Module 1

The Nature of Mathematics

Mathematics in Our World

Mathematics in the Modern World

 Overview

In his book “How Not to Be Wrong: The Power of Mathematical Thinking”,

American mathematician Jordan Ellenberg wrote: “I think we need more
math majors who don't become mathematicians, more math major
doctors, more math major high school teachers, more math major CEOs, more math
major senators. But we won't get there unless we dump the stereotype that math is
only worthwhile for kid geniuses.”
Do you agree with Ellenberg? Do you think the world will be a better place if
most of us were math majors, and yet not necessarily mathematicians? What does it
mean to be a math major yet not a mathematician?
A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics
in his or her work, typically to solve mathematical problems. A math major on the other
hand is someone who learns math skills like logic, analysis, abstract reasoning, and
problem solving, which are valuable skills to his or her future employment.
In this module, we shall learn some math skills that are essential in the practice of
your chosen field of specialization. Our topics include the nature of math, the patterns
that we see in nature and in the world in general. We shall also learn logical patterns,
numerical patterns, and isometries.

Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this module, you should be able to:

1. Summarize the history of mathematics and its impact to the world;

2. Classify patterns in nature and regularities in the world;

3. Explain the importance of mathematics in one’s life;

Appreciate mathematics as a human endeavor through creating self-designed

4.

patterns;

5. Utilize methods and approaches in proving and solving problems.

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Initial activity (Accessing prior knowledge)

  What is mathematics?
 How do you describe mathematics?

Mathematics has been called the greatest and most original invention of the
human mind. It is one of the great social institutions built up by cooperation during the
long history of civilization. It is a mode of thinking that is necessary for the evolution of
the human race. It relies on both logic and creativity, and it is pursued both for a
variety of practical purposes and for its intrinsic interest.

Those who study mathematics for intrinsic interest believe that the essence of
mathematics lies in its beauty and intellectual challenge. As a theoretical discipline,
mathematics explores the possible relationships among abstractions without concern
for whether those abstractions have counterparts in the real world. This kind of
mathematicians, called pure mathematicians, are interested only in finding a pattern
or proving that there is none, but not in what use such knowledge might have.

Those who study mathematics for practical purposes believe that the chief
value of mathematics is how it applies to a person’s own work, like the scientists,
engineers, economists, etc. Mathematicians of this kind focus their attention on solving
problems that originate in the world of experience.

Sometimes, it takes decades or centuries before a practical mathematician

discovers the usefulness of a certain mathematical concept or theory that a pure
mathematician had introduced. Nevertheless, the discoveries of theoretical
mathematicians frequently turn out to have unanticipated practical value, and the
results of theoretical and applied mathematics often influence each other. It is the
pure mathematicians who set up the framework, the structure, and the pattern that
describe the tangible objects which the scientists (or practical mathematicians) study.

The story of mathematics is considerably as old as humanity itself. Since early

civilization, mathematics has been instrumental to advances in science, engineering,
philosophy, and the way of life in general. It has evolved from simple counting,
measurement and calculation, and the systematic study of the shapes and motions of
physical objects to the broad, complex and often abstract discipline we know today.
Through the application of abstraction, imagination and logic, our great
mathematicians were able to give us foundation in understanding phenomena
around us. Following is a presentation of some of the most significant events in
development of mathematics from the beginning until now.

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 Timeline of the Development of Mathematics

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

35,000 BCE African First notched tally bones
Earliest documented counting and
3,100 BCE Sumerian
measuring system
Earliest fully-developed base 10
2,700 BCE Egyptian
number system in use
Multiplication tables, geometrical
2,600 BCE Sumerian
exercises and division problems
2,000 – 1,800 Earliest papyri showing numeration
Egyptian
BCE system and basic arithmetic
1,800 – 1,600 Clay tablets dealing with fractions,
Babylonian
BCE algebra and equations
Rhind Papyrus (instruction manual in
1,650 BCE Egyptian arithmetic, geometry, unit fractions,
etc)
First decimal numeration system with
1,200 BCE Chinese
place value concept
Early Vedic mantras invoke powers of
1,200 – 900 BCE Indian ten from a hundred all the way up to
a trillion
“Sulba Sutra” lists several Pythagorean
triples and simplified Pythagorean
800 – 400 BCE Indian theorem for the sides of a square and
a rectangle, quite accurate
approximate to √2

Lo Shu order three (3 x 3) “magic

650 BCE Chinese square” in which each row, column
and diagonal sums to 15
Early developments in geometry,
624 – 546 BCE Thales Greek including work on similar and right
triangles
Expansion of geometry, rigorous
approach building from first
570 – 495 BCE Pythagoras Greek
principles, square and triangular
numbers, Pythagoras’ theorem
Discovered potential existence of
500 BCE Hippasus Greek irrational numbers while trying to
calculate the value of √2
Describes a series of paradoxes
490 – 430 BCE Zeno of Elea Greek
concerning infinity and infinitesimals
470 – 410 BCE Hippocrates of Greek First systematic compilation of
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 Chios geometrical knowledge, Lune of
Hippocrates
Developments in geometry and
460 – 370 BCE Democritus Greek
fractions, volume of a cone
Platonic solids, statement of the Three
Classical Problems, influential teacher
428 – 348 BCE Plato Greek and popularizer of mathematics,
insistence on rigorous proof and
logical methods
410 – 355 BCE Eudoxus of Cnidus Greek Method for rigorously proving
statements about areas and volumes
by successive approximations
384 – 322 BCE Aristotle Greek Development and standardization of
logic (although not then considered
part of mathematics) and deductive
reasoning
300 BCE Euclid Greek Definitive statement of classical
(Euclidean) geometry, use of axioms
and postulates, many formulas, proofs
and theorems including Euclid’s
Theorem on infinitude of primes
287 – 212 BCE Archimedes Greek Formulas for areas of regular shapes,
“method of exhaustion” for
approximating areas and value of π,
comparison of infinities
276 – 195 BCE Eratosthenes Greek “Sieve of Eratosthenes” method for
identifying prime numbers
262 – 190 BCE Apollonius of Perga Greek Work on geometry, especially on
cones and conic sections (ellipse,
parabola, hyperbola)
200 BCE Chinese “Nine Chapters on the Mathematical
Art”, including guide to how to solve
equations using sophisticated matrix-
based methods
190 – 120 BCE Hipparchus Greek Develop first detailed trigonometry
tables
36 BCE Mayan Pre-classic Mayans developed the
concept of zero by at least this time
10–70CE Heron (or Hero) of Greek Heron’s Formula for finding the area
Alexandria of a triangle from its side lengths,
Heron’s Method for iteratively
computing a square root
90 – 168 CE Ptolemy Greek/Egyptian Develop even more detailed

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 trigonometry tables
200 CE Sun Tzu Chinese First definitive statement of Chinese
Remainder Theorem
200 CE Indian Refined and perfected decimal
place value number system
200 – 284 CE Diophantus Greek Diophantine Analysis of complex
algebraic problems, to find rational
solutions to equations with several
unknowns
220 – 280 CE Liu Hui Chinese Solved linear equations using a
matrices (similar to Gaussian
elimination), leaving roots
unevaluated, calculated value of π
correct to five decimal places, early
forms of integral and differential
calculus
400 CE Indian “Surya Siddhanta” contains roots of
modern trigonometry, including first
real use of sines, cosines, inverse sines,
tangents and secants

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

Method for rigorously proving
410 – 355 BCE Eudoxus of Cnidus Greek statements about areas and volumes
by successive approximations
Development and standardization of
logic (although not then considered
384 – 322 BCE Aristotle Greek
part of mathematics) and deductive
reasoning
Definitive statement of classical
(Euclidean) geometry, use of axioms
300 BCE Euclid Greek and postulates, many formulas, proofs
and theorems including Euclid’s
Theorem on infinitude of primes
Formulas for areas of regular shapes,
“method of exhaustion” for
287 – 212 BCE Archimedes Greek
approximating areas and value of π,
comparison of infinities
“Sieve of Eratosthenes” method for
276 – 195 BCE Eratosthenes Greek
identifying prime numbers
Work on geometry, especially on
262 – 190 BCE Apollonius of Perga Greek cones and conic sections (ellipse,
parabola, hyperbola)

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 “Nine Chapters on the Mathematical
Art”, including guide to how to solve
200 BCE Chinese
equations using sophisticated matrix-
based methods
Develop first detailed trigonometry
190 – 120 BCE Hipparchus Greek
tables
Pre-classic Mayans developed the
36 BCE Mayan
concept of zero by at least this time
Heron’s Formula for finding the area
Heron (or Hero) of of a triangle from its side lengths,
10–70CE Greek
Alexandria Heron’s Method for iteratively
computing a square root
Develop even more detailed
90 – 168 CE Ptolemy Greek/Egyptian
trigonometry tables
First definitive statement of Chinese
200 CE Sun Tzu Chinese
Remainder Theorem
Refined and perfected decimal
200 CE Indian
place value number system
Diophantine Analysis of complex
algebraic problems, to find rational
200 – 284 CE Diophantus Greek
solutions to equations with several
unknowns
Solved linear equations using a
matrices (similar to Gaussian
elimination), leaving roots
220 – 280 CE Liu Hui Chinese unevaluated, calculated value of π
correct to five decimal places, early
forms of integral and differential
calculus
“Surya Siddhanta” contains roots of
modern trigonometry, including first
400 CE Indian
real use of sines, cosines, inverse sines,
tangents and secants

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

Definitions of trigonometric functions,
complete and accurate sine and
versine tables, solutions to
476 – 550 CE Aryabhata Indian simultaneous quadratic equations,
accurate approximation forπ(and
recognition thatπis an irrational
number)
598 – 668 CE Brahmagupta Indian Basic mathematical rules for dealing

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 with zero (+, – and x), negative
numbers, negative roots of quadratic
equations, solution of quadratic
equations with two unknowns
First to write numbers in Hindu-Arabic
decimal system with a circle for zero,
600 – 680 CE Bhaskara I Indian
remarkably accurate approximation
of the sine function
Advocacy of the Hindu numerals 1 – 9
and 0 in Islamic world, foundations of
Muhammad Al- modern algebra, including algebraic
780 – 850 CE Persian
Khwarizmi methods of “reduction” and
“balancing”, solution of polynomial
equations up to second degree
Continued Archimedes’ investigations
908 – 946 CE Ibrahim ibn Sinan Arabic of areas and volumes, tangents to a
circle
First use of proof by mathematical
Muhammad Al-
953 – 1029 CE Persian induction, including to prove the
Karaji
binomial theorem
Derived a formula for the sum of
fourth powers using a readily
Ibn al-Haytham
966 – 1059 CE Persian/Arabic generalizable method, “Alhazen’s
(Alhazen)
problem”, established beginnings of
link between algebra and geometry
Generalized Indian methods for
extracting square and cube roots to
1048 – 1131 Omar Khayyam Persian include fourth, fifth and higher roots,
noted existence of different sorts of
cubic equations
Established that dividing by zero yields
infinity, found solutions to quadratic,
cubic and quartic equations
(including negative and irrational
1114 – 1185 Bhaskara II Indian
solutions) and to second order
Diophantine equations, introduced
some preliminary concepts of
calculus
Fibonacci Sequence of numbers,
advocacy of the use of the Hindu-
Leonardo of Pisa Arabic numeral system in Europe,
1170 – 1250 Italian
(Fibonacci) Fibonacci’s identity (product of two
sums of two squares is itself a sum of
two squares)
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 Developed field of spherical
1201 – 1274 Nasir al-Din al-Tusi Persian trigonometry, formulated law of sines
for plane triangles
Date Name Nationality Major Achievements
Solutions to quadratic, cubic and
1202 – 1261 Qin Jiushao Chinese higher power equations using a
method of repeated approximations
Culmination of Chinese “magic”
squares, circles and triangles, Yang
1238 – 1298 Yang Hui Chinese Hui’s Triangle (earlier version of
Pascal’s Triangle of binomial
coefficients)
Applied theory of conic sections to
Kamal al-Din al- solve optical problems, explored
1267 – 1319 Persian
Farisi amicable numbers, factorization and
combinatorial methods
Use of infinite series of fractions to give
an exact formula for π, sine formula
1350 – 1425 Madhava Indian and other trigonometric functions,
important step towards development
of calculus
System of rectangular coordinates,
such as for a time-speed-distance
1323 – 1382 Nicole Oresme French graph, first to use fractional
exponents, also worked on infinite
series
Influential book on arithmetic,
geometry and book-keeping, also
1446 – 1517 Luca Pacioli Italian
introduced standard symbols for plus
and minus
Formula for solving all types of cubic
equations, involving first real use of
Niccolo Fontana complex numbers (combinations of
1499 – 1557 Italian
Tartaglia real and imaginary numbers),
Tartaglia’s Triangle (earlier version of
Pascal’s Triangle)
Published solution of cubic and
quartic equations (by Tartaglia and
1501 – 1576 Gerolamo Cardano Italian
Ferrari), acknowledged existence of
imaginary numbers (based on √−1
)
Devised formula for solution of quartic
1522 – 1565 Lodovico Ferrari Italian
equations
1550 – 1617 John Napier British Invention of natural logarithms,

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 popularized the use of the decimal
point, Napier’s Bones tool for lattice
multiplication
Clearing house for mathematical
thought during 17th Century,
1588 – 1648 Marin Mersenne French
Mersenne primes (prime numbers that
are one less than a power of 2)
Early development of projective
1591 – 1661 Girard Desargues French geometry and “point at infinity”,
perspective theorem
Development of Cartesian
coordinates and analytic geometry
1596 – 1650 Rene Descartes French (synthesis of geometry and algebra),
also credited with the first use of
superscripts for powers or exponents

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

“Method of indivisibles” paved way
Bonaventura
1598 – 1647 Italian for the later development of
Cavalieri
infinitesimal calculus
Discovered many new numbers
patterns and theorems (including
Little Theorem, Two-Square Thereom
1601 – 1665 Pierre de Fermat French
and Last Theorem), greatly extending
knowlege of number theory, also
contributed to probability theory
Contributed towards development of
calculus, originated idea of number
1616 – 1703 John Wallis British line, introduced symbol ∞ for infinity,
developed standard notation for
powers
Pioneer (with Fermat) of probability
1623 – 1662 Blaise Pascal French theory, Pascal’s Triangle of binomial
coefficients
Development of infinitesimal calculus
(differentiation and integration), laid
1643 – 1727 Isaac Newton British ground work for almost all of classical
mechanics, generalized binomial
theorem, infinite power series
Independently developed
infinitesimal calculus (his calculus
1646 – 1716 Gottfried Leibniz German
notation is still used), also practical
calculating machine using binary

8
 system (forerunner of the computer),
solved linear equations using a matrix
Helped to consolidate infinitesimal
calculus, developed a technique for
solving separable differential
1654 – 1705 Jacob Bernoulli Swiss equations, added a theory of
permutations and combinations to
probability theory, Bernoulli Numbers
sequence, transcendental curves
Further developed infinitesimal
calculus, including the “calculus of
1667 – 1748 Johann Bernoulli Swiss variation”, functions for curve of
fastest descent (brachistochrone)
and catenary curve
De Moivre’s formula, development of
analytic geometry, first statement of
1667 – 1754 Abraham de Moivre French
the formula for the normal distribution
curve, probability theory
Goldbach Conjecture, Goldbach-
1690 – 1764 Christian Goldbach German
Euler Theorem on perfect powers
Made important contributions in
almost all fields and found
unexpected links between different
1707 – 1783 Leonhard Euler Swiss fields, proved numerous theorems,
pioneered new methods,
standardized mathematical notation
and wrote many influential textbooks

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

Rigorous proof thatπis irrational,
introduced hyperbolic functions into
1728 – 1777 Johann Lambert Swiss trigonometry, made conjectures on
non-Euclidean space and hyperbolic
triangles
Comprehensive treatment of classical
and celestial mechanics, calculus of
Joseph Louis
1736 – 1813 Italian/French variations, Lagrange’s theorem of
Lagrange
finite groups, four-square theorem,
mean value theorem
Inventor of descriptive geometry,
1746 – 1818 Gaspard Monge French
orthographic projection
Pierre-Simon Celestial mechanics translated
1749 – 1827 French
Laplace geometric study of classical

9
 mechanics to one based on calculus,
Bayesian interpretation of probability,
belief in scientific determinism
Abstract algebra, mathematical
analysis, least squares method for
Adrien-Marie
1752 – 1833 French curve-fitting and linear regression,
Legendre
quadratic reciprocity law, prime
number theorem, elliptic functions
Studied periodic functions and infinite
1768 – 1830 Joseph Fourier French sums in which the terms are
trigonometric functions (Fourier series)
Pattern in occurrence of prime
numbers, construction of
heptadecagon, Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra, exposition of
1777 – 1825 Carl Friedrich Gauss German complex numbers, least squares
approximation method, Gaussian
distribution, Gaussian function,
Gaussian error curve, non-Euclidean
geometry, Gaussian curvature
Early pioneer of mathematical
analysis, reformulated and proved
Augustin-Louis theorems of calculus in a rigorous
1789 – 1857 French
Cauchy manner, Cauchy’s theorem (a
fundamental theorem of group
theory)
Möbius strip (a two-dimensional
surface with only one side), Möbius
August Ferdinand configuration, Möbius transformations,
1790 – 1868 German
Mobius Möbius transform (number theory),
Möbius function, Möbius inversion
formula
Inventor of symbolic algebra (early
1791 – 1858 George Peacock British attempt to place algebra on a strictly
logical basis)
Designed a “difference engine” that
could automatically perform
1791 – 1871 Charles Babbage British computations based on instructions
stored on cards or tape, forerunner of
programmable computer.

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

1792 – 1856 Nikolai Lobachevsky Russian Developed theory of hyperbolic

10
 geometry and curved spaces
independently of Bolyai
Proved impossibility of solving quintic
equations, group theory, abelian
1802 – 1829 Niels Henrik Abel Norwegian
groups, abelian categories, abelian
variety
Explored hyperbolic geometry and
1802 – 1860 Janos Bolyai Hungarian curved spaces independently of
Lobachevsky
Important contributions to analysis,
1804 – 1851 Carl Jacobi German theory of periodic and elliptic
functions, determinants and matrices
Theory of quaternions (first example of
1805 – 1865 William Hamilton Irish
a non-commutative algebra)
Proved that there is no general
algebraic method for solving
polynomial equations of degree
1811 – 1832 Evariste Galois French
greater than four, laid groundwork for
abstract algebra, Galois theory,
group theory, ring theory, etc.
Devised Boolean algebra (using
operators AND, OR and NOT), starting
1815 – 1864 George Boole British point of modern mathematical logic,
led to the development of computer
science
Discovered a continuous function
with no derivative, advancements in
calculus of variations, reformulated
1815 – 1897 Karl Weierstrass German
calculus in a more rigorous fashion,
pioneer in development of
mathematical analysis
Pioneer of modern group theory,
matrix algebra, theory of higher
singularities, theory of invariants,
1821 – 1895 Arthur Cayley British
higher dimensional geometry,
extended Hamilton’s quaternions to
create octonions
Non-Euclidean elliptic geometry,
Riemann surfaces, Riemannian
geometry (differential geometry in
1826 – 1866 Bernhard Riemann German
multiple dimensions), complex
manifold theory, zeta function,
Riemann Hypothesis

11
 Defined some important concepts of
set theory such as similar sets and
1831 – 1916 Richard Dedekind German infinite sets, proposed Dedekind cut
(now a standard definition of the real
numbers)
Introduced Venn diagrams into set
1834 – 1923 John Venn British theory (now a ubiquitous tool in
probability, logic and statistics)

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

Applied algebra to geometric theory
of differential equations, continuous
1842 – 1899 Marius Sophus Lie Norwegian
symmetry, Lie groups of
transformations
Creator of set theory, rigorous
treatment of the notion of infinity and
1845 – 1918 Georg Cantor German transfinite numbers, Cantor’s theorem
(which implies the existence of an
“infinity of infinities”)
One of the founders of modern logic,
first rigorous treatment of the ideas of
1848 – 1925 Gottlob Frege German functions and variables in logic, major
contributor to study of the
foundations of mathematics
Klein bottle (a one-sided closed
surface in four-dimensional space),
Erlangen Program to classify
1849 – 1925 Felix Klein German
geometries by their underlying
symmetry groups, work on group
theory and function theory
Partial solution to “three body
problem”, foundations of modern
1854 – 1912 Henri Poincare French chaos theory, extended theory of
mathematical topology, Poincaré
conjecture
Peano axioms for natural numbers,
developer of mathematical logic and
1858 – 1932 Giuseppe Peano Italian set theory notation, contributed to
modern method of mathematical
induction
Co-wrote “Principia Mathematica”
Alfred North
1861 – 1947 British (attempt to ground mathematics on
Whitehead
logic)

12
 23 “Hilbert problems”, finiteness
theorem, “Entscheidungsproblem“
1862 – 1943 David Hilbert German (decision problem), Hilbert space,
developed modern axiomatic
approach to mathematics, formalism
Geometry of numbers (geometrical
method in multi-dimensional space
1864 – 1909 Hermann Minkowski German
for solving number theory problems),
Minkowski space-time
Russell’s paradox, co-wrote “Principia
Mathematica” (attempt to ground
1872 – 1970 Bertrand Russell British
mathematics on logic), theory of
types
Progress toward solving Riemann
hypothesis (proved infinitely many
zeroes on the critical line),
1877 – 1947 G.H. Hardy British
encouraged new tradition of pure
mathematics in Britain, taxicab
numbers
Pioneer in field of complex analytic
1878 – 1929 Pierre Fatou French dynamics, investigated iterative and
recursive processes
Date Name Nationality Major Achievements
Proved several theorems marking
breakthroughs in topology (including
1881 – 1966 L.E.J. Brouwer Dutch
fixed point theorem and topological
invariance of dimension)
Proved over 3,000 theorems, identities
and equations, including on highly
Srinivasa
1887 – 1920 Indian composite numbers, partition function
Ramanujan
and its asymptotics, and mock theta
functions
Developed complex dynamics, Julia
1893 – 1978 Gaston Julia French
set formula
Pioneer of game theory, design
model for modern computer
1903 – 1957 John von Neumann Hungarian/American
architecture, work in quantum and
nuclear physics
Incompleteness theorems (there can
be solutions to mathematical
1906 – 1978 Kurt Godel Austria problems which are true but which
can never be proved), Gödel
numbering, logic and set theory

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 Theorems allowed connections
between algebraic geometry and
number theory, Weil conjectures
1906 – 1998 Andre Weil French
(partial proof of Riemann hypothesis
for local zeta functions), founding
member of influential Bourbaki group
Breaking of the German enigma
code, Turing machine (logical
1912 – 1954 Alan Turing British
forerunner of computer), Turing test of
artificial intelligence
Set and solved many problems in
combinatorics, graph theory, number
1913 – 1996 Paul Erdos Hungarian theory, classical analysis,
approximation theory, set theory and
probability theory
Pioneer in modern chaos theory,
Lorenz attractor, fractals, Lorenz
1917 – 2008 Edward Lorenz American
oscillator, coined term “butterfly
effect”
Work on decision problems and
1919 – 1985 Julia Robinson American Hilbert’s tenth problem, Robinson
hypothesis
Mandelbrot set fractal, computer
1924 – 2010 Benoit Mandelbrot French
plottings of Mandelbrot and Julia sets
Mathematical structuralist,
revolutionary advances in algebraic
Alexander
1928 – 2014 French geometry, theory of schemes,
Grothendieck
contributions to algebraic topology,
number theory, category theory, etc.
Work in game theory, differential
geometry and partial differential
1928 – 2015 John Nash American equations, provided insight into
complex systems in daily life such as
economics, computing and military

Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

Proved that continuum hypothesis
could be both true and not true (i.e.
1934 – 2007 Paul Cohen American
independent from Zermelo-Fraenkel
set theory)
Important contributions to game
John Horton
1937 - British theory, group theory, number theory,
Conway
geometry and (especially)

14
 recreational mathematics, notably
with the invention of the cellular
automaton called the “Game of Life”
Final proof that Hilbert’s tenth
problem is impossible (there is no
1947 - Yuri Matiyasevich Russian general method for determining
whether Diophantine equations have
a solution)
Finally proved Fermat’s Last Theorem
for all numbers (by proving the
1953 - Andrew Wiles British
Taniyama-Shimura conjecture for
semistable elliptic curves)
Finally proved Poincaré Conjecture
(by proving Thurston’s geometrization
1966 - Grigori Perelman Russian conjecture), contributions to
Riemannian geometry and geometric
topology

Source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/mathematicians.html

15
Why is math important in education? Why do we have to study a lot of math from
elementary to college and even beyond?

The special role of mathematics in education is a consequence of its universal

applicability. The results of mathematics are both significant and useful; the best results
are also elegant and deep. Mathematics teaches us distinctive modes of thought
which are both versatile and powerful, including modeling, abstraction, optimization,
logical analysis, inference from data, and use of symbols. In short, experience with
mathematical modes of thought builds mathematical power--a capacity of mind of
increasing value in this technological age that enables us to read critically, to identify
fallacies, to detect bias, to assess risk, and to suggest alternatives. With mathematical
skills that you have, you are empowered to understand the world in a deeper,
sounder, and more meaningful way.

Please click the link below for further understanding of the lesson:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hx6ZNEWydCU

Where do we use mathematics?

We use math in technology, engineering, media, medicine and health, finance

and business, and in almost every aspect of our life. Modern technology depends on
basic research to advance, and research uses math, particularly statistics, to make
meaningful conclusions from the data obtained. That includes the invention of
advanced medical devices, computers, machines, etc. In engineering, math is used
to design and develop new components or products, maintain operating
components, model real-life situations for testing and learning purposes, as well as
build and maintain structures. Math is a core component of every engineering field,
which would explain why engineering students had to deal with many maths.
Mathematical concepts and themes can also be found anywhere in the media. The
range of ways that math is related to the media is quite broad, including the shape of
a camera lens, proportion scale for movie sets, and the use of convincing nature of
numbers used in advertising. In business, ownership and management require more
than the skill to create a product or talent at providing a service. Understanding basic
business math is necessary for profitable operations and accurate record keeping.
Math is also an essential concept of fashion designing. From taking measurements,
estimating the quantity and quality of clothes, choosing the color theme, estimating
the cost and profit, producing cloth according to the customers' needs and tastes,
math is followed at every stage.

You might say these applications are all in the industry. How about in our daily
life? When are we ever going to use math in real life?

16
 We all use math in everyday applications, whether we're aware of it or not. If
you look hard enough, you'll see math emerge from some of the most unlikely places.
Math is in the grocery store. Grocery shopping requires a broad range of math
knowledge from multiplication to estimation and percentages. Math is in the kitchen.
When baking or cooking, following a recipe can sometimes be tricky because
measurement of ingredients and conversions are necessary. Recipes are like
mathematical algorithms or step-by-step sets of operations to be performed. When
you travel, math also comes along for the ride- from estimating the amount of fuel
you’ll need to reading maps. Math also helps you save money. Most experts agree
that without strong math skills, people tend to invest, save, or spend money based on
their emotions. You rarely hear math majors falling into investment scams. You also use
math when you exercise, train, and watch your diet. We set our routine according to
our workout schedule, count the number of repetitions while exercising, count the
number of calories we need, etc. The bottom line is: math is everywhere, operating in
real-life ways all around us. It is the universal language of our environment, helping
mankind explain and create.

Please click the following links for a further understanding of the lesson:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PXwStduNw14

A. Patterns in Nature and the World

Many of us misinterpret mathematics as the study of Did you know?

numbers and that only those who are excellent with
numbers can be called mathematicians. But it is not
really numbers that matter to a mathematician; rather, it
is what they represent. The mathematician’s true purpose
is to study, discover, or create patterns. While a scientist
studies an actual object, being, or phenomenon, the
mathematician provides him/ her patterns, structures,
and relationships involved in whatever the scientist The wings of a butterfly often sport
studies. patches of color and stripes that
can imitate eyes or warn of toxins
and therefore deter predators.
Patterns provide clear insight into understanding
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/211174958764866/
the natural world. While we know that animals and plants
are far from thinking beings, they do have certain habits and characteristics that exist
in patterns. Scientists and biologists believe that understanding these behavioral
patterns will provide us a clearer understanding of all living things.

 What does the word pattern mean?

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 A pattern is considered as any kind of regularity that can be recognized by the
mind. These could be mathematical or non-mathematical patterns. Learning how to
recognize these patterns would be valuable to you as you gain mathematical
maturity and become a problem solver.

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Center_Construction(cropped).jpg

We think of patterns as something that just repeats again and again throughout
space in an identical way, sort of like a wallpaper pattern. But many patterns that we
see in nature aren’t quite like that. We sense that there is something regular or at least
not random about them, but that doesn’t mean that all the elements are identical.
One familiar example of that would be the zebra’s stripes. Everyone can recognize the
zebra’s stripes as a pattern, but no stripe is like any other stripe on its skin. However, the
pattern is still so striking, beautiful, and remarkable. That’s the beauty of natural
patterns, and it makes us wonder: How does nature without any kind of blueprint or
design put together patterns like this?
If we look around us, we will see different kinds of pattern. Some are natural,
some are man- made, some give us a scientific image, some have artistic vibe, and
some are intangible like software patterns. Like math, patterns can be seen all around
us. It’s just about everywhere! In this part of the module, we will focus only on the
patterns that we see in nature.

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Patterns in Nature
“But in my opinion, all things in nature occur mathematically.”
- Rene Descartes

Patterns in nature are the visible regularities of form found in the natural world.
These patterns recur in different contexts and can sometimes be modelled
mathematically.

 What are the different natural patterns?

Natural Patterns include:

1. Symmetries
2. Fractals or Trees
3. Spirals
4. Chaos, flow, meanders
5. Waves, dunes
6. Bubbles, Foam
7. Tessellations
8. Cracks
9. Spots, stripes

 Look at your face in the mirror. Imagine a vertical line going through the
middle of your face. What can you say about the left and right sides of
your face? Now imagine a butterfly with wings wide spread and an
imaginary vertical line going through the center of its body. What can you
say about the left and right sides of the butterfly’s body?

 What kind of pattern do the questions above show you?

This pattern is called symmetry.

1. Symmetry. Figures can have two distinct types of symmetry: reflection (mirror or
bilateral) symmetry and rotation (radial) n- fold symmetry, which we informally
differentiate below.
 A figure has reflection symmetry if there is a line that can be “folded over” so
that one- half of the figure matches the other half perfectly. The “fold line” is
called the figure’s line (axis) of symmetry.

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  A figure has rotation symmetry if there is a point around which the figure can be
rotated, less than a full turn, so that the image matches the original figure
perfectly.

mmetry. A starfish has rotation symmetry. A snowflake has rotation

symmetry.

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2. Fractals or Trees. From the word fraction, or part of a whole, fractals are self-similar,
iterated mathematical constructs where shrinking and moving are applied many
times. In a fractal, you will observe that as new shapes are constructed, they are
similar to each of the previous shapes, that is, the basic components of a fractal
are similar to the whole. This means that you can zoom into forever and find exactly
the same shapes.

Leaf of cow parsley Angelica flowerhead, a sphere made of

spheres (self-similar)

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 Fractal spirals: Romanesco broccoli Trees: dendritic copper crystals Trees: Lichtenberg figure: high
(microscope) voltage

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https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/4x4-captured-lightning-lichtenberg-1792192892

3. Spirals. Spirals are the patterns that we see in many plants and some animals,
notably molluscs. To get a better picture, we will pay attention to a particular kind,
the nautilus shell. In a nautilus, each chamber of its shell is an approximate copy of
the next one, scaled by a constant factor and arranged in a logarithmic spiral. We
can say that growth spiral can be seen as a special case of self-similarity.

Spiral aloe Spiralling shell Spiralling shell

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4. Chaos, meanders. In mathematics, a dynamical system is chaotic if it is (highly)

sensitive to initial conditions. Meanders on the other hand are sinuous bends in rivers
or other channels, which form as a fluid, most often water, flows around bends.
5. Waves, dunes. Waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move. While
dunes are created when winds blow over large bodies of sand. Dunes may form a
range of patterns including crescents, very long straight lines, stars, domes,
parabolas, and longitudinal or seif ('sword') shapes.

Waves: breaking wave in a ship's Dunes: barchan crescent sand dune Wind ripples with dislocations
wake
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6. Bubbles, foam. A soap bubble forms a sphere. Two bubbles together form a more
complex shape: the outer surfaces of both bubbles are spherical; these surfaces
are joined by a third spherical surface as the smaller bubble bulges slightly into
the larger one. A foam is a mass of bubbles. Mathematical models of bubbles
and foams are considered as collections of surfaces which minimize are under
volume constraints.

Foam of soap bubbles: four edges meet Equal spheres (gas bubbles) in a
at each vertex surface foam

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  Have you heard of a tessellation?
 What is a tessellation?


7. Tessellations. Tessellations are patterns formed by repeating tiles all over a flat
surface. Among animals, bony fish and reptiles like the pangolin, are protected by
overlapping scales or osteoderms. These form more or less exactly repeating units,
though often the scales in fact vary continuously in size.

Arrays: honeycomb is a natural tessellation Bismuth hopper crystal illustrating the stair step crystal
habit.

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Tilings: overlapping scales of common roach Tessellated pavement: a rock formation on the
Tasman Peninsula

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8. Cracks. Cracks are linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress. When an
elastic material stretches or shrinks uniformly, it eventually reaches its breaking
strength and then fails suddenly in all directions. Conversely, when an inelastic
material fails, straight cracks form to relieve the stress. Further stress in the same
direction would then simply open the existing cracks; stress at right angles can
create new cracks. Thus the pattern of cracks indicates whether the material is
elastic or not. In a tough fibrous material like oak tree bark, cracks form to relieve
stress as usual, but they do not grow long as their growth is interrupted by bundles
of strong elastic fibers. Since each species of tree has its own structure at the levels
of cell and of molecules, each has its own pattern of splitting in its bark

Drying inelastic mud Drying elastic mud

Palm trunk

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9. Spots, stripes. One function of animal patterns is camouflage; another function
is signaling. These patterns have an evolutionary explanation: they have functions
which increase the chances that the offspring of the patterned animal will survive
to reproduce. Leopards and ladybirds are spotted; angelfish and zebras are
striped. But while these evolutionary and functional arguments explain why these
animals need their patterns, they do not explain how the patterns are formed.

Dirce beauty butterfly, Breeding pattern of cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis

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Nature uses only the longest threads to weave her patterns, so that each small piece
of her fabric reveals the organization of the entire tapestry.

- - Richard P. Feynman
in The Character of Physical Law

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