LECTURE (NOTE) - Module 01 - Measurement

PHY-107 Module 01: Measurement
MODULE 1: MEASUREMENT
(Dr. Rubaiyet I. Haque)
LECTURE 01
OUTLINE:
▪ Introduction to Measurement
▪ Units
▪ Dimensions
WHAT IS PHYSICS?
Physics is the study of,

- Various natural and physical phenomena.
- Understanding of their governing principles and the fundamental laws.
NOTE: The laws of physics are not invented by people, they are only discovered
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Physics deals with,

- Observation of phenomena.
- Uses of scientific method to uncover reasons.
- Study/understanding of the basic and their governing principle.
▪ Discovery/development/realization of the fundamental laws.
In physics, we study:
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MEASURING THINGS:
Measuring things is the process of determining the quantity or dimensions of an object or a physical
property using various instruments or methods.
- Measurement provides a standardized way to quantify and compare physical quantities.
Measurement plays a crucial role in science, engineering, everyday life, and many other fields.
- Measurements help in the formulation and testing of hypotheses
- Precise measurements are crucial for quality control. It allows us to quantify, compare, and analyze
different aspects of the world around us.
- Measurements play a key role in healthcare, from monitoring vital signs to diagnostic tests.
NOTE: Science and engineering are based on measurements and comparisons. Thus, we need
rules about how things are measured and compared, and we need experiments to establish the
units for those measurements and comparisons. One purpose of physics (and engineering) is to
design and conduct those experiments.
NOTE: Why do we need to consider unit of quantity?
- To communicate the results with others and make it understandable and universal.
THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS:

In 1971, the general conference of weight and measurement picked seven quantities as basic
quantities and form the International System of Unit (SI).
- In physics, seven fundamental physical quantities are, Length, Mass, Time, Temperature,
Amount of substance, Electric current & Luminous intensity.
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Table: Seven base quantities in international System of Unit (SI), also known as matric system.
Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation
Mass Kilogram kg
Length Meter m
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION:
Scientific notation, also known as standard form or exponential notation, is a way to express numbers
that are very large or very small in a concise and convenient format.
- It is commonly used in scientific and mathematical fields to represent very large and very small
quantities.
- Generally, scientific notation is based on powers of 10.
▪ The general form of a number in scientific notation is: 𝑎 × 10𝑛 . Here 𝑎 is a number between 1
and 10, known as the coefficient, and 𝑛 is an integer representing the power of 10, indicates the
number of places the decimal point is moved to the right (if positive) or to the left (if negative).
PREFIXES OF UNITS:
Prefixes are used when dealing with very large / small measurements.
- Prefixes are used to indicate multiples or fractions of a unit. These prefixes help express quantities
in a more convenient or standardized form.
- Prefixes are used in the International System of Units (SI) to denote decimal multiples or fractions
of base units.
- They allow for easy representation of measurements across a wide range of magnitudes.
- Each prefix represents a certain power of 10, to be used as a multiplication factor.
For example,
𝟐. 𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝒔 = 2.35 𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟓 𝒏𝒔
𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 𝒎 = 1.5 𝑓𝑒𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒇𝒔
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CHECKPOINT: Express 2.11×10-6 m and 6.63×106 watt using prefixes.

ANSWER:
2.11 × 10−6 𝑚 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟏 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟏 𝝁𝒎
6.63 × 106 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑 𝑴𝑾
CHANGING UNITS
Changing units involves converting a measurement from one unit to another while maintaining the
same quantity. It is often necessary to switch between units to facilitate comparison, standardization,
or to match the desired level of precision.
- The change of units in the physical quantities can be performed by a method called chain link
conversion.
- In this method we multiply the original measurement by a conversion factor.
- Conversion factor is a ratio of units that is equal to unity.
60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
- Convert 2 minutes to seconds: 2 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 × = 120 𝑠
1 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠
CHECKPOINT: Convert 4 kg to grams.

ANSWER:
1000 𝑔𝑚
4 𝑘𝑔 = 4 𝑘𝑔 × = 4000 𝑔𝑚
1 𝑘𝑔
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND DECIMAL PLACES

Significant figures and decimal places are both concepts used to express the precision or accuracy of
a measured or calculated value. They are important in scientific and mathematical contexts to convey
the level of uncertainty or the number of reliable digits in a number.
Both significant figures and decimal places are used to indicate the precision or accuracy of a value,
but they convey slightly different information.
- Significant figures focus on the meaningful digits in a number.
- While decimal places specifically refer to the digits after the decimal point.
Significant figures:
Significant figures (also known as significant digits) are the digits in a number that carry meaningful
information. They include all non-zero digits and any zeros between non-zero digits. The rules for
determining significant figures are as follows:
- Refers to the precision of measurements. This refers to how close the agreement is between
repeated independent measurements.
- The number of significant digits depends on the least count of the measuring instrument.
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- All the certain digits and the one uncertain digit are called the significant figures in the measured
value.
- Significant figures are different from the decimal places. Consider the lengths 35.6 mm, 3.56 m,
and 0.00356 m. They all have three significant figures, but they have one, two, and five decimal
places, respectively.
- The rules for determining significant figures are as follows:

1. All non-zero digits are significant.
▪ 0.345 (3 s.f.)
▪ 123.34 (5 s.f.)
▪ 42.5 (3 s.f.)
2. Zeros sandwiched between non-zero digits are significant.
▪ 4205 (4 s.f.)
▪ 32.002 (5 s.f.)
▪ 50.90402 (7 s.f.)
3. Zeros that come before all non-zero digits are not significant.
• 0.32 (2 s.f.)
• 0.00067 (2 s.f.)
• 0.00204 (3 s.f.)
4. Zeros after non-zero digits within a number without decimals are not significant.
▪ 34000 (2 s.f.)
5. Zeros after non-zero digits within a number with decimals are significant.
▪ 34.000 (5 s.f.)
▪ 5400678.002 (10 s.f.)
Decimal Places:
Decimal places refer to the number of digits after the decimal point in a number.
- They indicate the precision of a value, particularly for numbers that are expressed with a fractional
part.
- The rules for determining decimal places are as follows,
▪ The decimal places are counted from the decimal point to the right.
▪ If there are no digits after the decimal point, the number is considered to have zero decimal
places.
ROUNDING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES:

Rounding significant figures is a process used to reduce the number of digits in a number while
preserving the meaningful information and maintaining the desired level of precision. Rounding is
commonly done to match the significant figures of a measurement or to simplify the presentation of
a value.
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- Rounding introduces a level of approximation.

- Rounded value may not be as precise as the original number.
- Identify the desired number of significant figures to which rounding will be performed.
▪ If the digit is less than 5, simply drop all the digits to the right of the target significant figure.
▪ If the digit is 5 or greater, increase the target significant figure by one and drop all the digits
to the right.
- The following numbers are rounded to 2 significant figures,
▪ 0.00245 ➔ 0.0025
▪ 0.04051 ➔ 0.041
▪ 2345.07 ➔ 2.34507 × 103 ➔ 2.3 × 103 ➔ 2300 (Extra rule is apply in this example)
CHECKPOINT: What is the number of significant figures in 0.001 and 0.100?

ANSWER: Number of significant figures in 0.001 is 1, while in 0.100 it is 3.
PROMBLEM 01-01: Earth is approximately a sphere of radius 6.37 × 106 𝑚. What are (a) its
circumference in kilometers, (b) its surface area in square kilometers, and (c) its volume in cubic
kilometers?
PROMBLEM 01-03: The micrometer (1 µm) is often called the micron. (a) How many microns
make up 1.0 km? (b) What fraction of a centimeter equals 1.0 µm? (c) How many microns are in
1.0 yd?
LENGTH (L)
Length is a fundamental physical quantity that represents the extent of an object or the distance
between two points. The unit of length is the meter (m).
- Meter: Meter is defined as the distance travelled by the light in a vacuum during a time interval of
1/299792458 of a second. This time interval was chosen so that the speed of light c is exactly
299792458 𝑚/𝑠.
1 centimeter = 10-2 m
1 meter = 100 m
1 kilometer = 103 m
TIME (t)
Time is a fundamental concept that is used to sequence events, quantify durations, and measure the
intervals between occurrences. The unit of time is the second (s).
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- Second: Second is defined as the time taken by 9,192,631,770 oscillations of the light (of specific
wavelength) emitted by a cesium-133 atom.
▪ Atomic clocks are so consistent that, in principle, two cesium clocks would have to run for
6000 years before their readings would differ by more than 1 s.
PROMBLEM 01-12: The fastest growing plant on record is a Hesperoyucca whipplei that grew
3.7 m in 14 days. What was its growth rate in micrometers per second?
PROMBLEM 01-14: A lecture period (50 min) is close to 1 microcentury. (a) How long is a
microcentury in minutes? (b) Using
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
find the percentage difference from the approximation.
MASS (m)
Mass is a fundamental property of matter, representing the amount of substance in an object. The unit
of mass is kilogram (kg).
- Kilogram: kilogram is defined as the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram, that is
made a platinum-iridium cylinder with height of 3.9 cm and diameter of 3.9 cm, kept at the
international Bureau of Weights and Measures, Paris, France.
1 gram = 10-3 kg
1 kilogram = 100 kg
1 Ton = 103 kg
A 2nd mass standard is atomic mass unit (u).

- Atomic mass unit: Atomic mass unit is defined as 1⁄12 of the mass of a free carbon-12 atom at
rest in its ground state. It is used to express atomic and molecular masses.
𝑀(12𝐶)
1𝑢 = = 1.66053906660 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
12𝑁𝐴
Here, 𝑀(12𝐶) is the experimentally determined molar mass of carbon-12, and 𝑁𝐴 is the Avogadro
constant.
NOTE:
• The most precise standard weight human has ever created was the kilogram, a Platinum-
Iridium cylinder stored in a vault on the outskirts of Paris.
• Replicas of this kilogram were sent to countries around the world to use as their mass
standard.
• For smaller mass measurement, kg is divided into smaller reference mass. For example, 1
mg is 1 million times smaller than 1 kg.
• You can subdivide over a large range of these masses from kilogram. But more you perform
the subdivision the certainty increases a bit.
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• Over the course of the century or so, replica kilograms where compared with the one stored
in Paris vault. And from those measurements, it became clear that their weights were
diverging by up to 75 micro-grams. It is difficult to say if the replicas were getting heavier
or original was getting lighter.
• But it was unacceptable to have mass standard with changing masses.
• So the solution was to eliminate the kilogram’s dependance on a physical object. And
instead define it based on a constant of nature. PLANK’S CONSTANT.
• Plank’s constant relates the frequency of a photon to it’s energy. E=hf (E=energy, h=
Planks constant, and f= frequency)
ℎ𝑓
• But, E=mc^2. Therefore, 𝑚 = 𝑐 2 . This is how plunk’s constant is related to the mass.
PROMBLEM 01-22: Gold, which has a density of 19.32 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 , is the most ductile metal and
can be pressed into a thin leaf or drawn out into a long fiber. (a) If a sample of gold, with a mass of
27.63 𝑔, is pressed into a leaf of 1.000 𝜇𝑚 thickness, what is the area of the leaf? (b) If, instead,
the gold is drawn out into a cylindrical fiber of radius 2.500 𝜇𝑚, what is the length of the fiber?
PROMBLEM 01-23: (a) Assuming that water has a density of exactly 1 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 , find the mass of
one cubic meter of water in kilograms. (b) Suppose that it takes 10.0 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 to drain a container of
5700 𝑚3 of water. What is the “mass flow rate”, in kilograms per second, of water from the
container?
PROMBLEM 01-27: Iron has a density of 7.87 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3, and the mass of an iron atom is
9.27 × 10−26 𝑘𝑔. If the atoms are spherical and tightly packed, (a) what is the volume of an iron
atom and (b) what is the distance between the centers of adjacent atoms?
DENSITY (𝝆)
The density (ρ) of a material is defined as the mass (m) per unit volume (V). The unit of density is
kg/m3.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚)
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜌) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉)
Density Unit [𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑 ]
CH4 0.657
Cooking oil 910 - 930
Water 1000
Steel 7750 – 8050
Gold 19300
CHECKPOINT: Convert 5.2 gm/cm3 to kg/m3.

ANSWER:
1 𝑘𝑔
𝑔𝑚 1𝑔𝑚 × 1000 𝑔𝑚 10−3 𝑘𝑔
5.2 = 5.2 × 3 = 5.2 × −6 3 = 5.2 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑐𝑚 3 (1 𝑚) 10 𝑚
1 𝑐𝑚3 ×
(100 𝑐𝑚)3
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PROBLEM: A heavy object can sink into the ground during an earthquake if the shaking causes
the ground to undergo liquefaction, in which the soil grains experience little friction as they slide
over one another. The ground is then effectively quicksand. The possibility of liquefaction in sandy
ground can be predicted in terms of the void ratio 𝑒 for a sample of the ground:
𝑉𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝑒=
𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠
Here, 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 is the total volume of the sand grains in the sample and 𝑉𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 is the total volume
between the grains (in the voids). If 𝑒 exceeds a critical value of 0.80, liquefaction can occur during
an earthquake. What is the corresponding sand density 𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 ? Solid silicon dioxide (the primary
component of sand) has a density of 𝜌𝑆𝑖𝑂2 = 2.600 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3.
𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑
ANSWER: Density of sand, 𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = … … … (1)
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
The total volume,

𝑉
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 + 𝑉𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 = 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 + 𝑒 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 [since ,𝑒 = 𝑉 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 ]
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Therefore, 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 = … … … (2)
1+𝑒
The total mass 𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 of the sand grains is the product of the density of silicon dioxide and the total
volume of the sand grains:
𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝜌𝑆𝑖𝑂2 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 … … … (3)
Substituting this expression into Eq. 1 and then substituting for 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 from Eq. 2 lead to
𝜌𝑆𝑖𝑂2 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜌𝑆𝑖𝑂2
𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑉 . = … … … (4)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 1+𝑒 1+𝑒
Substituting 𝜌𝑆𝑖𝑂2 = 2.600 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and the critical value of 𝑒 = 0.80, we find that
liquefaction occurs when the sand density is less than
2600 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝜌= = 1.4 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
(1 + 0.80)
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PHY-107 Module 2: Motion alone a straight line
MODULE 2: MOTION ALONE A STRAIGHT LINE

LECTURE 02
OUTLINE:
▪ Motion along a straight line
▪ Expressions of displacement
▪ Speed and velocity
MOTION:
One purpose of physics is to study the motion of objects.
- It is a fundamental concept in physics and is essential for describing the movement of
objects and understanding their behavior in the physical world.
- It refers to how fast or how far an object moves in a given amount of time.
NOTE: The world, and everything in it, moves. Even seemingly stationary things, such as a
roadway, move with Earth’s rotation, Earth’s orbit around the Sun, the Sun’s orbit around the
center of the Milky Way galaxy, and that galaxy’s migration relative to other galaxies.
THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTION ARE:

• Motion can be defined as the change of position of an object with respect to time.
• Motion is mainly described in terms of distance, displacement, speed, and time.
• Motion of an object depends on the reference frame of the observer.
MECHANICS: The area of physics that concerned with the relationships between force,
matter, and motion among physical objects is known as MECHANICS.
- Generally, force applied to an object result in displacements, or changes of an object's
position relative to its environment.
Depending on the mechanics, motion can be classified as, kinematics, dynamic and static.
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KINEMATICS:
Kinematics is a branch of classical mechanics that deals with the motion of objects without
considering the forces that cause the motion. It focuses on describing the position, velocity, and
acceleration of objects as they move through space and time.
- It is the study of the motion of a body without considering the cause of motion.
- For example, a car accelerates from rest to a certain velocity in a straight line.
DYNAMICS:
Dynamics is another branch of classical mechanics that deals with the study of the motion of
objects, but with a specific focus on the forces that cause or influence that motion.
- It is the study of motion of a body taking into account the cause of the motion.
- It allows us to analyze the effects of forces, design machines, predict celestial motions, and
comprehend the fundamental principles that govern motion in the universe.
- For example, Car Turning on a Curved Road.
STATICS:
Statics is another branch of classical mechanics that deals with the study of objects at rest or in a
state of equilibrium, where the net force and net torque (rotational force) acting on the object are
both zero. In other words, statics focuses on systems that are not accelerating, either because they
are stationary or because they are moving at a constant velocity (uniform motion).
- It is the study of a body at rest.
- In static equilibrium, the system is either at rest, or its center of mass moves at constant velocity.
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- Statics is concerned with the analysis of loads (force and torque, or "moment") on physical
systems in static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do
not vary over time, or where objects are at a constant velocity.
IN THIS CHAPTER, WE WILL STUDY THE BASIC PHYSICS OF MOTION WHERE THE OBJECT MOVES ALONG
A SINGLE AXIS. SUCH MOTION IS CALLED ONE-DIMENSIONAL MOTION.
Considerations:
1. The motion is along a straight line only. The line may be vertical, horizontal, or slanted, but it
must be straight.
2. Moving object is either a particle or an object that moves like a particle (discreate object).
POSITION & DISPLACEMENT:

LOCATING AN OBJECT: Locating an object refers to determining the position or coordinates of the
object in space relative to a reference point or coordinate system.
To locate an object, it is required to find its position relative to the reference point of origin (or
zero point) of an axis, such as, the x-axis.
Example: If the particle moves from the position 𝑥 = 5 to the new position 𝑥 = −3.
DISPLACEMENT:
Displacement is a concept used in physics to describe the change in position of an object, typically
measured from its initial point to its final point.
- It does not take into account the actual path taken by the object, only the change in its
position.
- It is denoted with ∆𝑥.
- If an object returns to its initial position, its displacement is zero, regardless of the
distance it traveled or the path it took.
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Mathematically defined as (a change from

initial position to final position),
∆𝑿 = 𝑿𝟐 − 𝑿𝟏
o Change position from 𝑥1 to 𝑥2
o Unit of displacement (∆𝐗) is meter (m).
o This is a vector quantity.
DISTANCE:
Distance is a measure of the extent of space between two points or objects. It is a fundamental
concept in mathematics, physics, and everyday life. In the simplest sense, distance quantifies how
far apart two locations are from each other.
➢ This is the numerical value / number in meter
➢ Scalar quantity
CHECKPOINT: If the particle moves from the position x = 5m out to x = 200 m and then
back to x = 5. What are the travelling distance and the displacement?
ANSWER:
Distance = 390 m
Displacement is zero.
CHECKPOINT: Here are three pairs of initial and final positions along x-axis, respectively.
Which pairs give a negative displacement: (a) -3 m, +5 m; (b) -3 m, -7 m; and (c) 7 m, -3 m.
ANSWER: The (b) and (c) provide the negative displacement.

(b) 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = (−7) − (−3) = −4
(c) 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = (−3) − 7 = −10
AVERAGE VELOCITY & AVERAGE SPEED

AVERAGE VELOCITY: Average velocity is defined to describe the overall displacement of an object
over a specific time interval. It can be expressed as the ratio of displacement (∆𝑥) that occurs
during a particular time interval (∆𝑡) to that interval.
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
▪ Unit of 𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 is m/s.
▪ It is a vector quantity.
Graphical representation: On a graph of x versus t, 𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒈 is the slope of the straight line that
connects two particular points on the 𝑥(𝑡) curve. One is the point that corresponds to 𝑥2 and 𝑡2 ,
and the other is the point that corresponds to 𝑥1 and 𝑡1 .
▪ It has both magnitude and direction.
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▪ Its magnitude is the magnitude of the line’s slope.

o A positive 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 (and slope) tells us that the line slants upward to the right.
o A negative 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 (and slope) tells us that the line slants downward to the right.
▪ This is a graph of Position (𝒙) versus Time (𝒕) for a moving object.
▪ It is at position 𝑥 = −5 𝑚 when time 𝑡 = 0 𝑠.
▪ At 𝑥 = 0 𝑚 when 𝑡 = 3 𝑠.
▪ At 𝑥 = 2 𝑚 when 𝑡 = 4 𝑠.
AVERAGE SPEED: Average speed is a measure of the overall speed of an object over a certain time
interval. It is a scalar quantity, representing the total distance traveled by the object divided by the
total time taken to cover that distance.
It can be expressed as the ratio of distance that occurs during a particular time interval to that
interval.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡
▪ Unit of 𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑔 is m/s.
▪ It is a scalar quantity.
PROBLEM: You drive a beat-up pickup truck along a straight road for 8.4 km at 70 km/h at
which point the truck runs out of gasoline and stops. Over the next 30 min you walk another 2
km farther along the road to a gasoline station.
a) What is your overall displacement from the beginning of your drive to your arrival at the
station?
b) What is the time interval ∆t from the beginning of your drive to your arrival at the station?
c) What is your average velocity vavg from the beginning of your device to your arrival at the
station? Find it both numerically and graphically.
d) Suppose that to pump the gasoline, pay for it, and walk back to the truck takes you another
45 mins. What is your average speed from the beginning of your drive to your return to the
truck with the gasoline?
5
ANSWER:
(a) Assume that the movement is in positive direction of an x axis.
Given that the initial position, 𝑥1 = 0
Therefore, second position must be at 𝑥2 = 8.4 𝑘𝑚 + 2.0 𝑘𝑚 = 10.4 𝑘𝑚.
Then the displacement ∆𝑥 along the x axis is,
∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 10.4 𝑘𝑚 − 0 = 10.4 𝑘𝑚.
Thus, the overall displacement is 10.4 km in the positive direction of the x axis.
(b) Given that,

The drive the displacement ∆𝑥𝑑𝑟 = 8.4 𝑘𝑚
The average velocity 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔,𝑑𝑟 = 70 𝑘𝑚/ℎ.
Average velocity is the ratio of the displacement for the drive to the time interval for the drive.
∆𝑥
Therefore, 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔,𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑟
∆𝑡𝑑𝑟
∆𝑥𝑑𝑟 8.4 𝑘𝑚
∆𝑡𝑑𝑟 = = = 0.12 ℎ.
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔,𝑑𝑟 70 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
The walking time interval ∆𝑡𝑤𝑙𝑘 (= 30 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 0.50 ℎ),

Now, ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑡𝑑𝑟 + ∆𝑡𝑤𝑙𝑘 = 0.12 ℎ + 0.50 ℎ = 0.62 ℎ.
(c) Here, Total displacement, ∆𝑥 = 10.4 𝑘𝑚

Time interval for the entire trip, ∆𝑡 = 0.62 ℎ.
∆𝑥 10.4 𝑘𝑚 𝑘𝑚
Here we find, 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 16.8 ≈ 17 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
∆𝑡 0.62 ℎ ℎ
o To find 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 graphically, first we graph the function

x(t) as shown in figure, where the beginning and
arrival points on the graph are the origin and the
point labeled as “Station”.
o Your average velocity is the slope of the straight

line connecting those points.
∆𝑥 10.4 𝑘𝑚
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 16.8 𝑘𝑚/ℎ.
∆𝑡 0.62 ℎ
(d) Your average speed is the ratio of the total distance you move to the total time interval you
take to make that move.
The total distance is 8.4 𝑘𝑚 + 2.0 𝑘𝑚 + 2.0 𝑘𝑚 = 12.4 𝑘𝑚.

The total time interval is 0.12 ℎ + 0.50 ℎ + 0.75 ℎ = 1.37 ℎ.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 12.4 𝑘𝑚
Thus, we have, 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 9.1 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 1.37 ℎ
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY (𝒗 ⃗⃗):

Instantaneous velocity refers to the velocity of an object at a specific instant in time. It is the rate
of change of an object's position with respect to time at a particular moment, taking into account
the direction of motion.
6
∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
▪ Velocity at any instant is the derivative of x with respect to 𝑡.
▪ Unit of 𝑣 is m/s.
▪ 𝑣 is the slope of position (x) – time (t) curve at the point representing that instant.
INSTANTANEOUS SPEED (s): Instantaneous speed refers to the magnitude of the instantaneous
velocity of an object at a specific moment in time. Therefore, 𝑠 = |𝑣⃗|.
CHECKPOINT: The following equations give the position 𝑥(𝑡) of a particle in four situations
(in each equation, 𝑥 is in meters, 𝑡 is in seconds, and 𝑡 > 0): (1) 𝑥 = 3𝑡 − 2; (2) 𝑥 = −4𝑡 2 − 2;
(3) 𝑥 = 2/𝑡 2 ; and (4) 𝑥 = −2.
(a) In which situation is the velocity 𝑣 of the particle constant?
(b) In which is 𝑣 in the negative 𝑥 direction?
ANSWER: (check the derivative dx/dt)

(a) 1 and 4;
(b) 2 and 3
PROBLEM 02-02: Compute your average velocity in the following two cases:
(a) You walk 73.2 𝑚 at a speed of 1.22 𝑚/𝑠 and then run 73.2 𝑚 at a speed of 3.05 𝑚/𝑠 along
a straight track.
(b) You walk for 1.00 𝑚𝑖𝑛 at a speed of 1.22 𝑚/𝑠 and then run for 1.00 𝑚𝑖𝑛 at 3.05 𝑚/𝑠 along
a straight track.
(c) Graph x versus 𝑡 for both cases and indicate how the average velocity is found on the graph.
PROBLEM 02-03: An automobile travels on a straight road for 40 km at 30 km/h. It then

continues in the same direction for another 40 km at 60 km/h. (a) What is the average velocity
of the car during the full 80 km trip? (Assume that it moves in the positive x direction.) (b) What
is the average speed? (c) Graph x versus t and indicate how the average velocity is found on the
graph.
7
MODULE 2: MOTION ALONE A STRAIGHT LINE

LECTURE 03
OUTLINE:
▪ Accelerations
▪ Motion with constant acceleration
▪ Motion diagrams
ACCELERATION
Acceleration is a fundamental concept in physics and represents the rate of change of an object's
velocity with respect to time. It describes how quickly an object's speed or direction changes over
time. When an object undergoes acceleration, it experiences a change in its velocity, which can
involve speeding up, slowing down, or changing direction.
AVERAGE ACCELERATION:
Average acceleration is the average rate of change of an object's velocity over a given time interval.
It provides a measure of how much an object's velocity changes on average during that time period.
It is denoted by 𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 .
𝑣1 − 𝑣2 ∆𝑣
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ∆𝑡
▪ 𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 is the rate of change of average velocity.
▪ Unit of aavg is 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION (a):

Instantaneous acceleration is the acceleration of an
object at a specific moment in time. It is denoted by 𝑎.
Mathematically it can be express as,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑎= = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
Where, 𝑎 is the instantaneous acceleration, 𝑑𝑉 is the

infinitesimal change in velocity, and 𝑑𝑡 is the
infinitesimal change in time.
▪ Acceleration (𝑎) is the second derivative of displacement (𝑥) with respect to time.
▪ Unit of acceleration (a) is 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
▪ It is a vector quantity. Thus, acceleration has both magnitude and direction.
1
QUESTION 02-01: Figure gives the velocity of a

particle moving on an x axis. What are (a) the initial and
(b) the final directions of travel? (c) Does the particle stop
momentarily? (d) Is the acceleration positive or negative?
(e) Is it constant or varying?
ANSWER:
(a) At 𝑡 = 0, the particle is initially traveling in the
negative direction.
(b) The final direction of travel is in the positive direction.
(c) Yes, the particle does stop momentarily.
(d) The acceleration is positive.
(e) The acceleration is varying in direction but constant in rate.
QUESTION 02-02: Figure gives the acceleration a(t)

of a Chihuahua as it chases a German shepherd along
an axis. In which of the time periods indicated does the
Chihuahua move at constant speed?
ANSWER: The Chihuahua is moving at a constant speed during time period "E".
PROBLEM: A particle’s position on the x axis is given by 𝑥 = 4 − 27𝑡 + 𝑡 3 , with 𝑥 in meters

and 𝑡 in seconds.
(a) Because position 𝑥 depends on time 𝑡, the particle must be moving. Find the particle’s
velocity function 𝑣(𝑡) and acceleration function 𝑎(𝑡).
(b) Is there ever a time when 𝑣 = 0?
(c) Describe the particle’s motion for 𝑡 ≥ 0.
ANSWER:
Given that, position, 𝑥 = 4 − 27𝑡 + 𝑡 3
𝑑𝑥
(a) Differentiating the position function, we find 𝑣 = = −27 + 3𝑡 2 .
𝑑𝑡
Unit of 𝑣 is in meters per second.
𝑑𝑣
Differentiating the velocity function then gives us 𝑎 = = +6𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Unit of 𝑎 is in meters per second squared.
(b) Setting 𝑣(𝑡) = 0 yields 0 = −27 + 3𝑡 2 ,

which has the solution 𝑡 = ±3 𝑠.
- Thus, the velocity is zero (𝑣 = 0) for both 3 𝑠 before and 3 𝑠 after the clock reads 0.
(c) At 𝑡 = 0,
The particle is at 𝑥(0) = +4 𝑚.
Moving with a velocity of 𝑣(0) = −27 𝑚/𝑠, that is, in the negative direction of the x axis.
Its acceleration is 𝑎(0) = 0 because just then the particle’s velocity is not changing (Fig. a).
2
𝒕=𝟎𝒔 𝒕=𝟏𝒔 𝒕=𝟐𝒔 𝒕=𝟑𝒔 𝒕=𝟒𝒔

𝒙 [𝒎] +4 −22 −42 −50 −40
𝒗 [𝒎/𝒔] −27 −24 −15 0 +21
𝒂 [𝒎/𝒔𝟐 ] 0 +6 +12 +18 +24
For 0 < 𝑡 < 3 𝑠,

- The particle has a negative
velocity. So, it continues to move
in the negative direction.
- However, its acceleration is
increasing and positive.
- Because the signs of the velocity
and the acceleration are opposite,
the particle must be
deaccelerating (Fig. b).
As we know, the particle stops momentarily at 𝑡 = 3 𝑠.
- Substituting 𝑡 = 3 𝑠 into the expression for 𝑥(𝑡), we find that the particle’s position
just then is 𝑥 = −50 𝑚 (Fig. c).
- Its acceleration is still positive, a=.
For 𝑡 > 3 𝑠, the particle moves to the right on the axis. Its acceleration remains positive and
grows progressively larger in magnitude. The velocity is now positive, and it too grows
progressively larger in magnitude (Fig. d).
PROBLEM 02-22: The position of a particle moving along the x axis depends on the time
according to the equation 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡 2 − 𝑏𝑡 3 , where x is in meters and 𝑡 in seconds. What are the
units of (a) constant 𝑐 and (b) constant 𝑏? Let their numerical values be 3.0 and 2.0, respectively.
(c) At what time does the particle reach its maximum positive x position? From 𝑡 = 0.0 𝑠 to 𝑡 =
4.0 𝑠, (d) what distance does the particle move and (e) what is its displacement? Find its velocity
at times (f) 1.0 𝑠, (g) 2.0 𝑠, (h) 3.0 𝑠, and (i) 4.0 𝑠. Find its acceleration at times (j) 1.0 𝑠, (k)
2.0 𝑠, (l) 3.0 𝑠, and (m) 4.0 𝑠.
CONSTANT ACCELERATION (a):

If the velocity of the particle changes at a constant rate, then this rate is called the constant
acceleration.
- Constant acceleration refers to a situation in which an object experiences uniform or
unchanging acceleration over a given time interval.
- In this case, the object's velocity changes by the same amount in equal time intervals, leading
to a linear increase or decrease in speed.
- If the acceleration is constant, the average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration are equal.
𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑡−0
- Slopes of the position graph are plotted on the velocity graph.
- Slope of the velocity graph is plotted on the acceleration graph.
3
CONSTANT ACCELERATION (g):

Equations of motion with constant acceleration (𝑎) can be written as follows.
Equation Missing quantity
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑥0
1 𝑣
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) 𝑡
1 𝑎
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = (𝑣0 + 𝑣)𝑡
2
1 𝑣0
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 2
2
DISCUSSION: Have you ever hard the term constant acceleration? OR can you think of any
situation where object’s velocity keeps on increasing at constant rate?
ANSWER:
Gravitational acceleration/ Free fall acceleration refers to
the constant acceleration. It is denoted as ‘g’. The value of
𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
Therefore, slop of 𝒗 𝒗𝒔 𝒕 graph is 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
PROBLEM: The head of the woodpecker is moving forward at a speed of 7.49 m/s when the
beak makes first contact with the tree limb. The beak stops after penetrating the limb by 1.87
mm. Assuming the acceleration to be constant, find the acceleration magnitude in terms of 𝑔.
ANSWER: Here,
Velocity, 𝑣 = 0 𝑚/𝑠,
Initial velocity, 𝑣0 = 7.49 𝑚/𝑠,
and displacement during acceleration (𝑥 − 𝑥0) = 1.87𝑚𝑚 = 1.87 × 10−3 𝑚.
we know, 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
𝑚 2
(0 𝑚)2 = (7.49
) + 2𝑎(1.87 × 10−3 𝑚)
𝑠
104 𝑚
Therefore, 𝑎 = −1.500 × 2 = 𝑎 = −1.53 × 103 𝑔 [Since, 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 ].
𝑠
4
FREE FALL ACCELERATION

Free fall acceleration is the acceleration experienced by an object when it is in a state of free fall
under the influence of gravity, with no other forces significantly affecting its motion except for air
resistance. In a vacuum or in the absence of significant air resistance, free fall acceleration is
primarily due to the gravitational force acting on the object. Its magnitude is represented by 𝑔.
• All objects accelerate downwards at the same rate, 𝑔 =
9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
• Speed o objects increase at same rate.
• An important example of straight-line motion with
constant acceleration is that of an object rising or falling
freely near Earth’s surface.
• We refer the vertical motion upward along 𝑦-axis with
+𝑦 sign.
• Free-fall acceleration is represented by −𝑔 (since, y-axis
upward refers to positive direction).
• The acceleration is independent of the object’s
characteristics, such as mass, density, or shape; it is the
same for all objects.
• Examples of free-fall acceleration: A feather and an apple. As these objects fall, they
accelerate downward—both at the same rate g. Thus, their speeds increase at the same rate,
and they fall together.
• The equations of motion in previous section for constant acceleration also apply to free fall
near Earth’s surface.
NOTE: For free fall acceleration,

- While an object is thrown upwards, use acceleration 𝑎 = −𝑔 in the formula, as the
object will deaccelerate over time.
- When an object is falling downwards with gravity, still use acceleration 𝑎 = −𝑔 in
the formula, since y-axis upward refers to positive direction and y-axis downward
refers to negative direction.
PROBLEM: On September 26, 1993. Dave Munday went over

the Canadian edge of Niagara Falls in a steel ball equipped with
an air hole and then fell 48 m to the water (and rocks).
Assuming his initial velocity was zero and neglecting the effect
of the air on the ball during the fall.
How long did Munday fall to reach the water surface?
ANSWER:
Given that,
Initial speed, v0 = 0 m/s.
Free-fall acceleration a = −g = −9.8 m/s2 .
Initial position, 𝑦0 = 0 𝑚
Final position, 𝑦 = −48 𝑚 [since displacement at -y
direction]
5
1
We know, 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
−48 𝑚 − 0 𝑚 = (0 𝑚/𝑠). 𝑡 + (−9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 ). 𝑡 2
2
𝑚 2
(−4.9 2 ) . 𝑡 = 48 𝑚
𝑠
𝑡 = 3.1 𝑠
PROBLEM: In Figure, a pitcher tosses a baseball up along a

y-axis with an initial speed of 12 m/s.
(a) How long does the ball take to reach its maximum
height?
(b) What is the ball’s maximum height above its release
point?
(c) How long does the ball take to reach a point 5.0 m above
its release point?
ANSWER:
Given that,
Initial speed, v0 = 12 m/s.
Free-fall acceleration a = −g = −9.8 m/s2 .
At the maximum height, v = 0 m/s.
𝑣−𝑣0 (0−12)
(a) We know, 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡. Therefore, 𝑡 = = 𝑠 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝒔.
𝑎 (−9.8)
(b) At ball’s release point, 𝑦0 = 0. We know, 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑦0 )

𝑣 2 − 𝑣02
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑦 − (0 𝑚) =
2𝑎
𝑚 2 𝑚 2
(0 ) − (12 )
𝑦= 𝑠 𝑠 = 𝟕. 𝟑 𝒎
𝑚
2. (−9.8 2 )
𝑠
(c) Given that displacement from initial point, 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 5 𝑚

1
We know, 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑚 1 𝑚
5 𝑚 = (12 ) . 𝑡 + (−9.8 2 ) . 𝑡 2
𝑠 2 𝑠
4.9𝑡 2 − 12𝑡 + 5 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation for t yields, 𝑡 = 0.53 𝑠 and 𝑡 = 1.9 𝑠.
[There are two such times! This is not really surprising because the ball passes twice through
𝑦 = 5.0 𝑚, once on the way up and once on the way down.]
6
PROBLEM 02-23: An electron with an initial velocity 𝑣0 =

1.5 × 105 𝑚/𝑠 enters a region of length 𝐿 = 1.00 𝑐𝑚 where it is
electrically accelerated (Figure). It emerges with 𝑣 = 5.7 ×
106 𝑚/𝑠. What is its acceleration, assumed constant?
PROBLEM 02-25: An electric vehicle starts from rest and accelerates at a rate of 2.0 𝑚/𝑠 2
in a straight line until it reaches a speed of 20 𝑚/𝑠. The vehicle then slows at a constant rate
of 1.0 𝑚/𝑠 2 until it stops. (a) How much time elapses from start to stop? (b) How far does
the vehicle travel from start to stop?
GRAPHICAL INTEGRATION IN MOTION ANALYSIS

Graphical integration is a technique used in motion analysis to determine an object's displacement,
velocity, or acceleration from a graph of its motion.
- When an object's motion is represented graphically, the area under the graph can be used
to calculate various kinematic quantities through integration.
Integrating Acceleration: From a graph of an object’s acceleration (𝑎 versus time 𝑡). the velocity
can be obtain using integration on the graph at any given time. From the graph the change in the
velocity is given by
𝑡1
𝑣1 − 𝑣0 = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
𝑡0
The integral amounts to finding an area on the graph:

𝑡1
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = ( )
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡0 𝑡𝑜 𝑡1 .
𝑡0
If a unit of acceleration is 1 𝑚/𝑠 2 and a unit of time is 1 𝑠, then the corresponding unit of area on
the graph is,
𝑚
(1 2 ) (1 𝑠) = 1 𝑚/𝑠
𝑠
which is (properly) a unit of velocity. When, the acceleration curve is above the time axis, the area
is positive; when the curve is below the time axis, the area is negative.
Integrating Velocity: On a graph of velocity (𝑣 versus time 𝑡) the change in the position is given
by,
7
𝑡1
𝑥1 − 𝑥0 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑡0
where 𝑥0 is the position at time 𝑡0 and 𝑥1 is the position at time 𝑡1 .

𝑡1
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = ( )
𝑡0
If the unit of velocity is 1 𝑚/𝑠 and the unit of time is 1 𝑠, then the corresponding unit of area on
the graph is,
𝑚
(1 ) (1 𝑠) = 1 𝑚
𝑠
which is (properly) a unit of position and displacement.
PROBLEM: “Whiplash injury” commonly occurs in a rear-end collision where a front car is
hit from behind by a second car. In the 1970s, researchers concluded that the injury was due to
the occupant’s head being whipped back over the top of the seat as the car was slammed forward.
As a result of this finding, head restraints were built into cars, yet neck injuries in rearend
collisions continued to occur.
In a recent test to study neck injury in rear-end collisions, a volunteer was strapped to a
seat that was then moved abruptly to simulate a collision by a rear car moving at 10.5 𝑘𝑚/ℎ.
Figure a gives the accelerations of the volunteer’s torso and head during the collision, which
began at time 𝑡 = 0. The torso acceleration was delayed by 40 𝑚𝑠 because during that time
interval the seat back had to compress against the volunteer. The head acceleration was delayed
by an additional 70 𝑚𝑠. What was the torso speed when the head began to accelerate?
ANSWER: We know,
Initial speed of torso, 𝑣0 = 0
At the start of the collision, 𝑡0 = 0.
Need to find speed of torso when the head begins to accelerate at time 𝑡1 = 110 𝑚𝑠.
Combining Eqs. 2-27 and 2-28, we can write
8
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

𝑣1 − 𝑣0 = ( )
For convenience, let separate the area into three regions (Fig. b).
(i) Region A: from 0 to 40 ms; Has no area. Therefore, 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐴 = 0.
(ii) Region B: from 40 ms to 100 ms; Has the shape of a triangle with area
1 𝑚
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐵 = (0.060 𝑠) (50 2 ) = 1.5 𝑚/𝑠
2 𝑠
(iii) Region C: from 100 ms to 110 ms; Has the shape of a rectangle with area
𝑚
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐶 = (0,010 𝑠) (50 2 ) = 0.5 𝑚/𝑠
𝑠
Substituting these values and v0 " 0 into Eq. we get
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑣1 − 0 = 0 + 1.5 + 0.50 = 2.0 = 7.2 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
Therefore, when the head is just starting to move forward, the torso already has a speed of
7.2 𝑘𝑚/ℎ.
9
PHY-107 Module 3: Vector
MODULE 3: VECTORS
LECTURE 04
OUTLINE:
▪ Motion in Two and Three dimensions
▪ Position, displacement and acceleration vectors
▪ Average and instantaneous quantities
▪ Vector addition and subtraction
PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM:
Theorem: The Pythagorean theorem states that the square of the
length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of squares of the lengths
of other two sides of the right-angled triangle.
𝑯𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒆𝟐 = 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓𝟐 + 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆𝟐
Prove: https://byjus.com/pythagorean-theorem-formula/
Consider a right-angled triangle 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶. From the below figure, it

is right-angled at 𝐵.
Let 𝐵𝐷 be perpendicular to the side 𝐴𝐶.
From the above-given figure, consider the 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝛥𝐴𝐷𝐵,
In 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝛥𝐴𝐷𝐵,
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ∠𝐴𝐷𝐵 = 90°
∠𝐴 = ∠𝐴 → 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛
Using the 𝐴𝐴 criterion for the similarity of triangles,
𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 ~ 𝛥𝐴𝐷𝐵
Therefore, 𝐴𝐷/𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵/𝐴𝐶
⇒ 𝐴𝐵2 = 𝐴𝐶 × 𝐴𝐷 ……(1)
Considering 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝛥𝐵𝐷𝐶 from the below figure.

∠𝐶 = ∠𝐶 → common
∠𝐶𝐷𝐵 = ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 90°
Using the Angle Angle (𝐴𝐴) criterion for the similarity of triangles, we conclude that,
𝛥𝐵𝐷𝐶 ~ 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶
Therefore, 𝐶𝐷/𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶/𝐴𝐶
⇒ 𝐵𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐶 × 𝐶𝐷 …..(2)
From the similarity of triangles, we conclude that,
∠𝐴𝐷𝐵 = ∠𝐶𝐷𝐵 = 90°
Therefore, a perpendicular line from the right-angled vertex of a right triangle to the hypotenuse
forms triangles on both sides, which are similar to each other and to whole triangle.
To Prove: 𝐴𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐵2 + 𝐵𝐶 2
By adding equation (1) and equation (2), we get:
𝐴𝐵2 + 𝐵𝐶 2 = (𝐴𝐶 × 𝐴𝐷) + (𝐴𝐶 × 𝐶𝐷)
2 2
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶(𝐴𝐷 + 𝐶𝐷) …..(3)
1
Since, 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐴𝐶
Therefore, 𝐴𝐵2 + 𝐵𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐶(𝐴𝐶)
𝐴𝐵2 + 𝐵𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐶 2
Hence, Pythagoras theorem is proved.
CHECKPOINT: Find the hypotenuse of a triangle whose lengths of two sides are 4 cm and 10
cm.
ANSWER: Given, two sides are a= 4 cm, and b = 10 cm

Using the Pythagoras theorem, 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 2 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 .
Hence, the hypotenuse of the triangle is 10.77 cm.
CHECKPOINT: If the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is 13 cm and one of the two sides is
5 cm, find the third side.
ANSWER: Given, Hypotenuse a= 13 cm, and one side b = 5 cm

Using the Pythagoras theorem, 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 2 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 .
Hence, the other side of the triangle is 12 cm.
VECTORS AND SCALARS:

SCALAR: Scalar refers to a quantity that is fully
described by its magnitude or size only, without
any direction.
- Scalars have magnitude but no direction.
- They can be represented by a single real
number (positive, negative, or zero).
- For example, mass, temperature, time,
energy, distance, and speed.
VECTOR: A vector is a quantity that has both Fig. (a) All three arrows have the same
magnitude and direction. magnitude and direction and thus represent the
- Vectors have both magnitude and direction. same displacement. (b) All three paths
- Vectors are often denoted with boldface connecting the two points correspond to the
letters (e.g., 𝒗) or with an arrow on top of the same displacement vector.
letter (e.g., 𝑣⃗).
- The magnitude of a vector 𝒗 is usually
denoted as |𝒗|.
- For example, displacement, velocity.
COMPONENT OF VECTORS
A component of a vector is the projection of the vector on an axis.
- It allows us to break down complex vectors into simpler parts, making it easier to analyze and
work with them in various applications.
2
In two-dimensional co-ordinate system,

- Any vector 𝑎⃗ can be broken into two components, namely,
𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 along x and y axes.
o 𝑎𝑥 is projection of the vector 𝑎⃗ along x-axis.
o 𝑎𝑦 is projection of the vector 𝑎⃗ along y-axis.
- A component of a vector has the same direction (along an
axis) as the vector.
- In Figure, 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 are both positive because extends in the
positive direction of both axes.
NOTE:
▪ To find the projection of a vector along an axis, we draw perpendicular lines from the two ends
of the vector to the axis, as shown.
▪ Figure shows the vector 𝑎⃗ is broken into two components, 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 .
▪ If the angle between the vector and its x -component be θ.
▪ The projection of a vector on an x axis is its x component, and similarly the projection on the y
axis is the y component.
▪ The process of finding the components of a vector is called resolving the vector.
Resolving the vector

Geometry can be used to find the components of the vector
𝑎⃗.
- If angle between the vector 𝑎⃗ and the x-axis is 𝜃.
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎
Therefore, 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎
Therefore, 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
where θ is the angle between vector and positive direction of x-axis, and a is the magnitude of vector
a⃗⃗.
NOTE:
▪ The vector and its components form a right-angled triangle as shown in Figure.
▪ The trigonometric ratios give the relation between magnitude of the vector and the components
of the vector.
▪ https://youtu.be/3KMNZSu77bk
𝑎𝑥
Vector can be written in ‘raw matrix’ or ‘column matrix’ form, 𝑎⃗ = (𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 ) = (
𝑎𝑦 )
3
Vector reconstruction from component

If the vector components are known, a vector can be reconstructed.
- By arranging those components head to tail.
- Complete a right triangle with the vector forming
the hypotenuse, from the tail of one component to
the head of the other component.
Magnitude of the vector can be calculated using the

Pythagorean Theorem in the right triangle with lengths
𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 ,
𝑎 = |𝑎⃗| = √𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑦
Direction of the vector, tan 𝜃 = = ; Thus 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑥
NOTE: If the 𝑥 and 𝑦 components of vector 𝑏⃗⃗ are known.

Here 𝑏𝑥 = 7 𝑚 and 𝑏𝑦 = −5 𝑚. Then,
The magnitude of vector 𝑏⃗⃗ is,
𝑏 = |𝑏⃗⃗| = √𝑏𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑦2 = √(7)2 + (−5)2 𝑚 = 8.6 𝑚
And the direction of the vector 𝑏⃗⃗ is,

𝑏𝑦 −5
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = −39.5° = 320.5°
𝑏𝑥 7
CHECKPOINT: In the figure, which of the indicated methods for combining the 𝑥 and 𝑦
components of vector 𝑎⃗ are proper to determine that vector?
ANSWER: [C]
CHECKPOINT: The magnitude of a vector ⃗F⃗ is 10 N and the

direction of the vector is 60° with the horizontal. Find the
components of the vector.
1
ANSWER: 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 60° = 10 × = 5 𝑁,
2
√3
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 60° = 10 × = 5√3 𝑁.
2
Therefore, the vector 𝐹⃗ is ⟨5, 5√3⟩.
4
PROBLEM: In an orienteering class, you have the goal of moving as far (straight-line distance)
from base camp as possible by making three straight-line moves. You may use the following
displacements in any order: (a) 𝑎⃗, 2.0 km due east (directly toward the east); (b) 𝑏⃗⃗, 2.0 km 30°
north of east (at an angle of 30° toward the north from due east); (c) 𝑐⃗, 1.0 km due west.
Alternatively, you may substitute either – 𝑏⃗⃗ for 𝑏⃗⃗ or −𝑐⃗ for 𝑐⃗. What is the greatest distance you
can be from base camp at the end of the third displacement?
ANSWER: Figure shows vectors 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗, −𝑏⃗⃗ and −𝑐⃗ .
Here, three vectors were organized connecting at a time in head-to-tail arrangements. Tail of the
first vector represents base camp, and the head of the third vector represents stopping point.
- The vector sum 𝑑⃗ extends from the tail of the first vector to the head of the third vector.
- Its magnitude 𝑑 is your distance from base camp.
Distance 𝑑 is greatest for a head-to-tail

arrangement of vectors 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗.
The order shown in Figure is for the vector
sum, 𝑑⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ + (−𝑐⃗).
According to the given scale in Figure, the
length 𝑑 of this vector sum is,
𝑑 = 4.8 𝑚
UNIT VECTORS
Unit vectors are vectors that have a magnitude of unity (exactly 1) and
are used to define directions in a coordinate system.
- They provide a way to describe the direction of a vector without

specifying its length.
- In three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate, unit vectors are labeled
as ̂i̇, ̂j̇, and k̂ along the positive directions of x, y, and z axes, where
hat (^) sign is used overhead to denote unit vectors.
Unit vector can be used to express other vectors, e.g.,

𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̇̂
𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̇̂
5
PROBLEM 03-01: What are (a) the x component and (b) the y component of a vector 𝑎⃗ in the xy
plane if its direction is 250° counterclockwise from the positive direction of the x axis and its
magnitude is 7.3 𝑚?
PROBLEM 03-03: The x component of vector 𝐴⃗ is −25.0 𝑚 and the y component is +40.0 𝑚. (a)
What is the magnitude of 𝐴⃗? (b) What is the angle between the direction of 𝐴⃗ and the positive
direction of x?
PROBLEM 03-05: A ship sets out to sail to a point 120 𝑘𝑚 due north. An unexpected storm blows
the ship to a point 100 𝑘𝑚 due east of its starting point. (a) How far and (b) in what direction must
it now sail to reach its original destination?
VECTOR SUM
The vector sum, also known as vector addition, is the
operation of combining two or more vectors to create a new
vector that represents their combined effect.
- In geometric terms, vector addition involves placing the
initial point of the second vector (𝑏⃗⃗) at the terminal point of
the first vector (𝑎⃗), and drawing a new vector from the
initial point of the first vector to the terminal point of the
second vector. Fig. (a) AC is the vector sum of
the vectors AB and BC. (b) The
- Sum of two vectors, 𝑠⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗
same vectors relabeled.
- The vector sum 𝑠⃗ is the vector that extends from the tail of
𝑎⃗ to the head of 𝑏⃗⃗.
NOTE: Suppose that, as in the vector diagram of Figure, a particle

moves from A to B and then later from B to C. We can represent its
overall displacement (no matter what its actual path) with two
successive displacement vectors, AB and BC. The net displacement of
these two displacements is a single displacement from A to C. We call
AC the vector sum (or resultant) of the vectors AB and BC. This sum is
not the usual algebraic sum.
- Note that the order is not important.
Properties of vector sum:
▪ The order of addition does not matter. It

follows commutative law.
𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗
Fig. Two vectors can be added in either order.
6
▪ For more than two vectors, we can group them in any order as we add them.
(𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗) + 𝑐⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + (𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗)
Fig. Three vectors can be grouped in any way as they are added.
VECTOR SUBTRACTION
Vector subtraction is the operation of finding the difference between two vectors.
Negative vector:
A negative vector is a vector that has the same magnitude as the
original vector but points in the opposite direction.
- For example, vector −𝑏⃗⃗ is a vector with the same magnitude
as 𝑏⃗⃗ but the opposite direction.
Vector subtraction:
Vector subtraction involves taking the negative of one of the vectors
and then adding it to the other vector using vector addition.
- The result is a new vector that represents the displacement or
difference between the two original vectors.
- The vector subtraction is nothing but adding the negative of
vector 𝑏⃗⃗ to the vector 𝑎⃗.
𝑎⃗ + (−𝑏⃗⃗) = 𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗
The following are the rules for subtracting vectors:

▪ It should be performed only between two vectors. Not
between vector and scalar quantities.
▪ Both vectors in the subtraction should represent the same
physical quantity.
CHECKPOINT: The magnitudes of displacements a⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗ b are 3 m and 4 m, respectively, and c⃗ =
a⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗
b. Considering various orientations of a⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗
b, what are (a) the maximum possible magnitude
for c⃗ and (b) the minimum possible magnitude?
7
ANSWER: The maximum magnitude of the combination of the displacement vectors and when
they are directed in the same direction is, |c⃗| = |a⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗
b|=7 m.
The maximum magnitude of the combination of the displacement vectors and when they are
directed in the opposite direction is, |c⃗| = |a⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗
b|=1 m.
ADDING VECTOR BY COMPONENTS

Adding vectors by components involves finding the sum of two or more vectors by adding their
respective horizontal and vertical (or x, y, z) components separately.
- This method is commonly used when working with vectors in Cartesian coordinates.
Vectors can be added by combining their corresponding components axis by axis.

if, 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗
where, 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘̂
Then each component of vector 𝑟⃗ must be the same as the corresponding component of (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗).
𝑟𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥
𝑟𝑦 = 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦
𝑟𝑧 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏𝑧
Therefore, 𝑟⃗ = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 )𝑖̇̂ + (𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 )𝑗̇̂ + (𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏𝑧 )𝑘̂ = 𝑟𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑟𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑟𝑧 𝑘̂
Since vector addition is commutative, meaning the order in which vectors addition is performed does
not matter. The result will be the same regardless.
QUESTION 03-11: In a game held within a three-dimensional maze, you must move your game
piece from start, at 𝑥𝑦𝑧 coordinates (0, 0, 0), to finish, at coordinates (−2 𝑐𝑚, 4 𝑐𝑚, −4 𝑐𝑚). The
game piece can undergo only the displacements (in centimeters) given below. If, along the way,
the game piece lands at coordinates (−5 𝑐𝑚, −1 𝑐𝑚, −1 𝑐𝑚) or (5 𝑐𝑚, 2 𝑐𝑚, −1 𝑐𝑚), you lose the
game. Which displacements and in what sequence will get your game piece to finish?
𝑝⃗ = −7𝑖̇̂ + 2𝑗̇̂ − 3𝑘̂ 𝑟⃗ = 2𝑖̇̂ − 3𝑗̇̂ + 2𝑘̂
𝑞⃗ = 2𝑖̇̂ − 𝑗̇̂ + 4𝑘̂ 𝑠⃗ = 3𝑖̇̂ + 5𝑗̇̂ − 3𝑘̂
ANSWER: To wind the displacements should follow the sequence of 𝑝⃗, 𝑠⃗, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟⃗.
Solution: 𝑝⃗ = −7𝑖̇̂ + 2𝑗̇̂ − 3𝑘̂ ; 𝑠⃗ = 3𝑖̇̂ + 5𝑗̇̂ − 3𝑘̂ ; 𝑟⃗ = 2𝑖̇̂ − 3𝑗̇̂ + 2𝑘̂
First, 𝑝⃗ = (−7𝑐𝑚, 2𝑐𝑚, −3𝑐𝑚)
Then, 𝑝⃗ + 𝑠⃗ = (−7 + 3, 2 + 5, −3 − 3) = (−4𝑐𝑚, 7𝑐𝑚, −6𝑐𝑚).
Finally, 𝑝⃗ + 𝑠⃗ + 𝑟⃗ = (−4 + 2, 7 − 3, −6 + 2) = (−2𝑐𝑚, 4𝑐𝑚, −4𝑐𝑚).
In this case, we can met the goal of the reaching the point (−2𝑐𝑚, 4𝑐𝑚, −4𝑐𝑚), without ever
landing on the points (−5𝑐𝑚, −1𝑐𝑚, −1𝑐𝑚) or (5𝑐𝑚, 2𝑐𝑚, −1𝑐𝑚).
8
PROBLEM 03-11: (a) In unit-vector notation, what is the sum 𝑎⃗ = (4.0 𝑚)𝑖̇̂ + (3.0 𝑚)𝑗̇̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ =
(−13.0 𝑚)𝑖̇̂ + (7.0 𝑚)𝑗̇̂? What are the (b) magnitude and (c) direction of 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗?
PROBLEM 03-14: You are to make four straight-line moves over a flat desert floor, starting at the
origin of an xy coordinate system and ending at the xy coordinates (−140 𝑚, 30 𝑚). The x
component and y component of your moves are the following, respectively, in meters: (20 and 60),
then (𝑏𝑥 and −70), then (−20 and 𝑐𝑦 ), then (−60 and −70). What are (a) component 𝑏𝑥 and (b)
component 𝑐𝑦 ? What are (c) the magnitude and (d) the angle (relative to the positive direction of
the x axis) of the overall displacement?
PROBLEM 03- 17: Three vectors 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ each have a magnitude of 50 𝑚 and lie in an xy plane.
Their directions relative to the positive direction of the x axis are 30°, 195° and 315°, respectively.
What are (a) the magnitude and (b) the angle of the vector 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗, and (c) the magnitude and
(d) the angle of 𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗? What are the (e) magnitude and (f) angle of a fourth vector 𝑑⃗ such that
(𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗) − (𝑐⃗ + 𝑑⃗) = 0?
PROBLEM 03-18: In the sum 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 𝐶⃗, vector 𝐴⃗ has a magnitude of 12.0 𝑚 and is angled 40.0°
counterclockwise from the +𝑥 direction, and vector 𝐶⃗ has a magnitude of 15.0 𝑚 and is angled
20.0° counterclockwise from the −𝑥 direction. What are (a) the magnitude and (b) the angle
⃗⃗ ?
(relative to +𝑥) of 𝐵
PROBLEM 03-20: An explorer is caught in a whiteout (in which the snowfall is so thick that the
ground cannot be distinguished from the sky) while returning to base camp. He was supposed to
travel due north for 5.6 𝑘𝑚, but when the snow clears, he discovers that he actually traveled 7.8 𝑘𝑚
at 50° north of due east. (a) How far and (b) in what direction must he now travel to reach base
camp?
9
MODULE 3: VECTORS
LECTURE 05
OUTLINE:
▪ Vector multiplication
▪ Scalar product
▪ Cross product
VECTOR MULTIPLICATION
There are two ways in which vectors can be multiplied,
▪ Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar
▪ Multiplying a Vector by a Vector
o Scalar product
o Cross product
MULTIPLYING A VECTOR BY A SCALAR

Multiplying a vector by a scalar is a fundamental operation in linear algebra, and it involves
multiplying each component of the vector by the scalar value.
- In mathematical notation, if 𝑣⃗ is a vector and 𝑛 is a scalar quantity, the result of multiplying the
vector by the scalar can be denoted as 𝑛𝑣⃗.
- If a vector 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂ with components (𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑧 ) is the multiplied with a scalar 𝑛,
it will result in a new vector 𝑤 ⃗⃗⃗ with components (𝑤𝑥 , 𝑤𝑦 , 𝑤𝑧 ), where each component is
obtained by multiplying the corresponding component of 𝑣⃗ by the scalar 𝑛.
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑛𝑣⃗ = 𝑛𝑣𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑛𝑣𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑛𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂ = 𝑤𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑤𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑤𝑧 𝑘̂
𝑤
- Scalar multiplication is an essential operation in linear transformations, where it scales a vector
without changing its direction.
- The scalar can be positive, negative, or zero, resulting in stretching, shrinking, or flipping the
vector, respectively.
Few examples,
- If 𝑣⃗ = [2, 4, 6] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = 3. Then 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑘𝑣⃗ = [(3 ∗ 2), (3 ∗ 4), (3 ∗ 6)] = [6, 12, 18].
- If 𝑣⃗ = [−1, 0, 1]𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = −2. Then 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑘𝑣⃗ = [(−2 ∗ −1), (−2 ∗ 0), (−2 ∗ 1)] = [2, 0, −2].
MULTIPLYING A VECTOR BY A VECTOR

Multiplying a vector by another vector can refer to two different operations in linear algebra, namely,
the dot product and the cross product.
1
Dot Product / Scalar Product:

The dot product, also known as a scalar product, is an operation in a linear algebra that refers to a
measure of how closely two vectors align, in terms of the directions they point.
- In other words, scalar product is the measure of similarity between two vectors.
- The result of the dot product is a scalar (a single number).
- The scalar (or dot) product of two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ cab be written as
𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗. And can be expressed as,
𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜙
where 𝑎 and 𝑏 is the magnitude of 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗, and 𝜙 is the angle
between the directions of 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗.
- If the vectors are expressed in terms of unit vectors 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, and 𝑘̂ along the 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 directions as
follows, like, 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘̂. Then the scalar product can
also be expressed by multiplying the 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 components of the one vector with the
corresponding 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 components of the second vector, and, then, adding together. Therefore,
𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗ = (𝑎𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂). (𝑏𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘̂) = (𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑏𝑧 )
Properties of Scalar Product:

- The dot product of vectors is a scalar quantity.
- If the angle (𝜙) between two vectors is 0°, the component of one vector along the other is
maximum, and so also is the dot product of the vectors.
- If, the angle (𝜙) between two vectors is 90°, the component of one vector along the other is zero,
and so is the dot product.
- If the angle (𝜙) between two vectors is 180°, the component of one vector along the other is
minimum, and so also is the dot product of the vectors.
- The commutative law applies to a scalar product, so we can write, 𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗. 𝑎⃗
Application of Scalar Product:

Scalar product is used to determine the projection of a vector onto another vector. Geometrically, the
scalar product is useful for finding the direction between arbitrary vectors in space. Dot product of
two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗, having length of 1 unit, e.g., |𝑎⃗| = |𝑏⃗⃗| = 1, can be given as,
- If angle between them is zero then, 𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝑏 cos 0° = 𝑎𝑏 = 1.
- If these two vectors work perpendicular of each other then 𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝑏 cos 90° = 0.
- When the vectors act in opposite direction then 𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝑏 cos 180° = −𝑎𝑏 = −1.
Examples of Scalar Product:

➢ To calculate work done by the force. If a block is
pulled at an angle along the fiction of the surface, that
object will slide along the floor in the direction of 𝑑.
The closer the force vector is toward direction of
motion, the larger the change in kinetic energy become
over some distance.
𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑 = ∆𝑘𝐸 = 𝐹𝑑 cos 𝜃
2
➢ Dot product can be used to calculate factors of solar

energy absorbed by the solar cell, based on the solar
cell installation angle and the position of the sun.
If the angle between the normal 𝑛̂ to the solar cell and
the incident angle of sun ray 𝑟⃗ is 𝜃. Then efficiency
will be maximum when angle 𝜃 = 0.
Cross Product / Vector Product:

The cross product, also known as a vector product, is an operation in a linear algebra, which is defined
as the resultant third vector that is perpendicular to the plane containing the original two vectors.
- The cross product of two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ is denoted by 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗.
- The result of the cross product is a vector.
- It gives the orientation of the plane described by two vectors in three-
dimensional space.
- The direction of the resultant vector is given by the right-hand rule,
which is perpendicular to the plane that contains a⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗
b.
- The magnitude of the resultant cross product vector is equals the
area of a parallelogram, with the product of magnitudes of original
vectors and 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 of angle (θ) between original vectors.
|𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗| = 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜃
- If the vectors are expressed in terms of unit vectors 𝑖̇̂, 𝑗̇̂, and 𝑘̂ in the x, y, and z directions,
then the vector product can be expressed as,
𝑖̇̂ 𝑗̇̂ 𝑘̂
𝑐⃗ = 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = [𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 ] = 𝑖̇̂(𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑧 − 𝑎𝑧 𝑏𝑦 ) − 𝑗̇̂(𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑧 − 𝑎𝑧 𝑏𝑥 ) + 𝑘̂(𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑦 − 𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑥 )
𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑧
Then the magnitude of the resultant vector, |𝑐⃗| = √𝑐𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑦2 + 𝑐𝑧2
where, cx = ay bz − az by , cy = ax bz − az bx and cz = ax by − ay bx
- The resultant of cross product (blue line) is,

o Zero in length when vectors a⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗ b point in the same, or
opposite, direction.
o Reaches maximum length when vectors a⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗ b are at right
angles.
Properties of vector product:

- The cross product of two vectors is a vector quantity.
- The commutative law does not apply to a vector product, so we can write
(𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗) ≠ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑎⃗) 𝑜𝑟 (𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗) = −(𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑎⃗)
3
Finding unit vector perpendicular to two given vectors:

- If 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are two vectors. Then, 𝑐⃗ = 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗
- The unit vector perpendicular to both a⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗
b can be obtained by dividing cross product of those
two vectors by its magnitude.
𝑐⃗ 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗
𝑐̂ = = [ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, |𝑐⃗| = √𝑐𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑦2 + 𝑐𝑧2 ]
|𝑐⃗| |𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗|
Application of vector product:

The cross product is used to calculate torque, which is a rotational force acting on an object. Torque
calculated using the cross product of the force vector and the position vector from the axis of rotation
to the point of application of the force.
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 (𝜏) = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ = |𝑟⃗||𝐹⃗ | sin 𝜃
|𝑟⃗| → magnitude of position vector
|𝐹⃗ | → magnitude of force vector
Torque is acting on the center of mass and coming out of the
page. [Here, right hand thumb rule is used to decide the
direction of torque. Index finger points towards 𝑟⃗ and middle
finger points towards 𝐹⃗ and the thumb points towards the
resultant vector.]
NOTE:
Moment: The moment of a force, also known as torque, is a concept in physics and mechanics
that describes the rotational effect of a force about a particular point or axis. It measures the
tendency of a force to cause an object to rotate.
- A moment is a mathematical expression involving the product of a distance and physical
quantity.
- Moments are usually defined with respect to a fixed reference point and refer to physical
quantities located some distance from the reference point.
𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗
|𝜏⃗| = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃
CHECKPOINT: Find a unit vector perpendicular to both 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗. Where 𝑎⃗ = 2𝑖̇̂ + 4𝑗̇̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ =
𝑖̇̂ + 𝑗̇̂.
ANSWER: c⃗ is the perpendicular to both a⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗ b.
𝑖̇̂ 𝑗̇̂ 𝑘̂
𝑐⃗ = 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = [2 4 0] = −2𝑘̂
1 1 0
|𝑐⃗| = √0 + 02 + (−2)2 = 2
2
𝑐⃗ −2𝑘̂
𝑐̂ = = = −𝑘̂
|𝑐⃗| 2
4
PROBLEM 03-33: For the vectors in Figure, with 𝑎 = 4, 𝑏 = 3,

and 𝑐 = 5, what are (a) the magnitude and (b) the direction of 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗,
(c) the magnitude and (d) the direction of 𝑎⃗ × 𝑐⃗, and (e) the
magnitude and (f) the direction of 𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗? (The z axis is not shown).
PROBLEM 03-34: Two vector are presented as 𝑎⃗ = 3.0𝑖̇̂ + 5.0𝑗̇̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 2.0𝑖̇̂ + 4.0𝑗̇̂. Find (a)
𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗, (b) 𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗, (c) (a) (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗). 𝑏⃗⃗, and (d) the component of 𝑎⃗ along the direction of 𝑏⃗⃗.
PROBLEM 03-35: Two vectors, 𝑟⃗ and 𝑠⃗, lie in the xy plane. Their magnitudes are 4.50 and 7.30
units, respectively, and their directions are 320° and 85.0°, respectively, as measured
counterclockwise from the positive x axis. What are the values of (a) 𝑟⃗. 𝑠⃗ and (b) 𝑟⃗ × 𝑠⃗?
PROBLEM 03-37: Three vectors are given by 𝑎⃗ = 3.0 𝑖̇̂ + 3.0 𝑗̇̂ − 2.0 𝑘̂, 𝑏⃗⃗ = −1.0 𝑖̇̂ − 4.0 𝑗̇̂ +
2.0 𝑘̂, and 𝑐⃗ = 2.0 𝑖̇̂ + 2.0 𝑗̇̂ + 1.0 𝑘̂. Find (a) 𝑎⃗. (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗), (a) 𝑎⃗. (𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗), and (c) 𝑎⃗ × (𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗)?
PROBLEM 03-38: For the following three vectors, what is 3𝐶⃗ ∙ (2𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗)?
𝐴⃗ = 2.00𝑖̇̂ + 3.00𝑗̇̂ − 4.00𝑘̂ ; 𝐵
⃗⃗ = −3.00𝑖̇̂ + 4.00𝑗̇̂ + 2.00𝑘̂ ; 𝐶⃗ = 7.00𝑖̇̂ − 8.00𝑗̇̂
PROBLEM 03-39: Vector ⃗A⃗ has magnitude of 6.00 units, vector ⃗B⃗ has magnitude of 7.00 units,
and ⃗A⃗. ⃗B⃗ has value of 14.0. What is the angle between the directions of ⃗A⃗ and ⃗B⃗?
PROBLEM 03-40: Displacement 𝑑⃗1 is in the 𝑦𝑧 plane 63.0° from the positive direction of the 𝑦
axis, has a positive 𝑧 component, and has a magnitude of 4.50 𝑚. Displacement 𝑑⃗2 is in the 𝑥𝑧
plane 30.0° from the positive direction of the 𝑥 axis, has a positive 𝑧 component, and has magnitude
1.40 𝑚. What are (a) 𝑑⃗1 . 𝑑⃗2 , (b) 𝑑⃗1 × 𝑑⃗2 , and (c) the angle between 𝑑⃗1 and 𝑑⃗2 ?
PROBLEM 03-42: In a meeting of mimes, mime 1 goes through a displacement 𝑑⃗1 = (4.0 𝑚)𝑖̇̂ +
(5.0 𝑚)𝑗̇̂ and mime 2 goes through a displacement 𝑑⃗2 = (−3.0 𝑚)𝑖̇̂ + (4.0 𝑚)𝑗̇̂. What are (a)
𝑑⃗1 × 𝑑⃗2 , (b) 𝑑⃗1 ∙ 𝑑⃗2 , (c) (𝑑⃗1 + 𝑑⃗2 ) ∙ 𝑑⃗2 , and (d) the component of 𝑑⃗1 along the direction of 𝑑⃗2 ?
5
PHY-107 Module 4: Motion in two and three dimensions
MODULE 4: MOTION IN TWO AND THREE

DIMENSIONS
LECTURE 06
OUTLINE:
▪ Motion in Two and Three dimensions
▪ Position, displacement, and acceleration vectors
▪ Average and instantaneous quantities
▪ Free fall
POSITION AND DISPLACEMENT

Position Vector:
A position vector refers to the location of a point in space
relative to a fixed reference point, known as the origin.
- The location of an object in space is specified by a position
vector, 𝑟⃗.
- The position, 𝑟⃗(𝑡), is a function of time.
- In a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), the position vector of a point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) with
respect to the origin 𝑂 (0, 0, 0) is given by,
𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̇̂ + 𝑦𝑗̇̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂
𝑟⃗ = (−3𝑚)𝑖̇̂ + (2𝑚)𝑗̇̂ + (5𝑚)𝑘̂
Displacement:
Displacement is defined as the change of position of an object
from the initial position (starting point) to the final position
(endpoint).
- Displacement measures the change in position of an object
relative to a reference point.
- It is a vector quantity.
- Displacement is represented by the symbol 𝛥𝑟⃗. And
expressed as,
∆𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗2 − 𝑟⃗1
- Using the unit-vector notation, we can rewrite this displacement as,
∆𝑟⃗ = (𝑥2 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑦2 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑧2 𝑘̂ ) − (𝑥1 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑦1 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑧1 𝑘̂)
∆𝑟⃗ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̇̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̇̂ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘̂
∆𝑟⃗ = ∆𝑥𝑖̇̂ + ∆𝑦𝑗̇̂ + ∆𝑧𝑘̂
1
Distance:
Distance is defined as the total path traveled by an object regardless of its direction of motion.
- Distance measure how much ground an object has covered despite its starting or ending point.
- It is a scalar quantity in physics.
PROBLEM: A rabbit runs across a parking lot on which a set of coordinate axes has, strangely
enough, been drawn. The coordinates (meters) of the rabbit’s position as functions of time t
(seconds) are given by,
x = −0.31 t 2 + 7.2 t + 28
and y = 0.22 t 2 − 9.1 t + 30
a) At t = 15 s, what is the rabbit’s position vector r⃗ in unit vector notation and in magnitude-
angle notation?
b) Graph the rabbit’s path for t = 0 to t = 25 s.
c) Determine the rabbit’s displacement ∆r over the interval t = 10 s to t = 20 s.
ANSWER: (a) Rabit’s position can be given by,
r⃗(t) = x(t)i̇̂ + y(t)j̇̂
At 𝑡 = 15 𝑠, the scalar components are
𝑥 = −0.31 (15)2 + 7.2 (15) + 28 = 66 𝑚
𝑦 = 0.22 (15)2 − 9.1(15) + 30 = −57 𝑚
Therefore, r⃗(15 s) = (66 m)i̇̂ − (57 m)j̇̂
𝑟 = |𝑟⃗| = √(66 𝑚)2 + (−57 𝑚)2 = 87 𝑚
−57 𝑚
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = −41° = 319°
66 𝑚
(b) The parameters can be calculated and plot the

rabbit’s position.
𝑥(𝑡) = −0.31 𝑡 2 + 7.2 𝑡 + 28
𝑦(𝑡) = 0.22 𝑡 2 − 9.1 𝑡 + 30
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒕) 𝒙(𝒕) 𝒚(𝒕)

0𝑠 28 m 30 m
5𝑠 56.25 m -10 m
10 𝑠 69 m -39 m
15 𝑠 66.25 m -57 m Fig: Plot: y vs x
20 𝑠 48 m -64 m
25 𝑠 14.25 m -60 m
2
(c) We know, r⃗(10 s) = (69 m)i̇̂ − (39 m)j̇̂ and r⃗(20 s) = (48 m)i̇̂ − (64 m)j̇̂
∆𝑟⃗ = r⃗(20 s) − r⃗(10 s) = ((69 m)i̇̂ − (39 m)j̇̂) − ((48 m)i̇̂ − (64 m)j̇̂ )
= (69 m − 48 𝑚)i̇̂ + (−64 m − (−39 m))j̇̂ = (−21 m)i̇̂ + (−25 m)j̇̂
𝑟 = |𝑟⃗| = √(−21 𝑚)2 + (−25 𝑚)2 = 33 𝑚

−25 𝑚
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = 230°
−21 𝑚
AVERAGE VELOCITY AND INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY

⃗⃗𝒂𝒗𝒈 ):
Average Velocity (𝒗
Average velocity is defined as the rate at which an object changes its position over a a specific time
interval.
- It the ratio of overall displacement to corresponding time interval to achieve that displacement.
- Velocity is a vector quantity. Thus, it has both magnitude and direction.
- If a particle undergoes a displacement ∆𝑟⃗ in time interval ∆𝑡, its average velocity for that time
interval is
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟⃗2 − 𝑟⃗1 ∆𝑟⃗ ∆𝑥𝑖̇̂ + ∆𝑦𝑗̇̂ + ∆𝑧𝑘̂ ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧
𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = = = 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑘̂
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
- The direction of 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 is in the same direction of displacement (Δ𝑟⃗).
Example: If a particle moves through displacement ∆𝑟⃗ = (12 𝑚)𝑖̇̂ + (3.0 𝑚)𝑘̂ in 2.0 s, then its
average velocity during that move is,
(12 𝑚)𝑖̇̂ + (3.0 𝑚)𝑘̂
𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = (6.0 𝑚/𝑠)𝑖̇̂ + (1.5 𝑚/𝑠)𝑘̂
2.0 𝑠
Average Speed (𝒔𝒂𝒗𝒈 ):

Average speed is a measure of how fast an object travels over a certain distance during a specific time
interval.
- It refers to the overall distance traveled by the object divided by the total time taken to cover that
distance.
- It is a scalar quantity.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
- Therefore, 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑔 = |𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 | = .
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
3
x = −0.31 t 2 + 7.2 t + 28
and y = 0.22 t 2 − 9.1 t + 30
d) Determine the rabbit’s average velocity v
⃗⃗avg over
the interval t = 10 s to t = 20 s.
ANSWER: (d) We know,
∆𝑟⃗ = −(21 m)i̇̂ − (25 m)j̇̂
And ∆𝑡 = 20 𝑠 − 10 𝑠 = 10 𝑠
∆𝑟⃗
𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = (−2.1 𝑚/𝑠)i̇̂ + (−2.5 𝑚/𝑠)j̇̂
∆𝑡
|𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 | = √(−2.1𝑚/𝑠)2 + (−2.5𝑚/𝑠)2
|𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 | = 3.3𝑚/𝑠
⃗⃗):
Instantaneous Velocity (𝒗
Instantaneous velocity refers to the velocity of an object at a specific instant in time. It is the rate of
change of the position (𝑟⃗) of the object at a particular moment/instant in time (𝑡), considering the
direction of motion.
- It is denoted as 𝑣⃗(𝑡).
- Instantaneous velocity,
∆𝒓⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑
𝑣⃗ = lim = = (𝑥𝑖̇̂ + 𝑦𝑗̇̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂)
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑣⃗ = 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑘̂ = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
- In three dimensions, 𝑣⃗ is always tangent to the particle’s path.
- As the time interval approaches zero, the displacement also
approaches zero. But the limit of the ratio of displacement to
time is non-zero and is called instantaneous velocity.
NOTE: When the velocity of a particle is constant (acceleration is zero), the instantaneous
velocity (𝑣⃗) average velocity (𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) are same.
⃗⃗(𝒕)|):
Instantaneous Speed (|𝒗
Instantaneous speed refers to the magnitude of the velocity of an object at a specific moment in time.
It represents how fast an object is moving at an exact instant. Therefore, 𝑠 = |𝑣⃗|.
4
- It represents how fast an object is moving at an exact point in time, disregarding the direction of
motion.
- Speed is the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity 𝑣⃗(𝑡).
- Speed, |𝑣⃗(𝑡)| = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑧2
- Speed is always ≥ 0
EXAMPLE: If the displacement of the particle varies with respect to time and is given as (6𝑡 2 +
2𝑡 + 4) 𝑚, the instantaneous velocity can be found out at any given time by:
∆𝑟⃗ = (6𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 4) 𝑚
∆𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑
𝑣⃗ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = = (6𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 4) = 12𝑡 + 2
So, the instantaneous velocity at 𝑡 = 5 𝑠,
Instantaneous velocity, 𝑣⃗(𝑡 = 5 𝑠) = (12 × 5 + 2)𝑚/𝑠 = 62 𝑚/𝑠
Let us calculate the average velocity now for 5 seconds now.
Displacement ∆𝑟⃗ = ((6×25) + (2×5) + 4) = 164 m
∆𝑟⃗ 164 𝑚
Average velocity, 𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 32.8 𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑡 5𝑠
x = −0.31 t 2 + 7.2 t + 28 and y = 0.22 t 2 − 9.1 t + 30
e) Find the velocity v
⃗⃗ at time t = 15 s for the rabbit.
ANSWER: (e) Given,
𝑥 = −0.31 𝑡 2 + 7.2 𝑡 + 28
and 𝑦 = 0.22 𝑡 2 − 9.1 𝑡 + 30
▪ ⃗⃗ is tangent to the rabbit’s path at any instant.
v
▪ Determine v
⃗⃗ at t = 15 s.
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡 = − 0.62𝑡 + 7.2
𝑣𝑦 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 = 0.44𝑡 − 9.1
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡 = 15𝑠) = − 0.62(15) + 7.2 = −2.1 𝑚/𝑠

𝑣𝑦 (𝑡 = 15𝑠) = 0.44(15) − 9.1 = −2.5 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 2.5𝑚
𝑣⃗(15) = (−2.1 ) î + (− )ĵ
𝑠 𝑠
|𝑣⃗(15)| = 3.3 𝑚/𝑠
−2.5
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 50° = 180° + 50° = 230°
−2.1
5
AVERAGE ACCELERATION & INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION

⃗⃗𝒂𝒗𝒈 ):
Average Acceleration (𝒂
Average acceleration, (𝑎⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) refers to the rate of change of velocity of the object for corresponding
time interval, ∆𝑡.
𝑣⃗2 − 𝑣⃗1 ∆𝑣⃗ ∆𝑣𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + ∆𝑣𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + ∆𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂ ∆𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑣𝑦 ∆𝑣𝑧
𝑎⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = = 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑘̂
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
⃗⃗)
Instantaneous Acceleration (𝒂
The instantaneous rate of change of the objects
velocity (𝑣⃗) at a specific moment in time (𝑡) is
known as instantaneous acceleration.
▪ It is denoted as 𝑎⃗(𝑡).
▪ Instantaneous acceleration,
∆𝑣⃗ 𝑑𝑣⃗ 𝑑
𝑎⃗ = lim = = (𝑣𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂)
𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑣𝑧
𝑎⃗ = 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑘̂
𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂
▪ If the velocity changes in either magnitude
or direction (or both), the particle must have
an acceleration.
x = −0.31 t 2 + 7.2 t + 28
and y = 0.22 t 2 − 9.1 t + 30
f) Find the acceleration a⃗⃗ at time t = 15 s for the rabbit.
ANSWER: (f) Given,
𝑥 = −0.31 𝑡 2 + 7.2 𝑡 + 28
and 𝑦 = 0.22 𝑡 2 − 9.1 𝑡 + 30
Therefore,
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡 = − 0.62𝑡 + 7.2
𝑣𝑦 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 = 0.44𝑡 − 9.1
Determine 𝑎⃗ at, 𝑡 = 15 𝑠.
𝑎𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑣𝑥 /𝑑𝑡 = − 0.62𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑎𝑦 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑣𝑦 /𝑑𝑡 = 0.44𝑚/𝑠 2
6
𝑎⃗(15) = (−0.62 𝑚/𝑠 2 )î + (0.44 𝑚/𝑠 2 )ĵ

𝑚
|𝑎⃗(15)| = 0.76 2
𝑠
0.44
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = −35.36° = 144.64°
−0.62
PROBLEM 04-16: The vector v ⃗⃗ of a particle moving in the 𝑥𝑦 plane is given by v ⃗⃗ = (6.0t −
2 ̂ ̂
4.0t )i̇ + 8.0j̇ with v
⃗⃗ in meters per second and t (> 0) in seconds. (a) What is the acceleration
when t = 3.0 s? (b) When (if ever) is the acceleration zero? (c) When (if ever) is the velocity zero?
(d) When (if ever) does the speed equal 10 𝑚/𝑠?
PROBLEM 04-19: The acceleration of a particle moving only on a horizontal 𝑥𝑦 plane is given
by 𝑎⃗ = 3𝑡𝑖̇̂ + 4𝑡𝑗̇̂, where 𝑎⃗ is in meters per second squared and 𝑡 is in seconds. At 𝑡 = 0, the
position vector 𝑟⃗ = (20.0 𝑚)𝑖̇̂ + (40.0)𝑗̇̂, locates the particle, which then has the velocity vector
𝑣⃗ = (5.00 𝑚/𝑠)𝑖̇̂ + (2.00 𝑚/𝑠)𝑗̇̂. At 𝑡 = 4.00 𝑠, what are (a) its position vector in unit-vector
notation and (b) the angle between its direction of travel and the positive direction of the 𝑥 axis?
MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION

If the velocity of the particle changes at a constant rate, then this rate is called the constant
acceleration.
- When the two-dimensional motion has a constant acceleration, a series of equations can be
developed that describe the motion.
- These equations will be similar to those of one-dimensional kinematics. Motion in two dimensions
can be modeled as two independent motions in each of the two perpendicular directions associated
with the x and y axes. Any influence in the y direction does not affect the motion in the x direction.
Equations for constant acceleration Equations for Free-Fall Acceleration

𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑣0 − 𝑔𝑡
1 (𝑣0 + 𝑣)
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = (𝑣0 + 𝑣)𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = .𝑡
2 2
1 1
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 2
2 2
𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 2 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) 𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 2 − 2𝑔(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
1 1
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2 2
7
Free-Fall Acceleration Equations:

Free fall acceleration is the acceleration experienced by an object when it is in a state of free fall
under the influence of gravity, with no other forces significantly affecting its motion except for air
resistance.
- In a vacuum or in the absence of significant air resistance, free fall acceleration is primarily due
to the gravitational force acting on the object. Its magnitude is represented by 𝑔.
- Since, +𝑦-axis refers to positive direction vertically, the free-fall acceleration due to gravity near
Earth’s surface is, 𝑎 = − 𝑔 = − 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 . And the equation of motions take the forms
presented in the table above.
NOTE: For free fall acceleration,

- While an object is thrown upwards, use acceleration 𝑎 = −𝑔 in the formula, as the object will
deaccelerate over time.
- When an object is falling downwards with gravity, still use acceleration 𝑎 = −𝑔 in the formula,
since y-axis upward refers to positive direction and y-axis downward refers to negative
direction.
8
MODULE 4: MOTION IN TWO AND THREE

DIMENSIONS
LECTURE 07
OUTLINE:
▪ Projectile motion
▪ Uniform circular motion
▪ Relative motion
PROJECTILE MOTION
Projectile motion refers to the path followed by an object (the projectile) projected into the air and
subject only to the force of gravity.
- This motion occurs in two dimensions, typically in the vertical and horizontal planes.
- A projectile launched angle 𝜃0 is measured relative to the horizontal x axis.
- The vertical and horizontal motions of the projectile are independent.
- For projectile motion:
▪ Horizontal acceleration is zero. 𝑎𝑥 = 0
o Thus, horizontal velocity remains constant. Thus, 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
▪ Vertical acceleration is constant. 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑔 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (Downward along a 𝑦 axis).
Main Assumptions of the projectile motion:

- Horizontal and vertical motion are independent of each other.
- Air resistance (e.g., drag) is zero.
- No external force acts on the projectile apart from gravity.
▪ Gravitational acceleration (𝑔) is constant.
Properties of the of the projectile motion:

- Motion in one direction does not affect the
motion in the other direction.
- Horizontal component of motion is constant, and
not affected by gravity.
- Vertical component of motion is influenced by
gravity, resulting in a parabolic trajectory.
▪ The vertical velocity changes as the object
goes up and comes down.
1
▪ Maximum vertical distance reached by the projectile occurs at the midpoint of the trajectory.
▪ Vertical velocity is zero at the top.
Example:
The horizontal and vertical motions are independent of each other.
Fig. One ball is moving horizontally while it is falling has

Fig. The projectile can fall at the same rate. The point of
no effect on its vertical motion.
intersection depends on the launch velocity angle and
speed.
Equations of Projectile Motion:

▪ Horizontal motion: 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 = (𝑣0 cos 𝜃0 )𝑡 [since, 𝑎 = 0]
▪ Vertical motion: y − 𝑦0 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 − 12𝑔𝑡 2 = (𝑣0 sin 𝜃0 )𝑡 − 12𝑔𝑡 2
▪ Trajectory Equation: objects follow a parabolic path [considering 𝑥0 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦0 = 0 for
simplicity],
𝑔𝑥 2
𝑦 = (tan 𝜃0 )𝑥 −
2(𝑣0 cos 𝜃0 )2
▪ Horizontal Range: It is defined as the horizontal distance the projectile has traveled when it
returns to its initial height (the height at which it is launched). Therefore, 𝑅 = Δ𝑥 only when
Δ𝑦 = 0.
𝑅 = ∆𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = (𝑣0 cos 𝜃0 ) 𝑡
1
And ∆𝑦 = 0 = (𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 ) 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
2𝑣02 𝑣02
Therefore, 𝑅 = . sin 𝜃0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃0 = sin 2𝜃0
𝑔 𝑔
Question: What launch angle of the projectile gives maximum horizontal range?
ANSWER: The horizontal range is maximum when sin 2𝜃0 = 1. Therefore, 𝜃 = 45°.
2
PROBLEM: In Fig., a rescue plane flies at 198 𝑘𝑚/ℎ (=

55.0 𝑚/𝑠) and constant height ℎ = 500 𝑚 toward a point
directly over a victim, where a rescue capsule is to land.
(a) What should be the angle 𝜙 of the pilot’s line of sight to
the victim when the capsule release is made?
(b) As the capsule reaches the water, what is its velocity 𝑣⃗?
𝑥
ANSWER: (a) From figure, we get 𝜙 = tan−1 … … … (1)
ℎ
𝑥 → 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑚 and ℎ → 500 𝑚

Given that, v0 = 55 m/s, angle θ0 = 0° and 𝑥0 = 0 [since origin is placed at the point of release.]
[As capsule is released and not shot from the plane, its initial velocity is equal to the plane’s
velocity relative to the positive direction of the x axis.]
1
The vertical motion, 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = (𝑣0 sin 𝜃0 )𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
Vertical displacement of the capsule, 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = −ℎ = −500 𝑚 (the negative value indicates that
the capsule moves downward). So,
1
−500 𝑚 = (55 𝑚/𝑠)(sin 0°)𝑡 − (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )𝑡 2
2
𝑡 = 10.1 𝑠
Distance, 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = (𝑣0 cos 𝜃0 )𝑡 … … … (2)
Here, 𝑥0 = 0 because the origin is placed at the point of release. Initial velocity has magnitude
𝑣0 = 55 𝑚/𝑠 and angle 𝜃0 = 0° (measured relative along the positive x axis direction).
𝑚
Using that value in equation yields, 𝑥 − 0 = (55 ) (cos 0°) (10.1 𝑠)
𝑠
⟹ 𝑥 = 555.5 𝑚
555.5 𝑚
Pilot’s sight of angle, 𝜙 = tan−1 = 48°
500 𝑚
(b) The horizontal and vertical components of the capsule’s velocity are independent.
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃0 [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛]
Component 𝑣𝑦 changes from its initial value 𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃0 because of a vertical acceleration.
When the capsule reaches the water, 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃0 = (55.0 𝑚/𝑠)(cos 0°) = 55.0 𝑚/𝑠.
Using capsule’s time of fall 𝑡 = 10.1 𝑠, we get,

𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃0 − 𝑔𝑡 = (55.0 𝑚/𝑠)(sin 0°) − (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(10.1 𝑠) = −99 𝑚/𝑠
Thus, at the water, 𝑣⃗ = (55 𝑚/𝑠)𝑖̇̂ − (99 𝑚/𝑠)𝑗̇̂
𝑚 2 𝑚 2
The magnitude, 𝑣 = |𝑣⃗| = √(55 ) + (−99 ) = 113 𝑚/𝑠
𝑠 𝑠
−99
And the angle, 𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = −60.9°
55
3
PROBLEM 04-23: A projectile is fired horizontally from a gun that is 45.0 m above flat ground,
emerging from the gun with a speed of 250 m/s.
(a) How long does the projectile remain in the air?
(b) At what horizontal distance from the firing point does it strike the ground?
(c) What is the magnitude of the vertical component of its velocity as it strikes the ground?
PROBLEM 04-25: The current world-record motorcycle jump is 77.0 𝑚, set by Jason Renie.
Assume that he left the take-off ramp at 12.0° to the horizontal and that the take-off and landing
heights are the same. Neglecting air drag, determine his take-off speed.
PROBLEM 04-32: You throw a ball toward a wall at speed

25.0 m/s and at angle θ0 = 40.0° above the horizontal
(Figure). The wall is distance d = 22.0 m from the release
point of the ball.
(a) How far above the release point does the ball hit the wall?
(b) What are the horizontal components of its velocity as it hits
the wall?
(c) What are the vertical components of its velocity as it hits the wall?
(d) When it hits, has it passed the highest point on its trajectory?
PROBLEM 04-50: Two seconds after being projected from ground level, a projectile is displaced
40 𝑚 horizontally and 53 𝑚 vertically above its launch point. What are the (a) horizontal and (b)
vertical components of the initial velocity of the projectile? (c) At the instant the projectile achieves
its maximum height above ground level, how far is it displaced horizontally from the launch point?
PROBLEM 04-53: In Figure, a baseball is hit at a

height ℎ = 1.00 𝑚 and then caught at the same
height. It travels alongside a wall, moving up past
the top of the wall 1.00 𝑠 after it is hit and then
down past the top of the wall 4.00 𝑠 later, at
distance 𝐷 = 50.0 𝑚 farther along the wall.
(a) What horizontal distance is traveled by the ball from hit to catch? What are the (b) magnitude
and (c) angle (relative to the horizontal) of the ball’s velocity just after being hit? (d) How high is
the wall?
Question: Can an object accelerate if it's moving with constant speed?
ANSWER: Yes. Changes in the direction of motion of an object even if the object is maintaining
a constant speed still count as acceleration.
4
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

A particle is in uniform circular motion if it travels around a circle
or a circular arc at constant (uniform) speed.
o Speed remains constant, covering equal angles in equal time
intervals.
o Instantaneous acceleration of the particle keeps changing, as
the velocity changes due to continuous change in direction.
o Velocity vector is always tangent to the circle in the direction
of motion.
Fig. Relationship between velocity
and acceleration.
- Direction of acceleration for the uniform circular motion is always directed radially inward. As
the magnitude of the velocity remain constant, but direction of motion keep on changing. Thus,
the acceleration vector always points toward the center [This can be observes by drawing initial
velocity and final velocity vector].
- Acceleration associated with uniform circular motion is called a centripetal (meaning “center
seeking”) acceleration.
- The magnitude of this acceleration is given by,
v2
a = |a⃗⃗| =
𝑟
where 𝑟 is the radius of the circle and v (= |v
⃗⃗| = ∆s/∆t) is the speed of the particle.
- During acceleration at constant speed, particle travels the circumference of the circle in time,
2πr
T=
v
where 𝑇 is called the period of revolution, or the period of motion. It is, in general, the time for a
particle to go around a closed path exactly once.
Proof of equation for uniform circular motion:

Figure shows the magnitude and direction of the acceleration for uniform circular motion. The particle
𝑝 moves at constant speed 𝑣 around a circle of radius 𝑟. As presented, 𝑝 has coordinates 𝑥𝑝 and 𝑦𝑝 .
Fig. Particle 𝑝 moves in counterclockwise uniform circular motion. (a) Its position and velocity 𝑣⃗ at a certain instant. (b)
Velocity 𝑣⃗. (c) Acceleration 𝑎⃗.
5
The velocity of a moving particle is always tangent to the path of the particle at that instant in time.
Thus, 𝑣⃗ is perpendicular to a radius 𝑟 drawn to the particle’s position (Fig. a). And the angle 𝜃 that 𝑣⃗
makes with a vertical at 𝑝, is equals to the angle 𝜃 that radius 𝑟 makes with the 𝑥 axis.
Components of 𝑣⃗ along corresponding axes are shown in Fig. b. Thus, the velocity 𝑣⃗ can be write as,
𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̇̂ = (−𝑣 sin 𝜃)𝑖̇̂ + (𝑣 cos 𝜃)𝑗̇̂ … … … (1)
Using the right triangle in Fig. a, we get, sin 𝜃 = 𝑦𝑝 /𝑟 and cos 𝜃 = 𝑥𝑝 /𝑟. So, equation (1) become,
𝑣 𝑣
𝑣⃗ = (− 𝑦𝑝 ) 𝑖̇̂ + ( 𝑥𝑝 ) 𝑗̇̂ … … … (2)
𝑟 𝑟
Noting that speed |𝑣⃗| and radius 𝑟 do not change with time, the acceleration 𝑎⃗ of particle 𝑝 can be
obtained by,
𝑑𝑣⃗ 𝑣 𝑑𝑦𝑝 𝑣 𝑑𝑥𝑝
𝑎⃗ = = (− . ) 𝑖̇̂ + ( . ) 𝑗̇̂ … … … (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
Here, 𝑝 = 𝑣𝑦 refers to the rate of change of position along y-axis and thus is the velocity component
𝑑𝑡
along vertical axis.
𝑑𝑥
Similarly, 𝑝 = 𝑣𝑥 being the rate of change of position along x-axis and thus represents the velocity
𝑑𝑡
component along horizontal axis.
Now, from Fig. b, we find, 𝑣𝑥 = −𝑣 sin 𝜃 and 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣 cos 𝜃. Thus,
𝑑𝑦𝑝 𝑑𝑥𝑝
= 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣 cos 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣𝑥 = −𝑣 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Therefore, equation (3) becomes,
𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑎⃗ = (− cos 𝜃) 𝑖̇̂ + (− sin 𝜃) 𝑗̇̂ … … … (4)
𝑟 𝑟
This vector and its components are shown in Fig. c. Following equaiton (1), we find
𝑣2 𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑎 = |𝑎⃗| = √𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2 = √(cos 𝜃)2 + (sin 𝜃)2 = √1 = … … … (5)
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
And the direction/ orientation of 𝑎⃗, as presented with the angle 𝜙 in Fig. c, can be expressed as,
𝑣2
𝑎𝑦 − ( 𝑟 ) sin 𝜃
tan 𝜙 = = = tan 𝜃 … … … (6)
𝑎𝑥 𝑣2
−( cos 𝜃
𝑟)
Thus, 𝜙 = 𝜃, which means that 𝑎⃗ is directed along the radius 𝑟 of Fig. a, toward the circle’s center.
6
Application: What is a centrifuge?

A centrifuge is a rotating device used to separate specimens of
different densities. High centripetal acceleration significantly
decreases the time it takes for separation to occur and makes
separation possible with small samples.
Centrifuges are often rated in terms of their centripetal acceleration
relative to acceleration due to gravity, 𝑔; maximum centripetal
acceleration of several hundred thousand 𝑔 is possible in a vacuum.
Centrifuges are used in a variety of applications,
- The separation of single cell suspensions such as bacteria,
viruses, and blood cells from a liquid medium and the separation
of macromolecules, such as, DNA and protein from a solution.
- Human centrifuges, extremely large, have been used to test the tolerance of astronauts to the
effects of accelerations larger than that of Earth’s gravity.
PROBLEM: “Top gun” pilots have long worried about taking a turn too tightly. As a pilot’s body
undergoes centripetal acceleration, with the head toward the center of curvature, the blood pressure
in the brain decreases, leading to loss of brain function. There are several warning signs. When the
centripetal acceleration is 2𝑔 or 3𝑔, the pilot feels heavy. At about 4𝑔, the pilot’s vision switches
to black and white and narrows to “tunnel vision.” If that acceleration is sustained or increased,
vision ceases and, soon after, the pilot is unconscious, a condition known as g-LOC for “g-induced
loss of consciousness.”
What is the magnitude of the acceleration, in g units, of a pilot whose aircraft enters a horizontal
𝑣𝑖̇ = (400𝑖̇̂ + 500𝑗̇̂) 𝑚/𝑠 and 24.0 𝑠 later leaves the turn with a
circular turn with a velocity of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣𝑓 = (−400𝑖̇̂ − 500𝑗̇̂) 𝑚/𝑠?
velocity of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
ANSWER: We assume the turn is made with uniform circular motion.
2
We know, 𝑎 = |𝑎⃗| = 𝑣 ⁄𝑅
2𝜋𝑅 𝑣𝑇
Also, 𝑇 = ; Therefore, 𝑅 = .
𝑣 2𝜋
2 2𝜋𝑣 2 2𝜋𝑣
Therefore, 𝑎 = 𝑣 ⁄𝑅 = =
𝑣𝑇 𝑇
𝑣𝑖̇ = (400𝑖̇̂ + 500𝑗̇̂) 𝑚/𝑠

Given that, the Initial velocity, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Therefore magnitude, 𝑣𝑖 = |𝑣 2 2
𝑖̇ = √(400 𝑚/𝑠) + (500 𝑚/𝑠) = 640.31 𝑚/𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗|
The half a circle is completed half a circle in 24.0 s. Thus, a full circle would have taken 𝑇 =
2(24.0 𝑠) = 48.0 𝑠. Substituting these values into our equation for a, we find,
2𝜋𝑣 2𝜋(640.31 𝑚/𝑠) 𝑚
𝑎= = = 83.81 2 ≈ 8.6 𝑔 [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 ]
𝑇 48 𝑠 𝑠
7
PROBLEM 04-107: A particle 𝑃 travels with constant speed

on a circle of radius 𝑟 = 3.00 𝑚 (Figure) and completes one
revolution in 20.0 𝑠. The particle passes through 𝑂 at time 𝑡 =
0. State the following vectors in magnitude-angle notation
(angle relative to the positive direction of x). With respect to 𝑂,
find the particle’s position vector at the times t of (a) 5.00 𝑠, (b)
7.50 𝑠, and (c) 10.0 𝑠. (d) For the 5.00 𝑠 interval from the end
of the fifth second to the end of the tenth second, find the
particle’s displacement. For that interval, find (e) its average
velocity and its velocity at the (f) beginning and (g) end. Next,
find the acceleration at the (h) beginning and (i) end of that
interval.
PROBLEM 04-108: The fast French train known as the TGV (Train à Grande Vitesse) has a
scheduled average speed of 216 km/h. (a) If the train goes around a curve at that speed and the
magnitude of the acceleration experienced by the passengers is to be limited to 0.050g, what is the
smallest radius of curvature for the track that can be tolerated? (b) At what speed must the train go
around a curve with a 1.00 km radius to be at the acceleration limit?
RELATIVE MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

Relative motion in one dimension refers to the analysis of the motion of objects with respect to one
another when they are moving along a same straight line.
- It involves considering how the motion of one object is interpreted from the perspective of another
observer located at a different reference frame.
▪ Reference frame: A frame of reference is a coordinate system or a point of view from which
observations are made.
- At least two reference frames are required to analyze relative motion: one associated with
the moving object (moving frame) and one associated with the observer (observer's frame).
▪ Relative velocity: Relative velocity is the velocity of one object as observed by observer from
another frame of reference.
- It indicates the rate of change of position of one object as seen by the observer.
Let us consider, frames A and B are moving at

constant velocity relative to each other, B (frame
B) drives always at constant velocity 𝑣𝐵𝐴 relative
to A (frame A). Car P (the moving particle),
however, can change speed and direction (that is,
𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑃 can accelerate).
At a given moment, the position of the 𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑃 is
measured by both observers A and B, as presented Fig. Observer A (frame A) and Observer B (frame B)
watch car P. As both 𝐵 and P move at different velocities
in Figure. We can write, along the common x axis of the two frames. At the instant
𝑥𝑃𝐴 = 𝑥𝑃𝐵 + 𝑥𝐵𝐴 … … … (1) shown, 𝑥𝐵𝐴 is the coordinate of B in the A frame. Also,
P is at coordinate 𝑥𝑃𝐵 in the B frame and coordinate
[Position 𝑥𝑃𝐴 of 𝑃 as measured by 𝐴 is equal to 𝑥𝑃𝐴 = 𝑥𝑃𝐵 + 𝑥𝐵𝐴 in the A frame.
the position 𝑥𝑃𝐵 of P as measured by 𝐵 plus the
position 𝑥𝐵𝐴 of 𝐵 as measured by 𝐴]
8
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
Taking the time derivative of Eq. (1), we get (𝑥𝑃𝐴 ) = (𝑥𝑃𝐵 ) + (𝑥𝐵𝐴 ) … … … (2)
Thus, the velocity components are related by, 𝑣𝑃𝐴 = 𝑣𝑃𝐵 + 𝑣𝐵𝐴 … … … (3)
[The velocity 𝑣𝑃𝐴 of 𝑃 as measured by 𝐴 is equal to the velocity 𝑣𝑃𝐵 of 𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑃 as measured by 𝐵 plus
the velocity 𝑣𝐵𝐴 of 𝐵 as measured by 𝐴. Term 𝑣𝐵𝐴 is the velocity of frame 𝐵 relative to frame 𝐴].
Now, an acceleration of car P as measured by 𝐵 and by 𝐴 can be obtained by taking the time
derivative of Eq. (3),
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(𝑣𝑃𝐴 ) = (𝑣𝑃𝐵 ) + (𝑣𝐵𝐴 ) … … … (4)
𝑑
𝑎𝑃𝐴 = 𝑎𝑃𝐵 … … … (5) [𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, (𝑣 ) = 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. ]
𝑑𝑡 𝐵𝐴
NOTE: Observers on different frames of reference that move at constant velocity relative to each
other will measure the same acceleration for a moving particle.
PROBLEM: In Figure, suppose that 𝐵’𝑠 velocity

relative to 𝐴 is a constant 𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 52 𝑘𝑚/ℎ and
𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑃 is moving in the negative direction of the x
axis.
(a) If A measures a constant 𝑣𝑃𝐴 = −78 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
for 𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑃, what velocity 𝑣𝑃𝐵 will 𝐵 measure?
(b) If 𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑃 brakes to a stop relative to 𝐴 (and thus Fig. Observer A (frame A) and Observer B (frame
relative to the ground) in time 𝑡 = 10 𝑠 at B) watch car P. As both 𝐵 and P move at different
constant acceleration, what is its acceleration 𝑎𝑃𝐴 velocities along the common x axis of the two frames.
At the instant shown, 𝑥𝐵𝐴 is the coordinate of B in
relative to observer 𝐴?
the A frame. Also, P is at coordinate 𝑥𝑃𝐵 in the B
(c) What is the acceleration 𝑎𝑃𝐵 of 𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑃 relative frame and coordinate 𝑥𝑃𝐴 = 𝑥𝑃𝐵 + 𝑥𝐵𝐴 in the A
to observer 𝐵 during the braking? frame.
ANSWER: (a) Given that, 𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 52 𝑘𝑚/ℎ and 𝑣𝑃𝐴 = −78 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
Using equation vPA = vPB + vBA , we get, (−78 𝑘𝑚/ℎ) = 𝑣𝑃𝐵 + (52 𝑘𝑚/ℎ)
Therefore, vPB = −130 km/h
𝑘𝑚 𝑚
(b) The initial velocity of 𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑃 relative to 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐴 is 𝑣𝑃𝐴 = 𝑣𝑖 = −78 = −21.67
ℎ 𝑠
𝑘𝑚
The final velocity is 𝑣𝑓 = 0 = 0 𝑚/𝑠 after 𝑡 = 10 𝑠 due to braking.
ℎ
𝑣𝑓 −𝑣𝑖 0−21.67 𝑚
Thus, the acceleration relative to observer 𝐴 is, 𝑎𝑃𝐴 = = = 2.2 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 10 𝑠2
𝑘𝑚 𝑚
(c) The initial velocity of 𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑃 relative to 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐵 is 𝑣𝑃𝐵 = 𝑣𝑖 = −130 = −36.1
ℎ 𝑠
𝑘𝑚
The final velocity of P relative to 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐵, 𝑣𝑓 = −52 = −14.44 𝑚/𝑠 after 𝑡 = 10 𝑠 due
ℎ
to braking. [because this is the velocity of the stopped 𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑃 relative to the moving 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐵]
𝑣𝑓 −𝑣𝑖 −14.44−(−36.11) 𝑚
Thus, the acceleration relative to observer 𝐴 is, 𝑎𝑃𝐴 = = = 2.2 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 10 𝑠2
9
PROBLEM 04-69: A cameraman on a pickup truck is traveling westward at 20 km/h while he

records a cheetah that is moving westward 30 km/h faster than the truck. Suddenly, the cheetah
stops, turns, and then runs at 45 km/h eastward, as measured by a suddenly nervous crew member
who stands alongside the cheetah’s path. The change in the animal’s velocity takes 2.0 s. What are
the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the animal’s acceleration according to the cameraman and
the (c) magnitude and (d) direction according to the nervous crew member?
PROBLEM 04-70: A boat is traveling upstream in the positive direction of an x axis at 14 km/h
with respect to the water of a river. The water is flowing at 9.0 km/h with respect to the ground.
What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the boat’s velocity with respect to the ground? A
child on the boat walks from front to rear at 6.0 km/h with respect to the boat. What are the (c)
magnitude and (d) direction of the child’s velocity with respect to the ground?
PROBLEM 04-71: A suspicious-looking man runs as fast as he can along a moving sidewalk from
one end to the other, taking 2.50 s. Then security agents appear, and the man runs as fast as he can
back along the sidewalk to his starting point, taking 10.0 s. What is the ratio of the man’s running
speed to the sidewalk’s speed?
RELATIVE MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Relative motion in two dimensions involves analyzing the motion of objects with respect to each
other when they are moving in two-dimensional space, which includes both horizontal and vertical
directions.
When two frames of reference A and B are moving relative to each other at constant velocity in two-
dimensional space, the velocity of a particle 𝑃 as measured by an observer in frame 𝐴 usually differs
from that measured from frame B.
At a given moment, the position of the 𝒄𝒂𝒓 𝑷
measured by both observers A and B. From the
figure we can write,
𝑟⃗𝑃𝐴 = 𝑟⃗𝑃𝐵 + 𝑟⃗𝐵𝐴 … … … (1)
Taking the time derivative of Eq. (1), we get
𝑣⃗𝑃𝐴 = 𝑣⃗𝑃𝐵 + 𝑣⃗𝐵𝐴 … … … (2)
To relate an acceleration of car P as measured by
𝑩 and by 𝑨, we take the time derivative of Eq. (3): Fig. Frame B has the constant two-dimensional velocity
𝑣⃗𝐵𝐴 relative to frame A. The position vector of B relative
𝑎⃗𝑃𝐴 = 𝑎⃗𝑃𝐵 … … … (3) to A is 𝑟⃗𝐵𝐴 . The position vectors of particle P are 𝑟⃗𝑃𝐴
relative to A and 𝑟⃗𝑃𝐵 relative to B.
[𝑎⃗𝐵𝐴 = 0, since, 𝑣⃗𝐵𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡]
10
PROBLEM: In Figure, a plane moves due

east while the pilot points the plane somewhat
south of east, toward a steady wind that blows
to the northeast. The plane has velocity 𝑣⃗𝑃𝑊
relative to the wind, with an airspeed (speed
relative to the wind) of 215 km/h, directed at
angle 𝜃 south of east. The wind has velocity
𝑣⃗𝑊𝐺 relative to the ground with speed 65.0
km/h, directed 20.0° east of north. What is the
magnitude of the velocity 𝑣⃗𝑃𝐺 of the plane
relative to the ground, and what is 𝜃?
ANSWER: Here we get, 𝑣⃗𝑃𝐺 = 𝑣⃗𝑃𝑊 + 𝑣⃗𝑊𝐺
For the y components, we find,
𝑣𝑃𝐺,𝑦 = 𝑣𝑃𝑊,𝑦 + 𝑣𝑊𝐺,𝑦
𝑘𝑚 𝑘𝑚
0 = (−215 ) sin 𝜃 + (65 ) cos 20.0°
ℎ ℎ
𝑘𝑚
(65 ℎ ) cos 20.0°
−1
Thus, 𝜃 = sin 𝑘𝑚 = 16.5°
215 ℎ
Similarly, for the x-components we find, 𝑣𝑃𝐺,𝑥 = 𝑣𝑃𝑊,𝑥 + 𝑣𝑊𝐺,𝑥

Here, because 𝑣⃗𝑃𝐺 is parallel to the x axis, the component 𝑣𝑃𝐺,𝑥 is equal to the magnitude 𝑣𝑃𝐺 .
Substituting this notation and the value 𝜃 = 16.5°, we find,
𝑘𝑚 𝑘𝑚 𝑘𝑚
𝑣𝑃𝐺 = (215 ) cos 16.5° + (65 ) sin 20.0° ) = 228
ℎ ℎ ℎ
PROBLEM 04-72: A rugby player runs with the ball directly toward his opponent’s goal, along
the positive direction of an x axis. He can legally pass the ball to a teammate as long as the ball’s
velocity relative to the field does not have a positive x component. Suppose the player runs at speed
4.0 m/s relative to the field while he passes the ball with velocity 𝑣⃗𝐵𝑃 relative to himself. If 𝑣⃗𝐵𝑃 has
magnitude 6.0 m/s, what is the smallest angle it can have for the pass to be legal?
PROBLEM 04-74: After flying for 15 min in a wind blowing 42 km/h at an angle of 20° south of
east, an airplane pilot is over a town that is 55 km due north of the starting point. What is the speed
of the airplane relative to the air?
PROBLEM 04-77: Snow is falling vertically at a constant speed of 8.0 m/s. At what angle from
the vertical do the snowflakes appear to be falling as viewed by the driver of a car traveling on a
straight, level road with a speed of 50 km/h?
PROBLEM 04-80: A 200-m-wide river flows due east at a uniform speed of 2.0 m/s. A boat with
a speed of 8.0 m/s relative to the water leaves the south bank pointed in a direction 30° west of
north. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the boat’s velocity relative to the ground?
(c) How long does the boat take to cross the river?
11
PHY-107 Module 5: Force and Motion
MODULE 5: FORCE AND MOTION

LECTURE 08
OUTLINE:
▪ Concept of Force and Mass
▪ Newton’s law of Motion: 1st and 2nd Law
▪ Inertial frames
OBJECTIVES:
• Identify that a force is a vector quantity and thus has both magnitude and direction. And can
also be divided into components.
• Given two or more forces acting on the same particle, add the forces as vectors to get the net
force.
• Identify Newton’s laws of motion.
• Identify inertial reference frames.
NOTE: Physics is also a study of cause behind the acceleration of an object. That cause is force,
which is, loosely speaking, a push or pull on the object. The force is said to act on the object to
change its velocity. For example, when a dragster accelerates, a force from the track acts on the
rear tires to cause the dragster’s acceleration.
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS: The relation between a force and the acceleration it causes, was first
understood by Isaac Newton (1642 –1727). The study of this relation is called Newtonian mechanics.
Newtonian mechanics does not apply to all situations.

- If the speeds of the interacting bodies are very large, like, an appreciable fraction of the speed of
light, we must replace Newtonian mechanics with Einstein’s special theory of relativity, which
holds at any speed, including those near the speed of light.
Before Newton formulated his mechanics, it was thought that a “force,” is needed to keep a body
moving at a constant velocity.
- A body was thought to be in its “natural state” when it was at rest.
- To move with constant velocity, a body seemingly had to be propelled in some way, by a push or
a pull. Otherwise, it would “naturally” stop moving.
- For example,
▪ If a puck is sent sliding across a wooden floor, it does indeed slow and then stop.
▪ To make it move across the floor with constant velocity, requires continuous pull or push.
1
However, for a puck sliding over the ice surface (frictionless surface), it goes a lot farther and longer.
- From these observations, it can be concluded that a body will keep moving with constant velocity
if no force acts on it. That leads us to the first of Newton’s three laws of motion:
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW

Newton's First Law of Motion, also known as the law of inertia, states that an object will remain at
rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.
- In simpler terms, it means that an object will not change its state of motion (either staying still or
moving at a constant velocity) unless something external force causes it to do so.
- This law is often summarized with: "An object at rest tends to stay at rest, and an object in motion
tends to stay in motion with the same speed and in the same direction, unless acted upon by an
unbalanced external force."
FORCE:
Force, is a fundamental concept in physics that describes the interaction between objects with masses
that can cause their motion to change its velocity (e.g. moving from a state of rest), to accelerate.
- Force can be a push or a pull.
- Force is typically measured in units of newtons (N).
- The unit of force can be defined in terms of acceleration. Let us consider, a force is given to an
object, having mass of 1 𝑘𝑔, on a horizontal frictionless surface. If the body gain an acceleration
of 1 𝑚/𝑠 2 , the applied force is defined as having a magnitude of 1 𝑁. Similarly, a force magnitude
is 2 𝑁, would provide the acceleration of 2 𝑚/𝑠 2 to the object. Thus, the acceleration is
proportional to the force. i.e., 𝐹 ∝ 𝑎.
▪ If the standard body of 1 𝑘𝑔 has an acceleration of magnitude 𝑎 (in meters per second per
second), then the force (in newtons) producing the acceleration has a magnitude equal to a.
- Force is a vector quantity and thus has both magnitude and direction.
▪ If two or more forces act on a body, the net force (or resultant force) can be found by adding
them as vectors.
▪ A single force that has the same magnitude and direction as the calculated net force would then
have the same effect as all the individual forces.
▪ This fact is known as the principle of superposition for forces.
Therefore, Newton’s First Law can be expressed more appropriately in terms of a net force
Newton’s First Law: If no net force acts on a body (𝛴𝐹), the body’s velocity cannot change; that is,
the body cannot accelerate. There may be multiple forces acting on a body, but if their net force is
zero, the body cannot accelerate.
In other words, if the velocity of the body is constant, it can be said that the net force on it is zero. In
mathematical terms, Newton's First Law can be written as,
𝛴𝐹 = 0
Where 𝛴𝐹 represents the vector sum of all the forces acting on an object, and if this sum is zero, then
the object will remain in its current state of motion.
2
INERTIAL REFERENCE FRAMES:

Newton’s first law is not true in all reference frames. Reference frames in which it (as well as the rest
of Newtonian mechanics) is true, are known as inertial reference frames, or simply inertial frames.
An inertial reference frame is used to describe a specific type of coordinate system or frame that is
not undergoing any acceleration. In other words, an inertial reference frame is a frame of reference
in which Newton's First Law of Motion (law of inertia) holds true without the need to introduce
fictitious forces.
- An inertial reference frame is one in which Newton’s laws hold.
- E.g., ground is assumed as an inertial frame, neglecting Earth’s rotational motions around the sun.
CHECKPOINT: Which of the figure’s six

arrangements correctly show the vector
addition of forces 𝐹⃗1 and 𝐹⃗2 to yield the third
vector, which is meant to represent their net
force 𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 ?
ANSWER: c, d, and e (𝐹⃗1 and 𝐹⃗2 must be
head to tail, 𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 must be from tail of one of
them to head of the other).
MASS:
Mass is a fundamental property of matter that quantifies the amount of substance or material in an
object.
- Observation shows that when a given force is applied to different bodies, results in different
accelerations.
- The object with the larger mass is accelerated less. Therefore, the acceleration is actually inversely
1
related to the mass. E.g., 𝑚 ∝ .
𝑎
Let us consider, a standard body having a mass of 1 𝑘𝑔 is pushed with a force of magnitude 1 𝑁. The
body accelerates with a magnitude of 1 𝑚/𝑠 2 . Now, if a body 𝑋 is pushed with the same force of 1𝑁
causes it to accelerates at 0.25 𝑚/𝑠 2 , then we get,
𝑚𝑋 𝑎0
=
𝑚0 𝑎𝑋
𝑚
𝑚0 𝑎0 (1.0 𝑘𝑔) (1.0 𝑠 2 )
𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑚𝑋 = = 𝑚 = 4.0 𝑘𝑔
𝑎𝑋 0.25 2
𝑠
Again, if 8 𝑁 force is applied first to the standard body getting an acceleration of 8.0 𝑚/𝑠 2 and for
body X getting an acceleration of 2.0 𝑚/𝑠 2 . Calculation shows that,
𝑚0 𝑎0 (1.0 𝑘𝑔)(8.0𝑚/𝑠 2 )
𝑚𝑋 = = = 4.0 𝑘𝑔
𝑎𝑋 2.0𝑚/𝑠 2
which means that this procedure is consistent and thus usable.
3
Properties of Mass:
- Mass is an intrinsic characteristic of a body. It automatically comes with the existence of the body.
- It is a scalar quantity.
- The mass of a body is the characteristic that relates a force on the body to the resulting acceleration.
- Unit: SI unit of mass is kilogram (𝑘𝑔).
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

Newton's Second Law of Motion states that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to
the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass. It presents that the acceleration of an
object is dependent upon two variables, namely, the net force acting on the object and the mass of
that object.
- The net force on a body is equal to the product of the body’s mass and its acceleration.
- Mathematically, it can be expressed as, 𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎⃗ (Newton’s second law).
Like other vector equations, above equation is equivalent to three component equations, one for each
axis of an 𝑥𝑦𝑧 coordinate system:
𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎⃗𝑥 , 𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎⃗𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑧 = 𝑚𝑎⃗𝑧
Each of these equations relates the net force component along an axis to the acceleration along that
same axis. For example, the first equation tells us that the sum of all the force components along the
x axis causes the x component 𝑎𝑥 of the body’s acceleration but causes no acceleration in the y and z
directions. Turned around, the acceleration component 𝑎𝑥 is caused only by the sum of the force
components along the x axis and is completely unrelated to force components along another axis. In
general,
“The acceleration component along a given axis is caused only by the sum of the force components
along that same axis, and not by force components along any other axis.”
- Above equation tells that if the net force on a body is zero: The body at rest stays at rest; if it is
moving, it continues to move at constant velocity. In such cases, any forces on the body balance
one another, and both the forces and the body are said to be in equilibrium.
- Unit: In SI units, 1 𝑁 = (1 𝑘𝑔)(1𝑚/𝑠 2 ) = 1 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
- Free body diagram is used to solve problems related to Newton’s second law, in which the only
body shown is the one for which forces are summing.
Free body diagram; A free body diagram (FBD) is a visual representation used in physics to
analyze and solve problems involving forces acting on an object. It is a simplified drawing that
isolates an object of interest from its surroundings and depicts all the external forces and
interactions acting on that object as distinct vectors. Free body diagrams are an essential tool for
understanding and solving problems related to Newtonian mechanics.
External Forces: A system is generally consisting of one or more bodies. External forces refer to any
forces acting on the bodies inside the system that originate from sources outside the system. If the
bodies making up a system are rigidly connected to one another, the system can be treated as one
composite body, and the net force 𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 on it is the vector sum of all external forces. These forces can
cause changes in the object's motion according to Newton's laws of motion.
4
CHECKPOINT: The figure here shows two

horizontal forces acting on a block on a
frictionless floor. If a third horizontal force 𝐹⃗3
also acts on the block, what are the magnitude
and direction of 𝐹⃗3 when the block is (a)
stationary and (b) moving to the left with a
constant speed of 5 𝑚/𝑠?
ANSWER: (a) 2N leftward direction (acceleration is zero)
(b) 2 N leftward direction (acceleration is zero)
PROBLEM: Here are examples of how to use Newton’s second law for a puck when one or two
forces act on it. Parts A, B, and C of Figure show three situations in which one or two forces act on
a puck that moves over frictionless ice along an x axis, in one-dimensional motion. The puck’s
mass is 𝑚 = 0.20 𝑘𝑔. Forces 𝐹⃗1 and 𝐹⃗2 are directed along the axis and have magnitudes 𝐹1 = 4.0 𝑁
and 𝐹2 = 2.0 𝑁. Force 𝐹⃗3 is directed at angle 𝜃 = 30° and has magnitude 𝐹3 = 1.0 𝑁. In each
situation, what is the acceleration of the puck?
ANSWER: Situation A: For Fig. b, where only one horizontal force acts, we know, 𝐹1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹1 4.0 𝑁
Therefore, 𝑎𝑥 = = = 20 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑚 0.20 𝑘𝑔
The positive answer indicates that the acceleration is in the positive direction of the x axis.
Situation B: In Fig. d, two horizontal forces act on the puck, 𝐹⃗1 in the positive direction of x and 𝐹⃗2
in the negative direction. Therefore, we have,
𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹1 −𝐹2 4.0 𝑁−2.0 𝑁
Now, 𝑎𝑥 = = = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑚 0.20 𝑘𝑔
Thus, the net force accelerates the puck in the positive direction of the x axis.
Situation C: In Fig. f, force 𝐹⃗3 is not directed along the direction of the puck’s acceleration; only x
component 𝐹3,𝑥 is. (Force 𝐹⃗3 is two-dimensional but the motion is only one-dimensional.)
Thus, we can write 𝐹3,𝑥 − 𝐹2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
From the figure, we see that 𝐹3,𝑥 = 𝐹3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. Solving for the acceleration and substituting for 𝐹3,𝑥
yield
𝐹3,𝑥 − 𝐹2 𝐹3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝐹2 (1.0 𝑁)(𝑐𝑜𝑠30°) − 2.0 𝑁
𝑎𝑥 = = = = −5.7 𝑚/𝑠2
𝑚 𝑚 0.20 𝑘𝑔
Thus, the net force accelerates the puck in the negative direction of the x axis.
5
PROBLEM 05-02: Two horizontal forces act on a 2.0 𝑘𝑔 chopping block that can slide over a
frictionless kitchen counter, which lies in an 𝑥𝑦 plane. One force is, 𝐹⃗1 = (3.0𝑁)𝑖̇̂ + (4.0𝑁)𝑗̇̂. Find
the acceleration of the chopping block in unit-vector notation when the other force is (a) 𝐹⃗2 =
(−3.0𝑁)𝑖̇̂ + (−4.0𝑁)𝑗̇̂, (b) 𝐹⃗2 = (−3.0𝑁)𝑖̇̂ + (4.0𝑁)𝑗̇̂, and (c) 𝐹⃗2 = (3.0𝑁)𝑖̇̂ + (−4.0𝑁)𝑗̇̂.
PROBLEM 05-03: If the 1 𝑘𝑔 standard body has an acceleration of 2.00 𝑚/𝑠 2 at 20.0° to the
positive direction of an 𝑥 axis, what are (a) the 𝑥 component and (b) the y component of the net
force acting on the body, and (c) what is the net force in unit-vector notation?
PROBLEM 05-04: While two forces act on it, a particle is to move at the constant velocity 𝑣⃗ =
(3.0𝑚/𝑠)𝑖̇̂ − (4.0𝑚/𝑠)𝑗̇̂. One of the forces is 𝐹⃗1 = (2𝑁)𝑖̇̂ + (−6𝑁)𝑗̇̂. What is the other force?
PROBLEM 05-06: In a two-dimensional tug-of-war, Alex,

Betty, and Charles pull horizontally on an automobile tire at the
angles shown in the overhead view of Figure. The tire remains
stationary in spite of the three pulls. Alex pulls with force 𝐹⃗𝐴 of
magnitude 220 𝑁, and Charles pulls with force 𝐹⃗𝐶 of magnitude
170 𝑁. Note that the direction of 𝐹⃗𝐶 is not given. What is the
magnitude of Betty’s force 𝐹⃗𝐵 ?
6

LECTURE 09
OUTLINE:
▪ Different types of Forces
▪ Solving problems on Newton’s 2nd law
▪ Newton’s 3rd law
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE:
Gravitational force is the attractive force or pull force that exists between any two objects with mass.
- Gravitational force is a force in nature that is always attractive and conservative.
A gravitational force 𝐹⃗𝑔 on a body is a pull that is directed towards a second body. The second body
here refers to Earth or some other astronomical body. For Earth, the force is directed down toward
the center of the Earth, that is, directly down toward the ground. This is assumed to be an inertial
frame. With that assumption, the magnitude of 𝐹⃗𝑔 for the body of mass 𝑚 in free fall can be expressed
as,
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔
where 𝑚 is the body’s mass and 𝑔 is the magnitude of the free-fall acceleration.
Newton’s second law for the gravitational force can be written in a vector form as,
𝐹⃗𝑔 = −𝐹𝑗̇̂ = −𝑚𝑔𝑗̇̂ = 𝑚𝑔⃗
where 𝑗̇̂ is the unit vector that points upward along a y axis, directly away from the ground, and 𝑔⃗ is
the free-fall acceleration (written as a vector), directed downward.
WEIGHT:
The weight of a body is the magnitude of the upward force needed to balance the gravitational force
on the body. It is denoted by 𝑊.
- In other words, the weight of a body is the magnitude of the net force required to prevent the body
from falling freely, as measured by someone on the ground.
- A body’s weight is related to the body’s mass.
- The weight (𝑊) of a body is equal to the magnitude 𝐹𝑔 of the gravitational force. Therefore,
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔
- Unit of weight in SI system is 1𝑁 = 1 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
NORMAL FORCE:
A normal force 𝐹⃗𝑁 is the force on a body from a surface against which the body presses. The normal
force is always perpendicular to the surface.
1
When a body presses against a surface, the surface (even a seemingly rigid one) deforms and pushes
on the body with a normal force that is perpendicular to the surface.
- It prevents objects from passing through the surface.
- The term "normal" here refers to the fact that the force is directed perpendicular (or "normal") to
the surface at the point of contact.
Figure: (a) A block resting on a table experiences a normal force 𝐹⃗𝑁 perpendicular to the tabletop.
(b) The free-body diagram for the block.
A block of mass 𝑚 presses down on a table (Fig. a), deforming it somewhat because of the
gravitational force 𝐹⃗𝑔 on the block. The table pushes up on the block with normal force 𝐹⃗𝑁 .The free-
body diagram for the block is given in Fig. b. Forces 𝐹⃗𝑔 and 𝐹⃗𝑁 are the only two forces on the block
and they are both vertical. Thus, for the block we can write Newton’s second law for a positive-
upward y axis (𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 ) as
𝐹𝑁 − 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦
Since 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 we can write,
𝐹𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦
𝐹𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑎𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑔 + 𝑎𝑦 )
This refers to the 𝐹𝑁 for any vertical acceleration 𝑎𝑦 of the table and block (they might be in an
accelerating elevator). If the table and block are not accelerating relative to the ground, then 𝑎𝑦 = 0
and equation becomes
𝐹𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔
CHECKPOINT: In Figure, 𝐹𝑁 is the

magnitude of the normal force greater than,
less than, or equal to mg if the block and table
are in an elevator moving upward (a) at
constant speed and (b) at increasing speed?
ANSWER: (a) Equal; (b) Greater (acceleration is upward, thus net force on body must be upward)
2
FRICTION:
Friction is the force that opposes the relative motion or
attempted motion of two objects in contact with each other.
- A frictional force 𝑓⃗ is the force on a body when the body
slides or attempts to slide along a surface.
⃗
- The force is always parallel to the surface and directed so Figure: A frictional force 𝑓
as to oppose the sliding. opposes the attempted slide of a
body over a surface.
- Friction can either impede or enable motion, depending
on the circumstances.
- On a frictionless surface, the frictional force is negligible.
TENSION:
Tension is defined as the force transmitted through a rope, string or wire when pulled by forces acting
from opposite sides.
- It acts along the length of the medium and is responsible for maintaining the integrity of the
medium by preventing it from breaking or stretching excessively.
When a cord (or a rope, cable, or other such object) is attached to a body and pulled taut, the cord
pulls on the body with a force directed away from the body and along the cord (Fig. a).
- The force is often called a tension force because the cord is said to be in a state of tension (or to
be under tension), which means that it is being pulled taut.
- The tension in the cord is the magnitude 𝑇 of the force on the body.
- For example, if the force on the body from the cord has magnitude 𝑇 = 50 𝑁, the tension in the
cord is 50 𝑁.
- A cord is often said to be massless (meaning its mass is negligible compared to the body’s mass)
and non-stretchable.
▪ The cord then exists only as a connection between two bodies.
▪ It pulls on both bodies with the same force magnitude 𝑇, even if the bodies and the cord are
accelerating and even if the cord runs around a massless, frictionless pulley (Figs. b and c).
▪ Such a pulley has negligible mass compared to the bodies and negligible friction on its axle
opposing its rotation.
- If the cord wraps halfway around a pulley, as in Fig. c, the net force on the pulley from the cord
has the magnitude 2T.
3
CHECKPOINT: The
suspended body in Fig. c
weighs 75 𝑁. Is 𝑇 equal
to, greater than, or less
than 75 𝑁 when the body
is moving upward (a) at
constant speed, (b) at
increasing speed, and (c)
at decreasing speed?
ANSWER: (a) Equal; (b) Greater; (c) Less
APPLYING NEWTONS’ LAW

Most important step in applying Newton’s law is to identify the forces that are exerted on an object.
▪ A force is a push or a pull that acts upon an object due its interaction with another object.
▪ Whenever two objects, like, A and B interact with each other, they exert forces on each other.
▪ E.g., when a person sits on a chair, the body exerts a downward force on the chair and the chair
exerts an upward force on the body.
- There are two forces resulting from the interaction, a force on the chair and a force on the body.
- These two forces are called action and reaction forces.
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW:

Two bodies are said to interact when they push or pull on each other that is, when a force acts on
each body due to the other body. When two bodies interact, the forces on the bodies from each other
are always equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Newton's Third Law of Motion, often referred to as the ‘Action-Reaction Law’, states that for every
action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
If a force 𝐹⃗𝐵𝐶 acts on body B due to body C, then there is a force 𝐹⃗𝐶𝐵 on body C due to body B,
𝐹⃗𝐵𝐶 = −𝐹⃗𝐶𝐵
- The forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in directions.
- The forces always come in action-reaction pairs.
- The forces in an action-reaction pair are of the same type but act on different objects.
- The two forces in an action-reaction pair are independent forces that act on separate objects. They
do not cancel each other out; they are separate and distinct forces.
- Newton's Third Law is closely related to the conservation of momentum. When two objects
interact, the change in momentum of one object is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to
the change in momentum of the other object.
4
CHECKPOINT: Suppose that the cantaloupe and table of Figure are in an elevator cab that begins
to accelerate upward. (a) Do the magnitudes of 𝐹⃗𝑇𝐶 and 𝐹⃗𝐶𝑇 increase, decrease, or stay the same?
(b) Are those two forces still equal in magnitude and opposite in direction? (c) Do the magnitudes
of 𝐹⃗𝐶𝐸 and 𝐹⃗𝐸𝐶 increase, decrease, or stay the same? (d) Are those two forces still equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction?
ANSWER: (a) increase; (b) yes; (c) same; (d) yes
QUESTION 05-11: A vertical force 𝐹⃗ is applied to a block of mass m that lies on a floor. What
happens to the magnitude of the normal force 𝐹⃗𝑁 on the block from the floor as magnitude 𝐹 is
increased from zero if force 𝐹⃗ is (a) downward and (b) upward?
ANSWER: The magnitude of the normal force increases when force F is directed downwards.
- The normal force is the force from the table to the block, that is opposite the force of gravity.
This force is equal and opposite to the force of gravity (in this situation), so increasing the
force of gravity effectively increases the normal force. Applying force in the same direction
as gravity (downwards) will act like the force of gravity is increasing, and the normal force
will increase.
The magnitude of the normal force will decrease when force F is directed upwards.
- The normal force is the force from the table to the block, that is opposite the force of gravity.
This force is equal and opposite to the force of gravity (in this situation), so increasing the
force of gravity effectively increases the normal force. Applying force in the same direction
as gravity (downwards) will act like the force of gravity is increasing, and the normal force
will increase. In this situation, force is being applied in the opposite direction so the normal
force will decrease.
5
PROBLEM: Figure shows a block S (the sliding block)

with mass 𝑀 = 3.3 𝑘𝑔. The block is free to move along
a horizontal frictionless surface and connected, by a
cord that wraps over a frictionless pulley, to a second
block H (the hanging block), with mass 𝑚 = 2.1 𝑘𝑔.
The cord and pulley have negligible masses compared
to the blocks (they are “massless”). The hanging block
H falls as the sliding block S accelerates to the right.
Find (a) the acceleration of block S, (b) the acceleration
of block H, and (c) the tension in the cord.
ANSWER: Lest us draw the free-body diagram for the

block S having mass 𝑀 and along with all the forces acting
on it.
The equation 𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑀𝑎⃗, can be written in the vector
component forms,
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑧 = 𝑚𝑎𝑧
Here 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑥 , 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑦 and 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑧 are the components of the net force along the three axes.
Since, block S does not accelerate vertically, 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑦 = 𝑀𝑎𝑦 becomes
𝐹𝑁 − 𝐹𝑔𝑆 = 0 ⇒ 𝐹𝑁 = 𝐹𝑔𝑆
Thus, in the y direction, the magnitude of the normal force is equal to the magnitude of the
gravitational force.
No force acts in the z direction, which is perpendicular to the page.
In the x direction, there is only one force component, which is 𝑇. Thus, 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑥 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥 becomes
𝑇 = 𝑀𝑎 … … … (1)
Now draw a free-body diagram for block H, as in Fig. b. Then apply in 𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎⃗ component
form. For block H the acceleration is along the y axis, so
𝑇 − 𝐹𝑔𝐻 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦
We can now substitute 𝑚𝑔 for 𝐹𝑔𝐻 and −𝑎 for 𝑎𝑦 (negative because block H accelerates in the
negative direction of the y axis). We find,
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 = −𝑚𝑎 … … … (2)
𝑚
From eq. (1) and (2) we get 𝑎 = 𝑔
𝑀+𝑚
𝑀
Therefore eq. (1) become, 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑀+𝑚
Putting in the numbers gives, for these two quantities

𝑚 2.1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑎= 𝑔= (9.8 2 ) = 3.8 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑀+𝑚 3.3 𝑘𝑔 + 2.1 𝑘𝑔 𝑠
𝑚𝑀 (3.3 𝑘𝑔)(2.1𝑘𝑔) 𝑚
And 𝑇 = 𝑔= (9.8 2 ) = 13 𝑁
𝑀+𝑚 3.3 𝑘𝑔+2.1 𝑘𝑔 𝑠
6
PROBLEM 05-18: In April 1974, John Massis of Belgium managed to move two passenger
railroad cars. He did so by clamping his teeth down on a bit that was attached to the cars with a
rope and then leaning backward while pressing his feet against the railway ties. The cars together
weighed 700 𝑘𝑁 (𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 80 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠). Assume that he pulled with a constant force that was 2.5 times
his body weight, at an upward angle 𝜃 of 30° from the horizontal. His mass was 80 𝑘𝑔, and he
moved the cars by 1.0 𝑚. Neglecting any retarding force from the wheel rotation, find the speed of
the cars at the end of the pull.
PROBLEM 05-19: A 500 𝑘𝑔 rocket sled can be accelerated at a constant rate from rest to
1600 𝑘𝑚/ℎ in 1.8 𝑠. What is the magnitude of the required net force?
PROBLEM 05-20: A car traveling at 53 𝑘𝑚/ℎ hits a bridge abutment. A passenger in the car
moves forward a distance of 65 𝑐𝑚 (with respect to the road) while being brought to rest by an
inflated air bag. What magnitude of force (assumed constant) acts on the passenger’s upper torso,
which has a mass of 41 𝑘𝑔?
PROBLEM 05-21: A constant horizontal force 𝐹⃗𝑎 pushes a 2.00 𝑘𝑔 FedEx package across a
frictionless floor on which an 𝑥𝑦 coordinate system has been drawn. Figure gives the package’s 𝑥
and 𝑦 velocity components versus time 𝑡.What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of 𝐹⃗𝑎 ?
PROBLEM 05-24: There are two horizontal forces on the

2.0 𝑘𝑔 box in the overhead view of Figure but only one (of
magnitude 𝐹1 = 20 𝑁) is shown. The box moves along the 𝑥
axis. For each of the following values for the acceleration 𝑎𝑥
of the box, find the second force in unit-vector notation: (a)
10 𝑚/𝑠 2 , (b) 20 𝑚/𝑠 2 , (c) 0, (d) −10 𝑚/𝑠 2 , and (e)
−20 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
PROBLEM 05-57: A block of mass 𝑚1 = 3.70 𝑘𝑔 on a

frictionless plane inclined at angle 𝜃 = 30.0° is connected
by a cord over a massless, frictionless pulley to a second
block of mass 𝑚2 = 2.30 𝑘𝑔 (Figure). What are (a) the
magnitude of the acceleration of each block, (b) the direction
of the acceleration of the hanging block, and (c) the tension
in the cord?
7
PROBLEM 05-58: Figure shows a man sitting in a bosun’s chair

that dangles from a massless rope, which runs over a massless,
frictionless pulley and back down to the man’s hand. The
combined mass of man and chair is 95.0 𝑘𝑔. With what force
magnitude must the man pull on the rope if he is to rise (a) with
a constant velocity and (b) with an upward acceleration of
1.30 𝑚/𝑠 2 ? If the rope on the right extends to the ground and is
pulled by a co-worker, with what force magnitude must the
coworker pull for the man to rise (c) with a constant velocity and
(d) with an upward acceleration of 1.30 𝑚/𝑠 2 ? What is the
magnitude of the force on the ceiling from the pulley system in
(e) part a, (f ) part b, (g) part c, and (h) part d?
PROBLEM 05-63: Figure gives, as a function of time

𝑡, the force component 𝐹𝑥 that acts on a 3.00 𝑘𝑔 ice
block that can move only along the 𝑥 axis. At 𝑡 = 0, the
block is moving in the positive direction of the axis,
with a speed of 3.0 𝑚/𝑠. What are its (a) speed and (b)
direction of travel at 𝑡 = 11 𝑠?
PROBLEM 05-66: Figure shows a section of a cable-car system. The

maximum permissible mass of each car with occupants is 2800 kg. The
cars, riding on a support cable, are pulled by a second cable attached to
the support tower on each car. Assume that the cables are taut and
inclined at angle u " 353. What is the difference in tension between
adjacent sections of pull cable if the cars are at the maximum
permissible mass and are being accelerated up the incline at 0.81 m/s2?
8

LECTURE 10
OUTLINE:
▪ Friction and Drag forces.
FRICTION:
Friction is a force that opposes the relative motion or tendency of motion between two surfaces in
contact.
- It arises due to the interactions between atoms and molecules on the surfaces of objects.
- Friction plays a significant role in everyday life and has both beneficial and detrimental effects.
- When a force tends to slide a body along a surface, frictional force from the surface acts on the
body.
- The frictional force is parallel to the surface and directed so as to oppose the sliding.
- It is due to bonding between the body and the surface.
There are two types of friction, namely, static and kinetic frictional force. If the body does not slide,
the frictional force is a static frictional force 𝑓⃗𝑠 . If there is sliding, the frictional force is a kinetic
frictional force 𝑓⃗𝑘 .
Static frictional force:

Static friction is the type of friction that prevents an object from moving when a force is applied to it.
It's the force that opposes the initiation of motion between two surfaces that are in contact but not
moving relative to each other. In other words, static friction comes into play when you try to push or
pull an object, but it doesn't start moving immediately.
1
- It is denoted by 𝑓𝑠 .
- Static friction exists up to a certain threshold force.
- If the applied force is below this threshold, the object remains at rest.
- The static friction is directly proportional to the normal force (force exerted perpendicular to the
surface) exerted by the surface on the object and depends on the nature of the surfaces in contact.
- If the force exceeds this threshold, the object starts moving, and kinetic friction comes into play.
In figure (c) and (d), if a force 𝐹⃗ is exerted on the block, attempting to pull it to the left. In response,
a frictional force 𝑓⃗𝑠 is directed to the right, exactly balancing the applied force. This frictional force
𝑓⃗𝑠 is called the static frictional force. The block does not move. Figures (c) and (d) show that as the
magnitude to applied force keep on increasing, magnitude of the static frictional force also increases,
and block remains at rest. When applied force reaches a certain magnitude, however, the block
“breaks away” from its intimate contact with the surface and accelerates, as presented in Figure e.
Therefore, the static frictional force 𝑓⃗𝑠 and the component of 𝐹⃗ parallel to the surface are equal in
magnitude, and 𝑓⃗𝑠 is directed opposite that component. If the component increases, 𝑓⃗𝑠 also increases.
The magnitude of 𝑓⃗𝑠 has a maximum value 𝑓⃗𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 given by,
𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝐹𝑁
where 𝜇𝑠 is the coefficient of static friction and 𝐹𝑁 is the magnitude of the normal force. If the
component of 𝐹⃗ parallel to the surface exceeds 𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the body slides on the surface.
Angle of Static friction:

The angle of static friction, denoted by the symbol (𝜃𝑠 ), represents the maximum angle at which an
object placed on a surface can remain at rest without sliding.
- The angle is measured between the horizontal plane and the
resultant force of static friction acting on the object.
- For certain applications, it is more useful to define static
friction in terms of the maximum angle before which one of
the items will begin sliding.
- Mathematically, the angle of static friction can be related to
Fig: Angle of friction 𝜃, when block
the coefficient of static friction, and is defined as: just starts to slide.
tan 𝜃 = 𝜇𝑠 ⇒ 𝜃 = tan−1 𝜇𝑠
Where 𝜃 is the angle from horizontal and 𝜇𝑠 is the static coefficient of friction between the objects.
- The coefficients 𝜇𝑠 is dimensionless and is determined experimentally from empirical
measurements of the friction angle.
2
Kinetic frictional force:

Kinetic frictional force, also known simply as kinetic friction or sliding friction, is the force that
opposes the motion of an object that is in motion across a surface.
- It is denoted by 𝑓𝑘 .
- The magnitude of the kinetic frictional force, which acts when there is motion, is less than the
maximum magnitude of the static frictional force, which acts when there is no motion.
- The kinetic frictional force acts in the direction opposite to the object's motion. It resists the object's
movement to slow it down.
- The magnitude of kinetic friction depends on the coefficient of kinetic friction (𝜇𝑘 ) and the normal
force (𝐹𝑁 ) between the two surfaces in contact.
Once the block begins to move from stationary position, to move the block across the surface with a
constant speed, less force is required in compared to the force required to overcome the static
frictional force (Fig. f).
The friction force between two surfaces after sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of kinetic
friction and the normal force,
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝐹𝑁
Where 𝜇𝑘 is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The coefficients 𝜇𝑘 is dimensionless and must be
determined experimentally, which depends on certain properties of both the body and the surface.
Rolling Friction:
Rolling friction, also known as rolling resistance, is the type of friction that occurs when an object
rolls over a surface. It is distinct from kinetic friction, which involves sliding or relative motion
between surfaces.
- Rolling friction occurs when an object, such as a wheel, tire, or ball, makes contact with a surface
and rolls over a surface without sliding.
- The rolling friction is generally lower than sliding friction.
- Rolling friction acts in the opposite direction to the object's motion, just like kinetic friction. It
resists the rolling motion and slows down the object.
- The magnitude of rolling friction depends on various factors, including the nature of the materials
in contact, the geometry of the rolling object, the surface roughness, and the applied force.
Properties of Friction:
- A frictional force is the vector sum of many forces acting between the surface atoms of one body
and those of another body.
- Dependence on Surface Roughness. Friction tends to increase with surface roughness. Rougher
surfaces create more contact points between the surfaces, leading to greater frictional forces.
- Dependence on Normal Force. Friction is directly proportional to the normal force exerted by the
surface on the object. Increasing the normal force typically increases the frictional force.
- When atoms of one surface come in contact with atoms of the other surface, both the surfaces cold-
weld together due to atom-to-atom contact. Higher surface contact facilitates higher atom-to-atom
contact.
3
- Friction is generally independent of the contact area between the surfaces in contact. It means that
increasing or decreasing the contact area between two surfaces does not significantly affect the
frictional force between them,
- Direction of friction is always opposite to the direction of motion or tendency of motion.
- Friction causes energy dissipation, converting mechanical energy into heat. This property is often
exploited in brakes and clutches, where frictional forces are used to slow down or stop motion.
Frictional force depends on:

- The nature of the surface in contact (solid/fluid).
- The rougher the surface, the greater the friction involved. More the roughness higher is the friction.
- Shape/design of the object.
- Frictional force is proportional to the pressing force, which is the weight of the body.
- Type of friction involved (rolling/sliding).
- It is independent of the area of contact.
CHECKPOINT: A block lies on the floor. (a) What is the magnitude of the frictional force on it
from the floor? (b) If a horizontal force of 5 𝑁 is now applied to the block, but the block does not
move, what is the magnitude of the frictional force on it? (c) If the maximum value 𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 of the
static frictional force on the block is 10 𝑁, will the block move if the magnitude of the horizontally
applied force is 8 N? (d) If it is 12 𝑁? (e) What is the magnitude of the frictional force in part (c)?
ANSWER: (a) zero (because there is no attempt at sliding); (b) 5 N; (c) no; (d) yes; (e) 8 N
PROBLEM: This sample problem involves

a tilted applied force, which requires that we
work with components to find a frictional
force. The main challenge is to sort out all
the components. Figure a shows a force of
magnitude 𝐹 = 12.0 𝑁 applied to an
8.00 𝑘𝑔 block at a downward angle of 𝜃 =
30.0°. The coefficient of static friction
between block and floor is 𝜇𝑠 = 0.700; the
coefficient of kinetic friction is 𝜇𝑘 = 0.400.
Does the block begin to slide or does it
remain stationary? What is the magnitude of
the frictional force on the block?
ANSWER: From the triangle of components and full force shown in Fig. b, we see that
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 = (12.0 𝑁) cos 30° = 10.39 𝑁
The normal force is vertical, we need to write Newton’s second law (𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 ) for the vertical
force components acting on the block, as displayed in Fig. c. The gravitational force with magnitude
4
𝑚𝑔 acts downward. The applied force has a downward component 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜃. And the vertical
acceleration 𝑎𝑦 is just zero. Thus, we can write Newton’s second law as
𝐹𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 − 𝐹 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚(0)
Which gives us, 𝐹𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝐹 sin 𝜃
Now we can evaluate 𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝐹𝑁
𝑚
𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 (𝑚𝑔 + 𝐹 sin 𝜃) = (0.700) ((8.00 𝑘𝑔) (9.8 ) + (12.0 𝑁)(sin 30°)) = 59.08 𝑁
𝑠2
Because the magnitude 𝐹𝑥 (= 10.39 𝑁) of the force component attempting to slide the block is less
than 𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (= 59.08 𝑁), the block remains stationary. That means that the magnitude 𝑓𝑠 of the
frictional force matches 𝐹𝑥 . From Fig. d, we can write Newton’s second law for x components as
𝐹𝑥 − 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑚(0)
And thus, 𝑓𝑠 = 𝐹𝑥 = 10.39 𝑁 ≈ 10.4 𝑁
PROBLEM: Some of the funniest videos on

the web involve motorists sliding
uncontrollably on icy roads. Here let’s
compare the typical stopping distances for a
car sliding to a stop from an initial speed of
10.0 𝑚/𝑠 on a dry horizontal road, an icy
horizontal road, and (everyone’s favorite) an
icy hill. (a) How far does the car take to slide
to a stop on a horizontal road (Fig. a) if the
coefficient of kinetic friction is 𝜇𝑘 = 0.60,
which is typical of regular tires on dry
pavement?
Let’s neglect any effect of the air on the car, assume that the wheels lock up and the tires slide, and
extend an 𝑥 axis in the car’s direction of motion.
(b) What is the stopping distance if the road is covered with ice with 𝜇𝑘 = 0.10?
(c) Now let’s have the car sliding down an icy hill with an inclination of 𝜃 = 5.00° (a mild incline,
nothing like the hills of San Francisco). The free-body diagram shown in Fig. c is consistent with
Fig. b, and the positive direction of the x axis is down the ramp. What now is the stopping distance?
ANSWER: (a) Figure b shows the free-body diagram for the car. The normal force is upward, the
gravitational force is downward, and the frictional force is horizontal. Because the frictional force
is the only force with an x component, Newton’s second law written for motion along the x axis
becomes,
−𝑓𝑘 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Submitting, 𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝐹𝑁 gives us
−𝜇𝑘 𝐹𝑁 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
From Fig. b we see that the upward normal force balances the downward gravitational force, so
magnitude of 𝐹𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔. We get,
−𝜇𝑘 (𝑚𝑔) = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎𝑥 = −𝜇𝑘 𝑔
5
Because this acceleration is constant, using the constant-acceleration equations we get,

𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
𝑣 2 − 𝑣02 𝑣 2 − 𝑣02
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = =
2𝑎𝑥 −2𝜇𝑘 𝑔
Inserting the initial speed 𝑣0 = 10.0 𝑚/𝑠, the final speed 𝑣 = 0 m/s, and the coefficient of kinetic
friction 𝜇𝑘 = 0.60, we find that the car’s stopping distance is,
𝑚 2
(0 𝑚/𝑠)2 − (10.0
)
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑠 = 8.50 𝑚 ≈ 8.5 𝑚
−2(0.60)(9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )
(b) Substitute new 𝜇𝑘 = 0.10, we get

𝑚 2 𝑚 2
𝑣 2 − 𝑣02 (0 𝑠 ) − (10.0 𝑠 )
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = = 𝑚 = 51 𝑚
−2𝜇𝑘 𝑔 −2(0.10) (9.8 2 )
𝑠
Thus, a much longer clear path would be needed to avoid the car hitting something along the way.
(c) From Figure (c) shows down the ramp in positive direction of the x axis. The normal force (still
perpendicular to the road) now balances only a component of the gravitational force, not the full
force. we write that balance as,
𝐹𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃
Newton’s law of motion along the x-axis can be written as
−𝑓𝑘 + 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
−𝜇𝑘 𝐹𝑁 + 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
−𝜇𝑘 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 + 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Therefore, 𝑎𝑥 = −𝜇𝑘 𝑔 cos 𝜃 + 𝑔 sin 𝜃 = −(0.10)(9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(cos 5°) + (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(sin 5°)
𝑎𝑥 = −0.122 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑚 2 𝑚 2
𝑣 2 −𝑣02 (0 𝑠 ) −(10.0 𝑠 )
Thus, 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = = 𝑚 = 409.8 𝑚
2𝑎𝑥 2(−0.122 2 )
𝑠
PROBLEM 06-09: A 3.5 𝑘𝑔 block is pushed along a

horizontal floor by a force 𝐹⃗ of magnitude 15 𝑁 at an
angle 𝜃 = 40° with the horizontal (Figure). The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the
floor is 0.25. Calculate the magnitudes of (a) the
frictional force on the block from the floor and (b) the
block’s acceleration.
6
PROBLEM 06-12: In about 1915, Henry Sincosky of Philadelphia suspended

himself from a rafter by gripping the rafter with the thumb of each hand on one side
and the fingers on the opposite side (Figure). Sincosky’s mass was 79 𝑘𝑔. If the
coefficient of static friction between hand and rafter was 0.70, what was the least
magnitude of the normal force on the rafter from each thumb or opposite fingers?
PROBLEM 06-13: A worker pushes horizontally on a 35 𝑘𝑔 crate with a force of magnitude

110 𝑁. The coefficient of static friction between the crate and the floor is 0.37. (a) What is the
value of 𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 under the circumstances? (b) Does the crate move? (c) What is the frictional force
on the crate from the floor? (d) Suppose, next, that a second worker pulls directly upward on the
crate to help out. What is the least vertical pull that will allow the first worker’s 110 𝑁 push to
move the crate? (e) If, instead, the second worker pulls horizontally to help out,what is the least
pull that will get the crate moving?
PROBLEM 06-16: A loaded penguin sled weighing 80 𝑁 rests

on a plane inclined at angle 𝜃 = 20° to the horizontal (Figure).
Between the sled and the plane, the coefficient of static friction
is 0.25, and the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.15. (a) What
is the least magnitude of the force 𝐹⃗ , parallel to the plane, that
will prevent the sled from slipping down the plane? (b) What is
the minimum magnitude 𝐹 that will start the sled moving up the
plane? (c) What value of 𝐹 is required to move the sled up the
plane at constant velocity?
PROBLEM 06-18: You testify as an expert

witness in a case involving an accident in
which car A slid into the rear of car B, which
was stopped at a red light along a road headed
down a hill (Figure).
You find that the slope of the hill is 𝜃 = 12.0°, that the cars were separated by distance 𝑑 = 24.0 𝑚
when the driver of car A put the car into a slide (it lacked any automatic anti-brake-lock system),
and that the speed of car A at the onset of braking was 𝑣0 = 18.0 𝑚/𝑠. With what speed did car A
hit car B if the coefficient of kinetic friction was (a) 0.60 (dry road surface) and (b) 0.10 (road
surface covered with wet leaves)?
7
THE DRAG FORCE AND TERMINAL SPEED

Drag Force:
Drag force, also known simply as drag, is a resistive force that opposes the motion of an object
through a fluid (such as air or water). The drag force is denoted by 𝐹⃗𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 or 𝐷
⃗⃗.
When there is a relative velocity between a fluid and a body (either because the body moves through
the fluid or because the fluid moves past the body), the body experiences a drag force that opposes
the relative motion and points in the direction in which the fluid flows relative to the body.
- It arises due to the interactions between the object and the molecules of the fluid as the object
moves through it.
- Drag force is an important concept in fluid dynamics and has significant effects on the behavior
of objects moving through fluids.
- Drag force acts in the direction opposite to the motion of the object through the fluid. It tries to
slow down or impede the object's motion.
- The magnitude of drag force depends on several factors, including the object's shape, size, speed,
the density of the fluid, and the viscosity (thickness) of the fluid. Generally, larger, faster-moving,
and less streamlined objects experience higher drag forces.
Mathematically, the magnitude of the drag force is represented using the equation,
1
𝐹𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 𝐷 = 𝐶𝑑 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2
2
Where 𝐶𝑑 being the drag coefficient, 𝜌 is the fluid density (mass per unit volume), 𝑣⃗ is the velocity
of the object relative to the fluid, and 𝐴 is the effective cross-sectional area of the body (the area of a
cross section taken perpendicular to the relative velocity).
Terminal Speed:
Terminal speed, also known as terminal velocity, is defined as the highest velocity attained by an
object falling through a fluid.
- At terminal speed, the object no longer accelerates and continues to move at a steady velocity
through a fluid (usually air) without further increase in speed.
- It is the constant speed that an object reaches when the drag force acting on it is equal in magnitude
to the force of gravity pulling it downward.
o Thus, the acceleration of the object is zero as the net force acting on the object is zero.
8
⃗⃗ is directed upward.
When a blunt body falls from rest through air, the drag force 𝐷
- Its magnitude gradually increases from zero as the speed of the body increases.
⃗⃗ opposes the downward gravitational force 𝐹⃗𝑔 on the body.
- This upward force 𝐷
These forces to the body’s acceleration can be related by Newton’s second law for a vertical y axis
(𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 ) as
𝐷 − 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎
where 𝑚 is the mass of the body. If the body falls long enough, drag force (𝐷) eventually equals
gravitational force (𝐹𝑔 ). Therefore, acceleration become zero (𝑎 = 0), and so the speed of the body
no longer increases. The body then falls at a constant speed, called the terminal speed 𝑣𝑡 .
From above equation we can write,
1
𝐷 − 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐶𝑑 𝜌𝐴𝑣𝑡2 − 𝐹𝑔 = 0
2
2𝐹𝑔
𝑣𝑡 = √
𝐶𝑑 𝜌𝐴
Here 𝜌 is the fluid density (mass per unit volume).
PROBLEM: A raindrop with radius 𝑅 = 1.5 𝑚𝑚 falls from a cloud that is at height ℎ = 1200 𝑚
above the ground. The drag coefficient 𝐶 for the drop is 0.60. Assume that the drop is spherical
throughout its fall. The density of water 𝜌𝑤 is 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , and the density of air 𝜌𝑎 is 1.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 .
(a) For raindrop (having radius of 1.5 𝑚𝑚), 95% of the terminal speed for the raindrop is reached
after 6 𝑚 fall from rest. What is the terminal speed?
(b) What would be the drop’s speed just before impact if there were no drag force?
ANSWER: (a) The effective cross-section area (𝐴) for the raindrop Because the drop is spherical
is given by,
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑅2
9
The magnitude of the gravitational force (𝐹𝑔 ) on the raindrop is,

4
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑉𝜌𝑤 𝑔 = 𝜋𝑅3 𝜌𝑤 𝑔
3
The terminal velocity,
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
2𝐹𝑔 8𝜋𝑅3 𝜌𝑤 𝑔 8𝑅𝜌𝑤 𝑔 8(1.5 × 10−3 𝑚) (1000 3 ) (9.8 2 )
𝑚 𝑠
𝑣𝑡 = √ =√ =√ =√
𝐶𝜌𝑎 𝐴 3𝐶𝜌𝑎 𝜋𝑅2 3𝐶𝜌𝑎 𝑘𝑔
3(0.60) (1.2 3 )
𝑚
𝑚
𝑣𝑡 = 7.4 ≈ 27𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑠
Here 𝜌𝑎 is the air density. Note that the height of the cloud does not enter into the calculation.
(b) Since, the acceleration, 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2
the initial velocity 𝑣0 = 0 𝑚/𝑠
The displacement 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = −ℎ
Therefore, we can get the 𝑣,
𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ = √2(9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(1200 𝑚) = 153 𝑚/𝑠 ≈ 550 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
PROBLEM 06-36: The terminal speed of a sky diver is 160 𝑘𝑚/ℎ in the spreadeagle position and
310 𝑘𝑚/ℎ in the nosedive position. Assuming that the diver’s drag coefficient C does not change
from one position to the other, find the ratio of the effective cross-sectional area A in the slower
position to that in the faster position.
1
PROBLEM 06-38: Assume Equation (𝐷 = 𝐶𝑑 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2 ) gives the drag force on a pilot plus ejection
2
seat just after they are ejected from a plane traveling horizontally at 1300 𝑘𝑚/ℎ. Assume also that
the mass of the seat is equal to the mass of the pilot and that the drag coefficient is that of a sky
diver. Making a reasonable guess of the pilot’s mass and using the appropriate 𝑣𝑡 value from Table
6-1, estimate the magnitudes of (a) the drag force on the 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑡 + 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑡 and (b) their horizontal
deceleration (in terms of 𝑔), both just after ejection.
PROBLEM 06-39: Calculate the ratio of the drag force on a jet flying at 1000 𝑘𝑚/ℎ at an altitude
of 10 𝑘𝑚 to the drag force on a propdriven transport flying at half that speed and altitude. The
density of air is 0.38 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 at 10 𝑘𝑚 and 0.67 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 at 5.0 𝑘𝑚. Assume that the airplanes have
the same effective cross-sectional area and drag coefficient 𝐶.
PROBLEM 06-40: In downhill speed skiing a skier is retarded by both the air drag force on the
body and the kinetic frictional force on the skis. (a) Suppose the slope angle is 𝜃 = 40.0°, the snow
is dry snow with a coefficient of kinetic friction 𝜇𝑘 = 0.0400, the mass of the skier and equipment
is 𝑚 = 85.0 𝑘𝑔, the cross-sectional area of the (tucked) skier is 𝐴 = 1.30 𝑚2 , the drag coefficient
is 𝐶 = 0.150, and the air density is 1.20 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 . (a) What is the terminal speed? (b) If a skier can
vary 𝐶 by a slight amount 𝑑𝐶 by adjusting, say, the hand positions, what is the corresponding
variation in the terminal speed?
10
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Uniform circular motion refers to the motion of an object that travels around a fixed center point at a
constant speed while maintaining a circular path.
- In this type of motion, the speed of the object remains unchanged, but its direction continuously
changes as it moves along the circular trajectory.
- If a particle moves in a circle or a circular arc of radius 𝑅 at constant speed 𝑣, the particle is said
to be in uniform circular motion. It then has a centripetal acceleration 𝑎⃗ with magnitude given by,
𝑣2
𝑎 = |𝑎⃗| =
𝑅
Centripetal force:
Centripetal force is the force that acts on an object
moving in a circular path, directing it towards the
center of the circle.
- A centripetal force accelerates a body by changing
the direction of the body’s velocity without
changing the body’s speed.
- The acceleration occurs due to a net centripetal
force on the particle, with magnitude given by,
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 =
𝑅
where m is the particle’s mass. The vector quantities and are directed toward the center of curvature
of the particle’s path.
CHECKPOINT: As every amusement park fan knows, a Ferris wheel is a ride consisting of seats
mounted on a tall ring that rotates around a horizontal axis. When you ride in a Ferris wheel at
constant speed, what are the directions of your acceleration and the normal force 𝐹⃗𝑁 on you (from
the always upright seat) as you pass through (a) the highest point and (b) the lowest point of the
ride? (c) How does the magnitude of the acceleration at the highest point compare with that at the
lowest point? (d) How do the magnitudes of the normal force compare at those two points?
ANSWER: (𝑎⃗ is directed toward center of circular path)
(a) 𝑎⃗ downward, 𝐹⃗𝑁 upward; (b) 𝑎⃗ and 𝐹⃗𝑁 upward; (c) same; (d) greater at lowest point.
11
PROBLEM: Largely because of riding in

cars, you are used to horizontal circular
motion. Vertical circular motion would be a
novelty. In this sample problem, such motion
seems to defy the gravitational force.
In a 1901 circus performance, Allo
“Dare Devil” Diavolo introduced the stunt of
riding a bicycle in a loop-the-loop (Fig. a).
Assuming that the loop is a circle with radius
𝑅 = 2.7 𝑚, what is the least speed v that
Diavolo and his bicycle could have at the top
of the loop to remain in contact with it there?
ANSWER: Forces on the particle when it is

at the top of the loop are shown in the free-
body diagram of Fig b. The gravitational
force 𝐹⃗𝑔 is downward along a y axis; so is the
normal force 𝐹⃗𝑁 on the particle from the Figure (a) Contemporary advertisement for Diavolo and
loop; and so is the centripetal acceleration of (b) free-body diagram for the performer at the top of the
the particle. loop.
Thus, Newton’s second law for y components (𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 ) gives us

𝑣2
−𝐹𝑁 − 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚(−𝑎) ⇒ −𝐹𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚 (− )
𝑅
If the particle has the least speed 𝑣 needed to remain in contact, then it is on the verge of losing
contact with the loop (falling away from the loop), which means that 𝐹𝑁 = 0 at the top of the loop
(the particle and loop touch but without any normal force). Substituting 0 for 𝐹𝑁 in Equation, we
get
𝑣2 𝑚
0 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚 (− ) ⇒ 𝑣 = √𝑔𝑅 = √(9.8 ) (2.7 𝑚) = 5.1 𝑚/𝑠
𝑅 𝑠2
Diavolo made certain that his speed at the top of the loop was greater than 5.1 𝑚/𝑠 so that he did
not lose contact with the loop and fall away from it. This speed requirement is independent of the
mass of Diavolo and his bicycle.
PROBLEM 06-44: During an Olympic bobsled run, the Jamaican team makes a turn of radius
7.6 𝑚 at a speed of 96.6 𝑘𝑚/ℎ.What is their acceleration in terms of 𝑔?
PROBLEM 06-46: A police officer in hot pursuit drives her car through a circular turn of radius
300 𝑚 with a constant speed of 80.0 𝑘𝑚/ℎ. Her mass is 55.0 𝑘𝑔. What are (a) the magnitude and
(b) the angle (relative to vertical) of the net force of the officer on the car seat?
12
PROBLEM 06-47: A circular-motion addict of mass 80 𝑘𝑔 rides a Ferris wheel around in a

vertical circle of radius 10 𝑚 at a constant speed of 6.1 𝑚/𝑠. (a) What is the period of the motion?
What is the magnitude of the normal force on the addict from the seat when both go through (b)
the highest point of the circular path and (c) the lowest point?
PROBLEM 06-48: A roller-coaster car at an amusement park has a mass of 1200 𝑘𝑔 when fully
loaded with passengers. As the car passes over the top of a circular hill of radius 18 𝑚, assume that
its speed is not changing.At the top of the hill, what are the (a) magnitude 𝐹𝑁 and (b) direction (up
or down) of the normal force on the car from the track if the car’s speed is 𝑣 = 11 𝑚/𝑠? What are
(c) 𝐹𝑁 and (d) the direction if 𝑣 = 14 𝑚/𝑠?
13

LECTURE (NOTE) - Module 01 - Measurement

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LECTURE (NOTE) - Module 01 - Measurement

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PHY-107 Module 01: Measurement

Physics is the study of,

Physics deals with,

NOTE: Why do we need to consider unit of quantity?

THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS:

CHECKPOINT: Express 2.11×10-6 m and 6.63×106 watt using prefixes.

CHECKPOINT: Convert 4 kg to grams.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND DECIMAL PLACES

- The rules for determining significant figures are as follows:

ROUNDING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES:

- Rounding introduces a level of approximation.

CHECKPOINT: What is the number of significant figures in 0.001 and 0.100?

A 2nd mass standard is atomic mass unit (u).

CHECKPOINT: Convert 5.2 gm/cm3 to kg/m3.

The total volume,

MODULE 2: MOTION ALONE A STRAIGHT LINE

THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTION ARE:

POSITION & DISPLACEMENT:

Mathematically defined as (a change from

ANSWER: The (b) and (c) provide the negative displacement.

AVERAGE VELOCITY & AVERAGE SPEED

▪ Its magnitude is the magnitude of the line’s slope.

∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 10.4 𝑘𝑚 − 0 = 10.4 𝑘𝑚.

(b) Given that,

The walking time interval ∆𝑡𝑤𝑙𝑘 (= 30 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 0.50 ℎ),

(c) Here, Total displacement, ∆𝑥 = 10.4 𝑘𝑚

o To find 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 graphically, first we graph the function

o Your average velocity is the slope of the straight

The total distance is 8.4 𝑘𝑚 + 2.0 𝑘𝑚 + 2.0 𝑘𝑚 = 12.4 𝑘𝑚.

INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY (𝒗 ⃗⃗):

ANSWER: (check the derivative dx/dt)

PROBLEM 02-03: An automobile travels on a straight road for 40 km at 30 km/h. It then

MODULE 2: MOTION ALONE A STRAIGHT LINE

INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION (a):

Where, 𝑎 is the instantaneous acceleration, 𝑑𝑉 is the

QUESTION 02-01: Figure gives the velocity of a

QUESTION 02-02: Figure gives the acceleration a(t)

PROBLEM: A particle’s position on the x axis is given by 𝑥 = 4 − 27𝑡 + 𝑡 3 , with 𝑥 in meters

(b) Setting 𝑣(𝑡) = 0 yields 0 = −27 + 3𝑡 2 ,

𝒕=𝟎𝒔 𝒕=𝟏𝒔 𝒕=𝟐𝒔 𝒕=𝟑𝒔 𝒕=𝟒𝒔

For 0 < 𝑡 < 3 𝑠,

CONSTANT ACCELERATION (a):

CONSTANT ACCELERATION (g):

Therefore, slop of 𝒗 𝒗𝒔 𝒕 graph is 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 .

we know, 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

FREE FALL ACCELERATION

NOTE: For free fall acceleration,

PROBLEM: On September 26, 1993. Dave Munday went over

PROBLEM: In Figure, a pitcher tosses a baseball up along a

(b) At ball’s release point, 𝑦0 = 0. We know, 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑦0 )

(c) Given that displacement from initial point, 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 5 𝑚

Solving this quadratic equation for t yields, 𝑡 = 0.53 𝑠 and 𝑡 = 1.9 𝑠.

PROBLEM 02-23: An electron with an initial velocity 𝑣0 =

GRAPHICAL INTEGRATION IN MOTION ANALYSIS

The integral amounts to finding an area on the graph:

where 𝑥0 is the position at time 𝑡0 and 𝑥1 is the position at time 𝑡1 .

Combining Eqs. 2-27 and 2-28, we can write

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

𝑯𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒆𝟐 = 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓𝟐 + 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆𝟐

Consider a right-angled triangle 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶. From the below figure, it

Considering 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝛥𝐵𝐷𝐶 from the below figure.

ANSWER: Given, two sides are a= 4 cm, and b = 10 cm