1

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Heat and work are two forms of energy that can cross the boundary of a
closed system and both are subjects of engineering thermodynamics, which is a
prerequisite course to heat transfer. A thermodynamics analysis is concerned with
the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium
state to another. The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfer is the heat transfer.
Heat is a transient energy (energy that is transferred between two systems
or between a system and its surrounding) under the driving force of a temperature
difference just as the voltage difference is the driving force for electric current flow
and pressure difference the driving force for fluid flow. Heat as a form of energy
cannot be accumulated; it is always being transferred from one medium of higher
temperature to the other of lesser temperature. Without temperature difference,
there cannot be any heat transfer.
The temperature of a body is a measure of the amount of thermal energy
content of the body. It is a relative measure of how hot or cold a substance is and
can be used to predict the direction of heat transfer. The symbol for temperature is
T. The common scales for measuring temperature are the Fahrenheit, Rankine,
Celsius, and Kelvin temperature scales. When two bodies at different temperatures
are brought together, heat flows from the hotter body to the colder body. In absence
of any change of phase like melting or solidification, the temperature of the hotter
body decreases while that of the colder body increases until the two bodies attain
equal temperature. An isolated hot body transfers its heat to the surrounding until
it attains a thermal equilibrium with the surrounding. The heat flow rate cannot be
computed without knowing the temperature distribution.
A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic
process. Adiabatic comes from a Greek word adiabatos, which means not to be
passed. There two ways a process can be adiabatic
1. Either the system is well insulated so that only a negligible amount of heat
can pass through the boundary
2. Both the system and the surroundings are at the same temperature and therefore
there is no driving force (temperature difference) for heat transfer.
 2

The symbol for heat is Q. Common units for measuring heat are the British
Thermal Unit (Btu) in the English system of units, the calorie and, kiloJoules (kJ)
in the SI system (International System of Units).
. Work is an energy interaction that is not caused by a temperature difference
between a system and its surroundings. It is simply energy transfer associated with
any force acting through a distance. There are two requirements for a work
interaction between a system and its surrounding. There must be a force acting on
the boundary and the boundary must move. We have various types of work:
1. Electrical work. Electrons in a wire move under the effect of electromotive
forces, doing work. When N coulombs of electrical charge move through a
potential difference V, the electrical work done is
We= VN
When expressed in rate form. (I = N/t)
W = VI (Watt)
2. Mechanical work
Work W, = The product of Force, F and displaced distance, s.
Mechanical work can take the form of shaft work, spring work, work done on
elastic solid bars, work associated with the stretching of a liquid film, work done to
raise or accelerate a body
Shaft work: Energy transmission with a rotating shaft is very common in
engineering
Power transmitted is Work done per unit time = T = 2N T Watts
Spring work: When a force F is applied to a spring, the length of the spring changes
by dx
W = F dx
For linear elastic springs, F = kx
W = ½k (x22-x12) kJ

Work done to raise or accelerate a body

 3

The work done to raise a body (or move a car uphill at a constant velocity) is the
work that needs to be done per unit time to raise the elevation of the car. This is
equal to change in the potential energy of the car per unit time (mgVvertical).
The average power required to accelerate a car to a specified velocity is simply the
change in the kinetic energy of the car in addition to the power required to overcome
friction, rolling resistance and other irreversibilities.

Non-Mechanical forms of Work

This include: electrical work, magnetic work and electrical polarization work.
Magnetic work: The generalized force is the magnetic field strength and the
generalized displacement is the total magnetic dipole moment
Electrical polarization work: The generalized force is electric field strength and the
generalized displacement is the polarization of the medium
Both heat and work are directional quantities. Their complete description
requires the specification of both magnitude and direction. This is done by adopting
sign convention. The general sign convention is as follows: heat transfer to a system
and work done by a system are positive while the heat transfer from a system and
work done on a system are negative. A negative result indicates that the direction
of the interaction is the opposite of the assumed direction.
There are many similarities between the two energy transfer mechanisms:
heat and work.
1. both heat and work are boundary phenomena
2. Neither can be possessed by a system. System possess energy but not heat or work
3. Both are associated with a process, and not a state. They are not properties of a state
4. Heat and work are both path functions i.e their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states. Both have inexact differentials
designated as . The integral of Q or W is Q12 or W12 and not Q1-Q2 or W1-W2
1.1 Difference between Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
The science of thermodynamics deals with systems in equilibrium and can
predict the amount of energy required to change a system from one equilibrium
state to another by the application of the First and the Second laws of
thermodynamics. The First requires that the rate of energy transfer into a system
must equal the rate of energy increase of the system. The Second Law requires that
 4

heat be transferred in the direction of decrease temperature. It gives no indication

how long the process will take. The purpose of heat transfer is to estimate the rate
of flow of energy as heat through the boundary of a system under both steady and
unsteady conditions. Also, it is to determine the temperature field under steady and
unsteady conditions. It provides the experimental rules which are used to establish
energy transfer rates in a system.
1.2 Classification of heat transfer problems
Heat transfer problems frequently encountered in practice are classified into
three:
a) The promotion of the required rate of heat transfer with the minimum possible
surface area and temperature difference in thermal system e.g. the design of
boilers and heat exchangers
b) The prevention of heat transfers in systems with thermal insulation e.g. an oven.
c) Problem of cooling in appliances where excessive heat generation becomes a
nuisance.
These are rating and sizing problems. Rating deals with the determination of heat
transfer rate for and existing systems at a specified temperature difference. The
sizing problems deals with the determination of the size of a system in order to
transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature difference.

1.3 Importance of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is common encounter in scientific and engineering
applications and other aspects of life. The human body is constantly rejecting heat
to its surroundings and human comfort is tied to this rate of heat rejection. We try
to control the rate of this rejection by adjusting our clothing to the environmental
conditions. The principles of heat transfer are applied wholly or in part for the
design of household appliances (like electric iron, refrigerator and D-freezer, water
heater, TV, computers, electric and gas cookers), laboratory and industrial devices
such as the design of heat exchangers (for example car radiator), nuclear- reactor
cores, heating and air conditioning systems, IC Engines, power plants, circuit
board, solar energy system etc. The knowledge of heat transfer and the need to be
able to analyses quantitatively problems involving heat transfer has become
increasingly important as technology advancement increases.
 5

The energy from a combustible fuel or a nuclear reaction is usually

converted into useful work by means of boilers, turbines, condensers, air heaters,
water pre heaters, pump, etc. These machines are components of power plant and
each involve a transfer of heat by one means or another.
In the design of engines like internal combustion engine, gas turbine and jet
engine, a complete understanding of heat transfer for a thorough analysis of the
combustion and cooling processes is required.
All real processes that occur in nature are irreversible. It follows that all
natural processes involve a dissipation of heat.
The knowledge of heat transfer is require in order to develop an effective
solution to the problems of thermal pollution, causes by the inevitable discharge of
waste heat into the environment (air & water) e.g. industrial exhaust from chimney;
the flare of gases etc.
Heat transfer is important in the production of comfort heating depending
on the weather conditions. This invariably influences the design of building
structure of all kinds. In temperate climate for example, there is always an air space
provided within the thickness of the walls of their buildings. Air being a poor
conductor of heat will help to reduce the rate of heat loss during winter.
In aircraft industry, a very large quantity of heat generated by the dissipative
effect of the air viscosity must be cooled down to prevent fire disaster. An adequate
knowledge of heat transfer is necessary to incorporate the means of doing this in
the design of aircraft.

1.4 Mechanisms of Heat Transfer.

There are three distinct modes by which heat may be transferred:
conduction, convection and thermal radiation. All modes of heat transfer require
the existence of a temperature difference and heat flows from the higher
temperature medium to the lower temperature one. In practice, two heat transfer
modes and at times all the three modes occurring simultaneously.
1.4.2 Conduction
Heat conduction is the mechanism of molecular transport of heat in a solid
or fluid at rest due to temperature difference without any movement of macroscopic
portion of matter relative to one another. By direct communication, the molecules
 6

that possess higher kinetic energy impart their energy to other molecules of lesser
kinetic energy in succession. Conduction can take place in solids, liquids or gases.
In solids, conduction is due to a combination of vibrations of the molecules in a
lattice and the energy transport by free electrons. This explains the reason why
metals have higher heat conduction ability than other conductive solids.
Conduction cuts across the boundary of a solid into another body that makes contact
with it. In liquid and gases, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the
molecules during their random motion. Conduction in liquids and solid dielectrics
is by means of elastic waves.
The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the geometry of
the medium, its thickness and the material of the medium, as well as the temperature
difference across the medium. The conduction law is generally based on
experimental observations made by Biot and named after Fourier. The Fourier law
governs conduction heat transfer and it states that the rate of heat flow by
conduction through a layer in a given direction is proportional to the temperature
difference across the layer and the area normal to the direction of heat flow.
Mathematically,

𝑇1 −𝑇2 ∆𝑇
Qcond = kA = -kA∆𝑥 (Watt)
∆𝑥

The constant of proportionality k is the thermal conductivity of the material,

which is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat. In the limiting case
of x tends to zero, the equation above reduces to the differential form.
dT
Qx = -kA W ____________________________________(1)
dx
Where
Qx = Rate of heat flow in the positive x direction.
A = Area normal to the direction
X = direction of heat flow
K = Proportionality constant known as thermal conductivity
T = Temperature
dT/dx = temperature gradient
 7

Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and the

temperature gradient becomes negative when temperature decreases with
increasing x. The negative sign ensures that heat transfer in the positive x-direction
is positive quantity.
For example, consider a slab with linear temperature distribution within it
as shown in figure 1.

Equation 1 on this slab becomes

𝑑𝑇
𝑄𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑥 T

𝑇2− 𝑇1
𝑄𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴 ∆𝑥

𝑇1− 𝑇2
𝑄𝑥 = 𝑘𝐴 ∆𝑥
T1 T(x)

T2
x
Figure 1
For this situation, T1 > T2 hence (T2 – T1) is a negative quantity. The
negative cancels the negative sign in the equation to give a positive Q x in the
positive x direction.
The heat flow rate per unit area is called the heat flux i.e.
qx = Qx/ A W/m2 ____________________________(2)

From the definition of Fourier’s law (eqn 1), some terms arise that required
more explanatory notes. These terms are: temperature field, temperature gradient &
thermal conductivity.

TEMPERATURE FIELD
Conduction in solids is generally accompanied by variations of temperature both
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in time and space. Analytical investigation of heat conduction amounts to study of the
space-time variation of temperature i.e. to determine the temperature field T as a function
of space coordinates and time. This is expressed mathematically as.
T = f (x, y, z, t,)
𝑑𝑇
≠0 --------------------------------------------------4
𝑑𝑡

This is the temperature of a particular location in space being studied at any given
time t. This kind of temperature field is called transient state temperature field because of
its dependence on time. The other kind is of a steady state i.e. it is a function of the space
coordinates only
T = f (x, y, z) ____________________________________________ 5
𝑑𝑇
=0
𝑑𝑡

TEMPERATURE GRADIENT
The temperature gradient is a vector normal to the isothermal surface and is
positive in the direction of increasing temperature. The isothermal surface of a body is the
locus of points of identical temperature, in a temperature field. The temperature in a body
varies only in directions crossing isothermal surface. The greatest temperature difference
per unit length is observed in the direction normal to the isothermal surface. Temperature
gradient is the temperature derivative along the normal n i.e.
dT
Grad T = ----- ______________________________6
dn
The component of grad T in x, y and z axes are:
dT
grad T)x = ----- ______________________________7
dx

dT
grad T)y = ----- ______________________________8
dy

dT
grad T)z = ----- ______________________________9
dz
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2.3 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Thermal conductivity is a physical property of a substance that determines the
ease with which the substance permits transmission of heat through it. It is an indication of
how fast heat will flow in a given substance. The following factors affect the thermal
conductivity of any substance.
1. The chemical composition of the substance or substances of which it is
composed.
2. The phase of existence (i.e. solid, liquid or gas)
3. The crystalline structure if a solid
4. The temperature & pressure the material (operating conditions)
5. The homogeneity of the material
6. The moisture content of the material.
The thermal conductivities of various materials are usually determined
experimentally with the application of Fourier’s law. As stated above, thermal
conductivity depends very much on temperature. For many materials, the dependence has
a linear relationship given as
K = ko (1 + b (T – To)) ___________ 8
Where
Ko = thermal conductivity at To
B = constant determined experimentally.
At 0oC, typical values of the thermal conductivities for several materials are listed
in the table below(Culled from References[1, 2])
Materials W/moC Water 0.556
Gases Ice (Solid) 2.195
Hydrogen 0.175 Ammonia 0.540
Helium 0.141 Lubricating
Air 0.024 oil (SAE 50) 0.147
Water vapour 0.0206 Freon 12 CCl2F2 0.073
(saturated) Glycerine, pure 0.277
Carbon dioxide 0.0146 Nonmetallic solids: W/moC
Sulfur dioxide 0.0086 Quartz, parallel to aris 41.6
Liquid W/moC Magnerite 4.15
Mercury 8.21 Marble 2.08 – 2.94
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Glass, window 0.78

Maple or oak 0.17
Sawdust 0.059
Glass wool 0.038
concrete 0.808- 1.39
cement Portland 0.292
cement mortal 1.152
Metals: W/moC
Silver, (pure) 410
Copper, (pure) 385
Aluminium (pure) 202
Nickel (pure) 93
Iron (pure) 73
Carbon steel, 1%C 43
Lead (pure) 35
Chrome – nickel steel 16.3
(18%Cr,8%Ni)
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General observations & comments on the table of thermal conductivities of materials are:
(1) Solid is a better conduction of heat than a liquid while a liquid is a better conductor than a
gas. For example, Mercury can exist in three phases at different temperature. At about –
193oC it is a solid with thermal conductivity of 48.44 W/m oC. It is a liquid at 0oC with
thermal conductivity of 8.21 W/m oC and finally on a gas at 200oC its thermal conductivity
is reported to be 0.034W/m oC. The difference is due to change in molecular structure as
the substance change from one phase to another. Molecules of solid are closely packed
while that of liquid gases are loose packed in varying degree.
2 Crystalline structure of some solids like quartz and metals enhance a higher
thermal conductivity than an a morphine solid such as glass. The crystalline structure
provides an additional heat transfer as a result of a vibratory motion of the crystal lattice as
a vibratory motion of the crystal decreasing temperature. Any imperfection in the lattice
structure decrease the conductivity of the substance.
3 Metals have greater conductivities than do nonmetals. Besides the mechanism of
molecular communication and lattice vibration through which heat energy is transferred in
crystalline solids, metals have an added advantage of free electrons that drift in the
direction of the decreasing temperature on account of these free electrons in pure metal
their high thermal and electrical conductivities are enhanced. Thermal conductivity in case
of pure metals is the highest. It decreases with increase in impurity. Also, the thermal
conductivity of most metals decreases with the increase in temperature (aluminium and
uranium being the exceptions)
4 Alloy metals have lesser thermal conductivity than pure metals. Thermal conductivity of
alloys increases with increase in temperature
1.3.2 Thermal conductivity of solid substances
(a) Pure metals and metal alloys
Electrons are the principal agent of heat transfer in metals. They are also responsible for
electrical current transmission in metals. Both thermal & electric conductivities are
proportional to each other. Some of the factors are chemical composition, atomic structure,
phase changes, grown size, temperature, pressure and deformation of all these, only
temperature effect is usually accounted for.
 12

According to Chapman, thermal conductivity of metal is directly proportional to

the absolute temperature and the mean free path of the molecules. As temperature
increases, the scattering of electrons intensifies which leads to a decline in thermal and
electric conductivities of pure metals. A sharp drop is also observed in thermal
conductivity of metals having all kinds of admixtures. The impurities on alloying element
bring about structural heterogeneity which brings about electron scattering. But it contrast
to pure metal, the thermal conductivity of metal alloy increases with rising temperature.
(b) Solid dielectrics (non metals)
The thermal conductivity of non- metals usually increase with temperature. As a
rule, materials with a high volumetric density have high thermal conductivity depending
on its structure, porosity and moisture content.
Many construction and heat insulating materials e.g. brick, concrete, asbestos,
slag etc. have porous structure. The presence of pores in them makes it impossible to
consider them as a continuum. Their thermal conductivity K is conditional as it depends
on volumetric density and moisture content. Thermal conductivity increases as the
volumetric density and moisture content increases. The reason being that the thermal
conductivity K of the air filling the pores is much less than that of hard constituent of the
porous material. The thermal conductivity of damp material is considerably greater than
the thermal conductivities of dry material and water taken separately. This trend can be
explained by the effect of convective heat transfer due to capillary movement of water
within the porous material.
The thermal conductivity of granular materials increases with temperature
because an increase in temperature increase the heat conduction of the medium (air) filling
the spices between the grains.
(c ) Insulating and Refractory materials
Heat insulating materials are materials with a low thermal conductivity (below
0.25 W/moC). They are used as thermal insulation to obstruct the flow of heat between an
enclosure and its surrounding. Usually, they are of two types.
1. Low temperature insulation
These are used in instances where an enclosure is at a lower temperature than the
ambient temperature and one wishes to prevent the enclosure from gaining heat.
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Example are cork, rock wool, glass wool etc.

2. High temperature insulation
These are used in reverse cases when one wishes to prevent an enclosure at a
higher temperature than the ambient from losing heat to its surroundings. Examples are
asbestos, diatomaceous earth, margin, etc.
The low conductivity of these materials is due mainly to the air that is contained in the
pores rather than to the low conductivity of the solid material itself. Generally, the
conductivity of these materials increases with apparent bulk density and temperature of the
material. However, at high temperature, the effect of apparent bulk density on the thermal
conductivity may be reversed because at a high temperature, convection and radiation
within the pore may increase the transfer of heat through the material the material.
Refractory materials are those insulating materials that are capable of
withstanding high temperatures without physical deterioration. Fire-clay bricks (Kaolin,
magnesite, chrome, etc) are examples of these materials. Thermal conductivity of these materials
increases with temperature except in the case of magnesite brick which behave like pure metal.
2.3.2 Thermal conductivity of liquids
A soviet scientist named Predvoditelov explained the mechanism of heat
propagation in drop wise liquids as transport of energy by mean of unstable elastic oscillations.
Based on this concept which has been substantiated for most liquids is the formula below for the
thermal conductivity of most liquids.
K = ACp3/4 ___________________ 9
Where
Cp = specific heat of the liquids at court pressure
 = volumetric density of liquid
M = Molecular weight
A = a factor which is proportional to the velocity of elastic
propagation in a liquid
ACp = Constant
The density of liquids diminished with increase in temperature, it follow that
thermal conductivity of liquids decrease with increase in temperature. Water and glycerin are
important exceptions whose thermal conductivities increases with temperature increase. Apart
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from liquid metals, water has the highest value of thermal conductivity of any liquid. It increases
with temperature and rises to a maximum at about 130oC and falls with increasing temperature.
The thermal conductivity of liquid metals are significantly greater than that of other liquid
substances. K for liquids range between 0.07 to 0.7 W/m oC.
2.3.3 Thermal conductivity of gases
Heat transfer by conduction in gases at ordinary pressure and temperature occurs
through the transport of the kinetic energy of molecular motion arising from the random movement
and collision of the gas molecules. The thermal conductivity of gases is determined by the relation
that follows.
K = 1/9 V LCv ________________10
Where
V = mean travel velocity of gas molecules
L = mean the path of gas molecules during the internal between collisions
Cv = specific heat of gas at constant volume
 = gas density
Thermal conductivity of gases does not depend on the pressure exerted except at
very low and very high pressures. As pressure increases gas density increases to the same extent
while it diminishes in inverse proportion, and the product L remain constant. The mean travel
velocity V of gas molecule and the specific heat of gases increase with temperature increase.
V =  (3RmT)/M _________________11

Where
Rm = Universal gas constant = 8314.2 J/Kmol.K
M = Molecular weight of gas.
T = absolute temp, K.
This explains why the thermal conductivity of gases increases with temperature
increase. The range of K for gases is from 0.006 to 0.6 W/mo C

Thermal Resistance
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By analogy, heat transfer may be compared with the flow of current in an electrical resistance. As
the flow of electric current, I, is directly proportional to potential difference, dV, so also heat flow,
Q, is directly proportional to temperature difference, dT
By Ohm’s law,
𝑑𝑉
𝐼= 𝑅
𝑑𝑇
By analogy, heat flow equation (Fourier law) may be written as:𝑄 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑘𝐴

Comparing these equations, I is analogous to Q, dV to dT and R to dx/kA

𝑑𝑥
The quantity is called thermal conduction resistance, Rth)cond
𝑘𝐴

The reciprocal of Rth)cond is called thermal conductance. The rule for combining electrical
resistance in series and parallel equally applied for thermal resistance.
Q
1 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑘𝐴

Fig 1: Equivalent circuit

Example 1
Determine the heat flux across a 0.05m thick iron plate (with K = 70 W/m oC) if one of its
surfaces is maintained at 60oC and the other at 10oC. What is the heat flow rate across the plate
over a surface area of 2m2 ?
Solution
t = 0.05m
k = 70W/m oC
T1 = 60oC, T2 = 10oC t
A = 2m2

dT
Q = - KA
dx

T2 – T1 -50
= -KA ---------- = -(70) (2) -----
t 0.05
= 140000W
 16

= 140KW
Example 2
The inside and outside surfaces of a window glass are at 20oC and –5oC respectively. If
the glass is 76 cm by 15.3 cm in size and 1.5cm thick, with a thermal conductivity of 0.78 W/moC,
determine the heat loss through the glass over a period of 2 hours.

Solution
t = 1.5m
k = 0.78 W/moC
T1 = 20oc, T2 = -5oc
A = 76 x 15.3 cm2
Fourier law
Q = -KA dT/t
= -(0.78 (0.76 x 0.153) x (-5 – (20)
0.015
= 151.16 W
The heat loss through the window glass over a period of 2 hours becomes
Heat loss = Qx t
= 0.1512 x 2 = 0.302 KW.h
Example 3
The heat flux through a 10cm thick layer of loosely packed rock root for a term difference
of 100oc is 75 W/m2. What is the thermal conductivity of the packed rock root?
Solution
Given t = 10cm
t = 100oc
q = 75 W/m2
Required To find K?
From Fourier Law
q = K T/ t

k = q t / T
 17

= (75 x 0.1)/100
= 0.075 W/m .oc

Exercise 1
1 If 3 kW is conducted through a section of insulating material 1.6m2 in
cross-section and 2.5cm thick and the thermal conductivity may be taken
as 0.2 W/m.oC, find the temperature difference across the material?
2 A temperature difference of 86 oC is impressed across a fiber glass layer of
15cm thickness. The thermal conductivity of the fiber glass is 0.035
W/moC. Compute the heat transferred through the material per hour per
unit area.
3 The heat flow through a 4cm thick corkboard for a temperature difference of 100 oC across
the surface is 0.1 kW/m2. What is the thermal conductivity of the corkboard?
4 The temperature of the hot surface of 5cm thick insulating material of
(k= 0.026 W/m oC) is maintained at 500oc. If the heat flux across the material is 20W/m2,
what is the temperature of the cold surface?
5 The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25 m thick, and is made
of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity is k = 0.8 W/m oC. The temperatures of
the inner and the outer surfaces of the roof one night are measured to be 15 oC and 4oC
6. A plane wall (thermal conductivity = 10.2W/moC) of 100mm thickness and area
3m2 has steady surface temperature of 170oC and 100oC, determine
1. the rate of heat flow across the plane wall
2. the temperature gradient in the flow direction

1.3.2 Convection
Convection is a mechanism of heat transfer initiated when temperature difference exist
between a fluid and a solid boundary. Heat is transferred by convection as a portion of the
fluid moves and mixes with another. The actual process of heat transfer from one fluid
particle to another is one of conduction but the transport of energy from one point in space
to another is by the motion of the fluid itself. This motion can be induced by density
 18

gradient created by temperature difference which exist in the fluid and externally by
mechanical means e.g. by a fan, pump etc. The former process of heat transfer is called
free or natural convection and the latter process is the forced convection. The circulation
of water molecules in a heated container is an example of free convection. The flow of
fluid within the tubes of heat exchanger with the aid of pump as it occurs in car radiator is
an example of forced convection.
Heat transfer process that involve change of phase of a fluid are also considered to
be convection because of the fluid motion induced during the process, such as the rise of
vapour bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid droplets during condensation.
Convection heat transfer is more difficult to analyses than conduction because it is
a combined problem of heat and fluid flow. The rate of heat transfer is influenced by all
the fluid properties that can affect both heat and fluid flow such as velocity, thermal
conductivity, viscosity, density and thermal expansion. The basic laws of heat conduction
must be coupled with those of fluid motion in order to describe the process of heat
convection mathematically. These include the equation of motion, energy equation,
continuity flow equation and Fourier’s law of conduction. The resulting system of
differential equations can only be solved numerically with the aid of computer simulation.
In engineering application, Newton’s law of cooling is used to simplify the flow of
heat from a hot body into a cold fluid. The law states mathematically thus:
q = h (Ts– Tf) --------------------------------------13
Where q = heat flux W/m2
h = heat transfer coefficient W/m2. OC
Ts = Temperature of hot body
Tf = Temperature of a cold fluid
And if the heat flux is from fluid to the wall, the above is written thus:
q = h (Tf – Ts)
The value of h depends on some many factors such as:
1 Flow type – whether laminar or turbulent
2 Temperature difference
3 Mechanism of heat transfer – natural or forced
4 Geometry of the body
 19

5 Thermodynamic and transport properties of the fluid (e.g. viscosity, density,

specific heat etc)
6 The position along the surface of the body.
If h varies with position its average value hm is used in calculations. The value of h can be
determined analytically or experimentally depending on the geometry of the body.

Fluid flow Tf

Q Ts > Tf
Ts

Fig 2a. Physical configuration

Q
Ts Tf
1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = ℎ𝐴
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓
𝑄=
1
ℎ𝐴
1
The denominator, ℎ𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 Rth/conv to heat flow.

Comparing Fourier law of equation 1 and the Newton’s law of cooling equation 13 at the wall, i.e.
at y = 0, we shall have
𝑑𝑇
ℎ(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓 ) = −𝑘
𝑑𝑦
𝑘 𝑑𝑇
ℎ = − (𝑇 −𝑇
𝑠 𝑓 ) 𝑑𝑦

This equation relates heat transfer coefficient, h, with thermal conductivity and the temperature
gradient at the surface. This is used in the experimental determination of h.

Example 1
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Water at 20oC flows over a flat plate at 80oC and if the heat transfer coefficient is 200W/m2
O
C, determine the heat flow per square meter of the plate.
Solution
q = h (Tp – Tf)
Tp = Temperature of plate = 80 oC
Tf = Temperature of water = 20 oC
h = 200 W/m2 oC
q = 200 (80 – 20)
= 200 x 60
= 12000 W/ m2 = 12 kW/m2

Example 2
Determine the rate of heat flow to the cold air which flow at 10oC over a tube of 6m length
and 2cm OD. The surface of the tube is maintained at 100oC and the heat transfer
coefficient between this outside surface of the tube and the cold air is 100 W/m2 oC
Solution
Tf = 10oC
Tr = 100oC
h = 100 W/m2. oC
dia = 0.02m
L = 6m.

Surface area of the tube = DL

=  x 0.02 x 6
A = 0.12
q = h (TT - Tf)
100 (90) = 9000 W/m2
Q = qA = 0.12  x 9000
= 120 x 9
= 3142W
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Example 3:
A 2 m long, 0.3 cm diameter electrical wire extends across a room at 15oC, as shown in the
figure below. Heat is generated in the wire as a result of resistance heating, and the surface
temperature of the wire is measured to be 152oC in steady operation. Also, the voltage drop and
electric current through the wire are measured to be 60V and 1.5A, respectively. Determine the
convection heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer between the outer surface of the wire and the
air in the room. Assuming heat transfer by radiation is negligible.
Solution

A steady operating state exists when the temperature reading do not change with time.

At this point, the rate of heat loss from the wire equals the rate of heat generation in the wire as a
result of resistance heating.

Q = Egenerated = VI = (60 V) (1.5A) = 90 W

Surface area of the wire = 𝜋DL = 𝜋 (0.003 m)( 2 m) = 0.01885 m2

According to Newton’s law of cooling for convection heat transfer,

Q = h A (Ts -Tf) = 90 W

90 90
ℎ= =
𝐴(𝑇𝑠− 𝑇𝑓 ) (0.01885)(152 − 15)

h = 34.9 W/m2 oC

Exercises 2
1 A 50cm diameter pipeline carries hot oil at 30oC and is exposed to a
surrounding temperature of –10oC. A special kind of powder insulation of
5cm thick surrounds the pipe and has a thermal conductivity of 7m W/moC the convection
heat transfer coefficient on the outside of the pipe is 12W/m2.oC. Estimate the energy loss
from the pipe per meter of length.
2 A 25cm vertical wall with a surface temperature maintained at 50oC is suspended
in atmospheric air at 25oC. Determine the heat flow rate by free convection from the wall
to the air.
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3 Cold air at 0oC is forced to flow over a flat plate maintained at 30oC. The mean
heat transfer coefficient is 50W/m2.oC. Find the heat flow rate from the plate to
the air permit area
1.4. 3 Thermal Radiation
Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic
waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configuration of the atoms or
molecules. Heat can be transferred by radiation in a vacuum without any material carrier or
intervening medium. The process of heat transfer by the means of electromagnetic waves emitted
at the surface of a body, which has been thermally excited because of their temperature, is called
thermal radiation. The rate of heat transfer through this mechanism depends only on the
temperature and on the optical properties of the heated body which convert its internal energy into
radiation energy. Thermal radiation differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as
x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television waves because they are not related
to temperature.
All matters-solid, liquids and gases at temperatures above absolute zero emit,
absorb, or transmit thermal radiation at varying degrees. The emitted radiation, when strikes
another body may be absorbed, transmitted or reflected partly in a ratio that depends on the nature
of the body. The heat of the sun is the most obvious example of thermal radiation.
In the analysis of thermal radiation the engineering concern is to know the total
quantities of radiation energy emitted and absorbed by matter at various temperatures. The basic
laws used in the estimation of these quantities of radiation energy are: Stefan-Boltzmann,
Kirchhoff’s and Wien’s laws.
The radiation energy leaving a body through its surfaces actually originates from
the interior of the body. And when incident on another body, it penetrates into the interior of the
body where it is absorbed. Bodies like metals, wood, stone, rocks and paper that do not allow
thermal radiation to be transmitted through them are opaque objects. For these objects, radiation
is considered to be a surface phenomenon. Those that permit transmission of thermal radiation are
called semi-transparent bodies e.g. a sheet of glass. Generally the propagation of thermal radiation
in a medium is weakened as a result of absorption. This weakening effect is not found in a vacuum.
Therefore, a vacuum is considered completely transparent to radiation.
According to Stefan – Boltzmann law, the maximum rate of radiation that can be
 23

emitted from a black body at temperature T ( in K) is

Qb = AT4 W
where
 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant. It has a value of 5.670 x 10 –8 W/m2. K4
T = absolute temperature in Kelvin’s.
Qb = black body emissive power.
The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a blackbody. The
radiation emitted by a non-blackbody (i.e. all real surfaces) at an absolute temperature T is less
than the radiation by a blackbody at the same temperature. This is expressed as
Q =  AT4 W
Where
 = emissivity of the surface of the body.
When a surface of emissivity and surface area As at a thermodynamic temperature Ts is
completely enclosed by a much larger surface at thermodynamic temperature Tf separated by air
which does not intervene with radiation, the net rate of radiation heat transfer between these two
surfaces is given by
Q =  As (Ts4 - Tf4 )W
Q
Ts Tf

1
𝑅𝑡ℎ =
 𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇𝑓 )(𝑇𝑠2 +𝑇𝑓2 )

𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑓
Q= 𝑅𝑡ℎ

Emissivity has a value which range from 0 to 1. It is a measure of how close a surface approximates
a blackbody which has  = 1. A blackbody is a perfect emitter. For a non-blackbody surface, 
<1.
An radiation flux (qi) incident on a blackbody is absorbed completely i.e.
qi = qa
where qa - radiation absorbed.
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A blackbody is a perfect absorber with absorptivity  = 1. The situation is different for a non-
blackbody, only a fraction of the incident radiation is absorbed. This depends on the absorptivity
of the body 
qa =  qi
Note:  =  for a real, non-blackbody.
Both  and  of a surface depend on the temperature and the wavelength of the radiation.
According of Kirchoff’s law of radiation, the emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface
at a given temperature and wavelength are equal. For opaque surfaces, the portion of incident
radiation not absorbed by the surface is reflected back. The difference between the rates of
radiation emitted by the surface and the radiation absorbed is the net radiation heat transfer.
Note: Radiation is usually significant relative to conduction or natural convection but negligible
relative to forced convection especially when the surfaces involved have low emissivities.
Wien’s law states that the wavelength 𝜆𝑚 corresponding to the maximum energy is
inversely proportional to the absolute temperature T of the hot body. That is the product of
wavelength and temperature is a constant.
𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Example 6
A hot surface at a temperature of 400k has an emissivity of 0.8. Calculate the radiation
flux emitted by the surface.

Solution
q =  T4
 = 0.8
T = 400k, T4 = (400)4 k4
 = 5.6697 x 10 –8 W/m2.k4
q = 1.161 kW/m2

Example 7
A radiation flux of 1000W/m2 is incident upon a surface that absorbs 80 percent of the
incident radiation. Calculate the amount of radiation energy absorbed by a 4 m2 area of the surface
over a period of 2 hour.
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Solution
qi = 1000 W/m2
 = 0.8
qa =  qi = 800 W/m2
Qa = A qa = 4 x 800 = 3200 W
Qa= 3.2 KW
For over a period of 2 hours,
Qa = 6.4 KW h.

Exercises 3
1 A blackbody at 30oc is heated to 80oC. Calculate the increase in its emissive power.
2 A solar radiation flux at 700W/M2 is absorbed in a metal plate which is perfectly
insulated coefficient on the plate is 11 W/m2 oC and the ambient air temperature is
30oC. Calculate the temperature of the plate under equilibrium conditions.
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