
Case 4 (2018.10.2) 1394.7 625.6 387.2 1012.8 7.8 20.2 72.6

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Fig. 6. Comparison of temperature variation of the PV panel between PV and Fig. 7. Output power variations of the PV panel in the PV/T-PCM system.
PV/T-PCM systems.

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Fig. 8. Photovoltaic efficiency comparisons before and after the start of thermal regulation for Case 3 and Case 4.

Table 5
Summary of experimental results in the PV/T-PCM system.
Experimental condition Total radiation densities at the Total output power Photovoltaic efficiency % Thermal Total efficiency of
maximum output power of PV cell of PV cell efficiency % system
(kJ) (kJ) Before After regulation Average %
regulation

Case 1 (2018.9.24) 1687.0 220.8 13.1 13.5 13.1 77.8 91.0

13.0 13.2
Case 2 (2018.10.3) 1553.5 184.6 11.8 12.1 12.0 73.5 85.5
Case 3 (2018.10.1) 1629.1 162.9 11.9 12.2 12.1 78.7 90.8
12.1 12.5
Case 4 (2018.10.2) 1392.8 163.0 11.7 12.0 11.7 72.6 84.5

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cases were in the range of 84.5% to 91.0%. Hence, the regulation
temperature of 45 °C produced a better performance of the PV/T-PCM
system.
Due to the low thermal conductivity of PCM, the further effort shall
be focused on the improvement of heat transfer by adding high thermal
conductive materials. All-day experimental measurements shall also be
carried out to inspect the comprehensive benefits of the PV/T-PCM
system in the future.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declared that there is no conflict of interest regarding
the publication of this article.
Acknowledgement
This work was financially supported by the Basic Science Center
Program for Ordered Energy Conversion of the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (No. 51888103) and Shanghai
International Science and Technology Cooperation Fund Project (No.
18160743600).
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