Case Studies in Construction Materials 18 (2023) e02063

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm

An integral approach for testing and computational analysis of

glass powder in cementitious composites
Muhammad Nasir Amin a, *, Sohaib Nazar b, c, d, Mohammed Najeeb Al-Hashem a,
Fadi Althoey e, Ahmed Farouk Deifalla f, Abdullah Mohammad Abu Arab a
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia
b
State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engineering, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 200240, PR
China
c
Shanghai Key Laboratory for Digital Maintenance of Buildings and Infrastructure, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering,
Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China
d
Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan
e
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Najran University, Najran, Saudi Arabia
f
Department of Structural Engineering and Construction Management, Future University in Egypt, New Cairo City 11835, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this research, test methods followed by supervised machine learning (SML) modeling were
Cement-based composites used to examine the effect of glass powder as a partial sand and cement substitute on the water
Glass powder absorption capability of cement mortar. This study also utilized SHapley Additive exPlanations
Water absorption
(SHAP) analysis to determine the significance of raw materials. The dataset was derived from
Support vector machine
experiments and was used to build SML-based prediction models, including support vector ma­
Bagging
AdaBoost chine, bagging, and AdaBoost. According to the test results, using glass powder reduced the water
absorption capacity of cement mortar, and the optimum glass powder contents were noted to be
10 % as cement and 15 % as a sand substitute. Additionally, the built SML models indicated good
accord with test outcomes and could be applied to calculate the water absorption of cement
mortar comprising glass powder. Moreover, the AdaBoost model was found to be more accurate
(R2 = 0.98) than the support vector machine (R2 = 0.95) and bagging regressor (R2 = 0.95)
models in terms of R2, the difference between test and estimated findings, and the assessment of
the errors.

1. Introduction

The concrete sector causes serious environmental issues since cement production is an extremely polluting and energy-demanding
process that contributes 5–8 % of global CO2 emissions [1,2]. Due to the fuel combustion and cement raw ingredients, each ton of
cement manufacture discharges one ton of CO2 into the atmosphere [3,4]. Moreover, the increasing use of natural sand causes the
exhaustion of natural resources [5]. Researchers are now investigating new sustainable materials in place of conventional concrete
[6–10]. The recycling of waste materials in concrete as a partial replacement for cement and sand is a sensible strategy for decreasing
their use and hence lessening the environmental impacts of cement-based composites (CBCs) manufacturing [11–15]. Glass as a raw

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mgadir@kfu.edu.sa (M.N. Amin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02063
Received 13 March 2023; Received in revised form 30 March 2023; Accepted 11 April 2023
Available online 12 April 2023
2214-5095/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M.N. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 18 (2023) e02063

material is 100 % reusable. It might be reused with no loss of value [16]. Recycled glass powder (GP) modified CBCs are gaining
popularity in the construction industry due to their low cost and widespread availability [17]. When GP was used to replace 10–20 % of
cement or sand, mechanical characteristics such as compressive and flexural strengths were enhanced [18,19]. Cement and sand
requirements in the construction industry are reduced, and landfill space is conserved by recycling and reusing waste glass as partial
cement and sand substitutes [20]. Thus, the use of GP in CBCs not only enhances their performance but also facilitates sustainable
development.
CBCs are the widely used construction materials worldwide after water based on annual consumption [21–24]. During the service
life of buildings made from CBCs, many deteriorations generated by chemical or physical reasons, such as sulfate attack, freeze-thaw,
chloride attack, shrinkage, carbonation, and alkali-silica reaction, are common [25]. As a path for the transit of hostile ions, water is
frequently involved in each sort of deterioration method, both indirectly and directly [26]. Consequently, a comprehensive under­
standing of water flow in CBCs is required for evaluating durability, forecasting service life, and formulating design principles on the
basis of durability. Water absorption (WA) is an important measure of a porous composite’s ability to absorb and transmit water
through capillary pores [27]. The gravimetric method for WA was initially employed in soil investigations; later on, it was used in the
research of construction materials, including brick, stone, and CBCs [28]. A relevant study investigated the influence of WA on the
deterioration of CBCs exposed to severe temperatures and discovered that the WA rate was the controlling factor for the amount of
degradation generated by the dehydration of CaO [29]. Another study evaluated M40-grade pavement concrete in which wollastonite
significantly substituted cement using the WA method [30]. Utilizing the WA experiment, the permeability of the concrete cover zone
was assessed, and correlations between the open porosity as shown by compressive strength, initial absorption, and carbonation depth
were developed [31]. In addition, WA was applied in the research of lightweight, self-curing, recycled aggregate, fiber-reinforced and
autoclaved aerated CBCs [32–36], among others. WA is deemed a reliable approach for assessing the durability and long-term per­
formance of CBCs [37–39]. Therefore, in-depth investigations are required on WA for a material’s widespread adoption and appli­
cation in the construction sector.
Scholars are developing performance prediction models for structures/materials to cut costs and conserve time [40–43]. The
characteristics of the material have been predicted using conventional prediction models, such as regression-based techniques
[44–46]. Artificial intelligence-based supervised machine learning (SML) methods are at the forefront of innovative modeling in this
area [47–51]. The use of SML methods foretelling the characteristics of construction materials is promoting [52–55]. Most previous
SML-based investigations concentrated on assessing the strength of conventional CBCs [56–58]; however, limited research has been
published on predicting the characteristics of CBCs modified with GP [19,59–61]. Alkadhim et al. [59] employed gradient boosting
and random forest SML methods to assess the compressive and flexural strength of cement mortar (CM) modified with GP. It was
determined that the employed SML models performed well in forecasting the strength properties of CM, with the random forest model
exhibiting superior accuracy. However, to the author’s knowledge, no work has been published on forecasting the WA of
GP-containing CBCs using SML methods.
To assess the WA of CM modified with GP, this study used both test and SML techniques. GP proportions from 0 % to 15 % were
utilized to partially replace sand and cement for casting CM samples. SML prediction models were established using the dataset ob­
tained from the experimental techniques. The support vector machine (SVM), bagging regressor, and AdaBoost regressor SML tech­
niques were used to achieve the study’s goals. SVM is a single SML technique, whereas bagging and AdaBoost are ensemble SML
approaches [19,62]. The accuracy of SML algorithms was assessed using the coefficient of determination (R2), statistical tests, the
k-fold technique, and the divergence of predicted outcomes. This study is novel since it used testing and SML techniques that included
both single and ensemble algorithms to evaluate the WA of CM containing GP. Unfortunately, only experimental studies need a sig­
nificant time, financial, and labor commitment for the gathering of materials, casting, curing, and testing. Innovative strategies like
SML might be used in the construction industry to overcome these problems. Due to this, the goal of this work was to get a greater
knowledge of how SML techniques might be used to predict material attributes. A dataset, which can be acquired experimentally or
from public sources, is required to use SML techniques. As a result, the gathered dataset might be utilized to predict material char­
acteristics and train SML models. This research evaluated the efficacy of SML techniques by forecasting the WA of GP-modified CM
using six input parameters derived from the experiments. Also, this study employed SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis to
look at the importance of raw materials’ features. The SHAP approach makes use of intricate non-linear procedures and a range of
input parameter effects with a weighting characteristic for each input in an effort to provide a thorough interpretation of the design of
CM incorporating GP.

2. Study methods

2.1. Materials and experiments

A local supplier provided the sand and Portland cement, and PAGEL Chemicals Pakistan supplied the silica fume and super­
plasticizer. Glass waste (float glass) was collected from local building detritus, cleaned, mechanically ground into powder, and passed
through a #200 sieve. For the purpose of creating CM samples, three mix proportions were selected. In all the mixes, the ratios of
cement to sand, water to cement, and superplasticizer dosage were kept constant at 1:1, 0.25, and 4 % by mass of cement, respectively.
The only element that set the combinations distinct was the amount of silica fume (SF). In Mixes 15-SF, 20-SF, and 25-SF, the pro­
portion of SF in the mix was 15 %, 20 %, and 25 % by cement mass, respectively. Moreover, GP was added to all combinations in
amounts ranging from 0 % to 15 % in increments of 2.5 %, replacing cement and fine aggregate. With a mechanical mixer, the CM’s
ingredients were mixed. In order to assess the WA, 50 mm cubes were cast. For each mix, three specimens were cast for a total of 117

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samples. After being cast, samples were kept in molds for 24 h before demolding. The water curing method was adopted for all samples
for a period of 28 days before testing. The WA evaluation was done in accordance with ASTM C62-97 [63]. Fig. 1 displays the images of
samples at various stages during the experimental work.

2.2. SML modeling methods

SML approaches require a vast array of input variables to get the desired outcomes [64]. To obtain the optimal outcomes from an
SML model, the data sample’s parameters should fluctuate continuously; utilizing a constant value or one with limited variation may
produce inaccurate results [65]. Using experimental data, the WA of CM containing GP was calculated. A comma-separated values
(CSV) file format was required for the dataset, in which inputs and output values were listed in columns, with the output (WA) kept in
the last column of the file. As inputs, the SML methods used cement, sand, water, superplasticizer, GP, and SF to forecast the WA. Single
and ensemble SML procedures utilizing Python code in Spyder (5.2.2) were used to accomplish the work’s objectives. SVM was
employed as a singular SML approach, whereas bagging and AdaBoost were employed as ensemble techniques. These SML approaches
were commonly used to assess results using input parameters. These methods enable the prediction of material characteristics [19,62].
Six inputs and one result (WA) were employed in the modeling procedure. The code was configured to allocate 30 % and 70 % of the
data sample for testing and training, respectively. The R2 value of the projected outcome represents the precision of the employed
models. R2 reflects the degree of difference between projected models and test outcomes [66]. A smaller number (closer to 0) implies
higher variance, whereas a larger number (closer to 1) suggests less variance. Statistical and k-fold approaches were employed to
validate the accuracy of SML models. The statistical errors used for models included mean absolute error (MAE), root mean square
error (RMSE), and mean absolute percentage error (MAPE). Additionally, the impact of raw materials on the WA was assessed using
SHAP analysis. Fig. 2 depicts a flowchart of the research plan. Following subsections details, the SML methods and validation pro­
cedures applied in this work.

2.2.1. Support vector machine

SVM is a subclass of SML techniques used for assessing data for regression and classification. In an SVM method, which depicts the
data as points in space, a disconnected vector, i.e., a plane or line with the largest gap possible, is utilized to distinguish the shapes of
the several categories. New samples are classified on the basis of which edge of the vector they reside. Fig. 3 depicts the application

Fig. 1. Pictures of samples at various stages during the experimental work: (a) Cube samples in molds; (b) Demolded samples; (c) Dried Samples
placed in the oven; (d) Weighing samples.

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Fig. 2. Sequence of research methods.

technique for the SVM algorithm. This approach is utilized to measure the material’s properties, considering the influence of various
components. The SVM model’s parameters are determined using an optimization strategy [67].

2.2.2. Bagging regressor

Fig. 4 depicts a schematic illustration of the BR technique. Adjustments to the prediction model brought on by the accumulation of
more training data are based on a similar ensemble method. In the irregular sampling technique, the main set of data is replaced. With
alternative sampling, each new training data might include matching interpretations. Following bagging, each element in the new data
sample has the same probability of occurrence. There is no impact of the projecting force on the size of the training dataset. Moreover,
the variance might be greatly minimized by enhancing the approximation of the desired result and training further models utilizing
these data samples. In regression, the average of the evaluations from several models can be used as an estimate [68]. Twenty
sub-models are employed to fine-tune the bagging technique using SVM and determine the best result-producing value.

2.2.3. AdaBoost regressor

Ensemble learning, which is effectively a form of SML, is one of the methods for augmented reality. This strategy is also recognized
as adaptive boosting since weights are allocated to each occurrence, with bigger weights allocated to cases that were mistakenly
grouped. Fig. 5 depicts the flowchart of the AdaBoost running process. Boosting algorithms are often used in SML to decrease bias and

Fig. 3. Procedure of SVM method [67].

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Fig. 4. Procedure of bagging regressor method [69].

variation. When employed effectively, ensemble tactics may help even the most challenging learner advance. During the training
phase, as many SVMs as necessary might be used to process the data. During the development of the first SVM, uncorrected key model
data are exposed. As inputs, another model employs the identical collection of data records. This procedure would continue until a
sufficient number of beginner learners were generated. When applied to issues of binary classification, AdaBoost increases the use­
fulness of the SVM. It is also employed to improve the performance of the SML model. Typically, these ensemble approaches are
applied in the realm of materials research to determine the mechanical characteristics of materials [70].

2.2.4. Performance evaluation of SML techniques

The SML algorithms were validated utilizing k-fold and statistical approaches. The k-fold method, which arbitrarily splits the
dataset into ten groups for examination, is widely employed to determine the efficacy of an SML model [72]. The SML models utilize
nine groups for training and one for validation during the k-fold validation process [62]. The SML model is more accurate when errors
are smaller, and R2 is greater. To achieve the best results, the approach should be utilized for ten repeats. This strategy is primarily
responsible for the model’s high level of accuracy. In addition, using error evaluations (MAE, MAPE, and RMSE), a statistical check of
the precision of each SML approach was conducted. Using Eqs. (1)–(3), which was derived from prior work [73,74], the forecast
precision of SML models was statistically evaluated.

Fig. 5. Procedure of AdaBoost regressor method [71].

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1∑ n
MAE = |Pi − Ei|, (1)
n i=1

√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∑ (Pi − Ei )2
RMSE = , (2)
n

100% ∑
n
|Pi − Ei|
MAPE = , (3)
n i=1 Ei

Where n = number of data Samples, Pi = predicted WA, and Ei = test WA.

3. Results and analysis

3.1. Test results

Table 1 displays the WA for samples containing GP as a partial substitute for cement and sand. Fig. 6 was generated to show the
normalized WA of samples with respect to the control mix (C-Mix) without GP. The normalized values for each mix were calculated by
dividing the WA results by the C-Mix WA results. It was shown that the WA of samples was reduced when GP was incorporated
compared to the C-Mix. WA of specimens with GP as cement substitute dropped at GP ratios of up to 10 % of cement in all mixes (15-SF,
20-SF, and 25-SF), but at the higher GP ratios, the WA increased. However, up to a 15 % GP ratio, the WA of samples was comparable to
the C-Mix. For instance, using a 2.5 %, 5 %, 7.5 %, 10 %, or 12.5 % GP concentration in a 15-SF mix resulted in a 6.9 %, 12.1 %,
20.1 %, 24.2 %, and 10.1 % drop in WA, respectively, compared to the C-Mix. However, at a 15 % GP ratio in the 15-SF mix, the WA
was the same as the C-Mix, i.e., 6.55 % and 6.53 %, respectively. Similar findings were found in other mixtures (20-SF and 25-SF). In
the 20-SF and 25-SF specimens, the largest decrease in WA was seen with 10 % GP as a cement replacement, which was approximately
26.6 % and 27.7 % lower than the C-Mix, respectively. Potential causes include the filler effect and the pozzolanic property of GP [18].
The influence of the filler decreased the matrix’s voids, developing a dense and compact mortar structure. The greater amount of SiO2
in the glass’s composition [75] reacted with Ca(OH)2 in the cement matrix to produce a calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) gel, hence
enhancing the material’s compactness [76,77]. WA increased at higher GP concentrations (12.5 % and 15 %) due to the use of more GP
than is required for the pozzolanic reaction [18]. To attain optimal decrease in WA, GP replacement of up to 10 % of the cement is
recommended. It is promising to employ up to 15 % GP as a cement replacement in CM without affecting WA capacity, hence pro­
ducing ecologically friendly and economically advantageous material.
The normalized WA of samples incorporating GP as a sand substitute with respect to the C-Mix is shown in Fig. 7. Compared to the
C-Mix, the WA of the three combinations (15-SF, 20-SF, and 25-SF) reduced when GP was added as a sand substitute. The WA of
samples dropped with increasing GP fraction, and at 15 % sand substitute, the greatest fall in WA was observed. In comparison with the
C-Mix, the WA of specimens containing GP at 2.5 %, 5 %, 7.5 %, 10 %, 12 %, and 15 % concentrations dropped by 4.0 %, 8.9 %,
15.2 %, 21.3 %, 24.7 %, and 27.0 %, respectively. Comparably, the maximum decrease in WA was accomplished using 15 % GP as a
sand substitute in 20-SF and 25-SF mixes, which were around 28.6 % and 30.1 % less than the C-Mix. As GP particles were smaller
compared to sand particles, which helped in better particle packing, this might be the primary reason for the drop in WA [78]. In
addition, the use of GP improved the hydration process and created superior hydration products due to its pozzolanic activity, which
lowered the WA capacity of samples due to the compact structure [18]. In order to get the greatest decrease in WA, GP might be utilized
as a 15 % sand substitution. Additionally, it can be inferred that utilizing GP as a substitute for sand is more advantageous than
utilizing it as a replacement for cement. This observation is based on the higher reduction in WA (up to 30.1 %) with GP use as a sand
substitute compared to the reduction in WA when GP use as a cement substitute (up to 27.7 %), and allowing the usage of GP in CM at
higher proportions as sand replacement.

Table 1
Test results for water absorption of all mixes.
GP (%) Water absorption (%)

Cement replacement Sand replacement

15-SF 20-SF 25-SF 15-SF 20-SF 25-SF

0.0 6.53 6.09 5.75 6.53 6.09 5.75

2.5 6.08 5.65 5.3 6.27 5.78 5.4
5.0 5.74 5.26 4.92 5.95 5.45 5.12
7.5 5.22 4.77 4.48 5.54 5.06 4.76
10.0 4.95 4.47 4.16 5.14 4.75 4.45
12.5 5.87 5.42 5.02 4.92 4.51 4.24
15.0 6.55 6.17 5.68 4.76 4.35 4.02

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Fig. 6. Normalized water absorption of cement mortar samples containing GP as a cement replacement.

Fig. 7. Normalized water absorption of cement mortar samples containing GP as a sand replacement.

3.2. SML-based models

3.2.1. Support vector machine

Fig. 8 depicts the results of using the SVM method to compute the WA of CM with varied GP replacements. Fig. 8(a) depicts the
correlation between the test and estimated WA. The SVM model generated precise findings with a lower difference amongst the test
and predicted WA. An R2 of 0.948 indicated a good level of resemblance among the test and predicted results. Fig. 8(b) depicts the
distribution of test, anticipated, and deviating results (errors) for the SVM technique. These errors were calculated as the absolute
difference between the actual and predicted WA. With an average of 0.10 %, the maximum error was 0.61 %. On the basis of the
proportional distribution of the error values, it was determined that for 22 results, the error was smaller than 0.1 %; for 11 results, the
error was among 0.1 % and 0.2 %; and for three results, the error was greater than 0.2 %. The distribution of error data suggested that
the SVM technique accurately evaluated the WA of CM containing GP.

3.2.2. Bagging regressor

Fig. 9 depicts the results of predicting the WA of the GP-based CM using the bagging method. Fig. 9(a) depicts the link between the
estimated and test WA. The bagging method yielded almost comparable results to the SVM model and with a smaller deviation between
the test and projected WA. The bagging model’s R2 score of 0.953 indicated its similar prediction accuracy to the SVM model. Fig. 9(b)
depicts the dispersal of the test, estimated, and error results using the bagging technique. It was determined that the maximum and
average error values were 0.50 % and 0.10 %, respectively. In addition, the error levels for 22 results were below 0.1 %; for 10 results,
they were among 0.1 % and 0.2 %, and for four results, they were over 0.2 %. Error dispersion further demonstrates that bagging and
SVM techniques had the same level of accuracy in estimating the WA of CM modified with GP.

3.2.3. AdaBoost regressor

The findings of utilizing the AdaBoost approach to forecast the WA of the CM containing GP are displayed in Fig. 10. The connection

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Fig. 8. Support vector machine model: (a) Relationship among test and forecast WA; (b) Scattering of test, forecast, and error values.

amongst the estimated and test WA is provided in Fig. 10(a). In comparison with the SVM and bagging models, the AdaBoost approach
gave more accurate predictions and had the least difference among the test and projected WA. The AdaBoost model’s R2 score of 0.977
implied its superior exactness. Fig. 10(b) displays the dispersal of the test, estimated, and error results using the AdaBoost technique.
The maximum and average errors were identified as 0.23 % and 0.08 %, respectively. The error results were smaller than 0.1 % in 22
results, among 0.1 % and 0.2 % in 12 data samples, and over 0.2 % in only two data samples. The error distribution further showed
that the AdaBoost technique was more accurate than SVM and bagging in forecasting the WA of CM modified with GP. The AdaBoost
model uses an endless number of SVMs for training and prioritizes wrongly categorized data. Another sub-model used the same data
and continued until enough essential learners were developed. Also, the AdaBoost model improved accuracy by binary classification of
SVMs, resulting in superior prediction accuracy.

3.3. Validation of SML models

Table 2 displays the outcomes of the statistical checks performed to analyze the errors (MAE, MAPE, and RMSE) in the employed
SML models. According to the results, the MAEs for SVM, bagging, and AdaBoost were 0.098, 0.096, and 0.084, respectively. The

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Fig. 9. Bagging model: (a) Relationship among test and forecast WA; (b) Scattering of test, forecast, and error values.

MAPE for SVM and bagging was 1.90 %, whereas the MAPE for AdaBoost was 1.60 %. The RMSEs for SVM, bagging, and AdaBoost
were 0.147, 0.146, and 0.105, respectively. These comparisons revealed that AdaBoost was more precise than SVM and bagging in
estimating the WA. The outputs of the k-fold approach are displayed in Table 3 by the projected R2, MAE, and RMSE results. The
outcomes of the k-fold approach for the utilized models were compared by creating Figs. 11–13. The MAE for the SVM approach ranged
from 0.10 to 0.41, with an average of 0.20. The average MAE for the bagging model was 0.19, varying from 0.10 to 0.19. In addition,
the bagging model exhibited an average MAE of 0.17, varying from 0.08 to 0.36. The average RMSE values for the SVM, bagging, and
AdaBoost models were 0.26, 0.24, and 0.20, respectively. However, SVM, bagging, and AdaBoost had average R2 values of 0.80, 0.81,
and 0.83, respectively. The AdaBoost model was shown to be the best for evaluating the WA of CM containing GP due to its least errors
and higher R2.

3.4. Impact of input parameters using SHAP analysis

Using SHAP analysis, this research investigated the impact of raw ingredients on the WA of CM. The entire data sample utilized the
SHAP tree explainer in order to exhibit a more thorough description of global feature associations and local SHAP details. Fig. 14

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Fig. 10. AdaBoost model: (a) Relationship among test and forecast WA; (b) Scattering of test, forecast, and error values.

Table 2
Statistical test results for the SML models used for WA prediction.
Technique MAE (%) MAPE (%) RMSE (%)

SVM 0.098 1.90 0.147

Bagging 0.096 1.90 0.146
AdaBoost 0.084 1.60 0.105

represents the SHAP plot for all inputs, signifying their effect on WA as a violin. The x-axis SHAP score depicts the influence of the
inputs, and each input value in the plot is displayed by a different color. It was determined that GP was the most important component,
having a more negative impact on the WA capacity. However, positive effects were also observed. Therefore, employing GP to its
optimal level may be advantageous for reducing WA, whereas exceeding that level may increase WA. The sand was determined to be
the second most influential component with a more positive influence on the WA of CM, which suggests that the sand content of a
specimen should be kept low in order to reduce its WA. The impact of cement was noted to be both positive and negative on the WA,

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Table 3
K-fold assessment outcomes.
K-fold SVM Bagging AdaBoost

MAE (%) RMSE (%) R2 MAE (%) RMSE (%) R2 MAE (%) RMSE (%) R2

1 0.23 0.35 0.76 0.33 0.21 0.71 0.27 0.20 0.73

2 0.18 0.21 0.91 0.21 0.30 0.83 0.09 0.41 0.64
3 0.26 0.43 0.50 0.12 0.47 0.52 0.36 0.16 0.95
4 0.11 0.15 0.95 0.11 0.15 0.94 0.10 0.17 0.98
5 0.13 0.16 0.91 0.12 0.24 0.88 0.12 0.24 0.77
6 0.16 0.22 0.84 0.37 0.31 0.85 0.10 0.16 0.92
7 0.47 0.54 0.72 0.13 0.17 0.95 0.15 0.16 0.97
8 0.10 0.15 0.95 0.10 0.16 0.92 0.14 0.20 0.82
9 0.13 0.16 0.90 0.16 0.19 0.89 0.08 0.15 0.96
10 0.22 0.26 0.54 0.28 0.23 0.67 0.25 0.17 0.58
Average 0.20 0.26 0.80 0.19 0.24 0.81 0.17 0.20 0.83

Fig. 11. Mean absolute error for the employed SML models.

Fig. 12. Root mean square error for the employed SML models.

which indicates that at lower cement amounts, i.e., replacing cement with GP at higher levels causes an increase in WA. Consequently,
this study suggested that cement quantity must be maintained at a higher level in order to attain the greatest resistance to WA. Due to
the lack of variation in the data, the effects of SF, superplasticizer (SP), and water were not clear. A broader data sample with a wider
range of input variables might produce more precise outcomes. The results indicated that using GP as a sand alternative to maintain a
reduced sand and a greater cement amount may result in a decreased WA than using it as a cement alternative.

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Fig. 13. Coefficient of determination for the employed SML models.

Fig. 14. SHAP plot signifying the influence of raw ingredients on WA. SP: superplasticizer.

4. Discussions

Using both experimental and computational techniques, this study examined the WA of CM that used GP as a partial substitute for
cement and sand. This study sought to advance understanding of the use of GP in CBCs by utilizing experimental and SML-based
modeling techniques. GP was used in different quantities (0–15 %) to substitute cement and sand in CM samples. Based on the
findings of the experiments, it was found that using GP as a sand and cement substitute reduced the WA of CM. The greatest reduction
in WA was obtained at 10% GP substitution for cement, which was up to 27.7 % lower than the C-Mix. The filler impact and pozzolanic
activity of GP are potential causes. The filler effect produced a matrix that was denser and more compressed, and the higher SiO2
concentration in GP’s composition increased the cement’s hydration process, producing better hydration products [77] and, ulti­
mately, increasing the material’s resilience to WA. The WA of samples rose at greater replacement amounts of GP as a cement sub­
stitute. While the WA of the sample was similar to the C-Mix at 15 % GP content as a cement replacement, it was lower than the C-Mix
at 12.5 % GP ratio. Because more GP was utilized than was necessary for the reaction at greater GP concentrations [18], such as 12.5 %
and 15 % as a cement alternative, the WA rose. It is suggested to use 10 % GP as a cement alternative for the best resilience to WA.
When GP was used as a sand alternative in CM, a decline in WA was observed with increasing GP content. At a replacement ratio of
15 %, the greatest drop in WA was observed, which was up to 30.1 % lower than the C-Mix. Given that GP was finer than sand, the
reduction in WA might be explained by better particle packing and the formation of a compact matrix. Furthermore, the use of GP
produced more hydration products, which enhanced the material’s structure and eventually increased its resilience to WA. Up to 15 %
of GP may be used as an alternative to sand to attain the highest level of resilience to WA. To determine the utility of GP as a sand
substitute at greater contents, however, more research is required. Additionally, it was discovered that the integration of GP as a sand
alternative was more advantageous due to the greater decrease in the WA of CM when comparing the impact of GP as a cement
alternative to that of a sand replacement.
SML models were run using the developed test data. Three SML techniques, one individual (SVM) and two ensembles (bagging and
AdaBoost) methods, were applied to assess the WA of CM containing GP. To identify the best predictor, the precision of the SML

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M.N. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 18 (2023) e02063

methods was examined. Based on the R2 value, the difference among the test and expected WA, and the calculation of errors, the
AdaBoost model produced findings that were more accurate than those from SVM and bagging. However, the SVM and bagging
models’ outcomes were also precise and exhibited a strong correlation with the test results. According to earlier studies, the AdaBoost
approach was more accurate than other techniques at predicting the different characteristics of CBCs [79,80]. The effectiveness of an
SML approach is highly reliant on the number of inputs and data sample size utilized to execute SML algorithms, making it challenging
to identify and suggest the appropriate SML strategy for forecasting outcomes in a variety of research areas. Ensemble SML algorithms,
in contrast to singular SML algorithms, repeatedly engage the weak learner by creating sub-models that are trained on the dataset and
adapted to enhance the R2 score. The results are consequently more precise than those of the singular SML algorithms. The use of the
SML study will benefit the building sector by encouraging the development of quick and affordable methods for evaluating material
properties.

5. Conclusions

A computational and test-based study was conducted to explore the efficacy of using glass powder (GP) on water absorption (WA)
of cement mortar (CM). The test data was arranged to construct supervised machine learning (SML) models, including support vector
machine (SVM), bagging, and AdaBoost, to forecast the WA. The key conclusions are given below:

• The inclusion of GP as a cement substitute reduced the WA capacity of CM, particularly at smaller proportions. The optimum GP
contents were identified as 10 % as cement substitute, lowering the WA by nearly 27.7 % compared to the control mix (C-Mix).
However, at 15 % cement replacement by GP, the WA of CM was comparable to C-Mix.
• The utilization of GP as the sand substitute was determined to be more beneficial compared to its use as a cement substitute based
on the higher resistance to WA and usage of GP in higher proportions. The maximum resistance to WA was observed at 15 % GP
content as a sand replacement, which was nearly 30 % lower than C-Mix.
• The constructed SML models had a high degree of agreement with the testing findings, suggesting that they could be used to
forecast the WA of GP-containing CM. Nonetheless, the AdaBoost model is suggested for better accuracy than the SVM and bagging
on the basis of the R2 value (0.98), the variance among actual and projected outcomes, and errors calculation.
• Based on the results of the SHAP analysis, it was established that GP was the most important factor, both positively and negatively
affecting the WA of CM. The sand was the second most influential component with a positive correlation on CM WA, suggesting that
specimens with low sand content had lower WA. Cement impact was found to be both positive and negative, suggesting that
replacing cement with GP at higher values increases WA.
• By reducing the environmental problems caused by discarded glass dumping, conserving natural resources, providing cost-effective
materials, and reducing CO2 emissions, reusing waste glass in building materials can help promote sustainable development.

This study was limited to incorporating GP as a sand substitute of up to 15 %, and the optimum results were also noted at 15 % GP
as a sand substitute; therefore, further studies are recommended to investigate the effectiveness of GP as a sand substitute at higher
replacement levels. Also, further research is required to develop a more comprehensive database for developing SML models that
includes a higher number of input parameters like the chemical and physical properties of raw materials and surrounding conditions
(temperature/humidity).

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Muhammad Nasir Amin: Project administration, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Sohaib Nazar:
Conceptualization, Software, Methodology, Writing – original draft. Mohammed Najeeb Al-Hashem: data acquisition, Investigation,
Visualization. Fadi Althoey: Formal analysis, Validation, Writing – review & editing. Ahmed Farouk Deifalla: Methodology, Vali­
dation, Writing – review & editing. Abdullah Mohammad Abu Arab: data acquisition, Formal analysis, Visualization.

Funding

This work was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research, Vice Presidency for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, King
Faisal University, Saudi Arabia [Project no. GRANT3180].

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data Availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

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M.N. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 18 (2023) e02063

Acknowledgment

The authors acknowledge the Deanship of Scientific Research, Vice Presidency for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, King
Faisal University, Saudi Arabia (Project no. GRANT3180). The authors extend their appreciation for the financial support that made
this study possible.

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