Form One Physics Notes

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REFACE
Physics form one notes 2020, has been written comprehensively to meet the needs of form one
physics students as required by the ministry of education Zanzibar (MOEZ). It covers all topics for
form one class as prescribed by the Tanzania syllabus.
The book contains;
 All complete notes for form one class which cover the current syllabus.
 Theoretical and objective questions that will boost the students in reading and understanding
of the basic concepts
 Numerical questions provided with answers to enhance the student’s enthusiasm in solving
numerical problems and improve an individual academic performance.
A student is required to read the book intensively and answer all questions for better understanding
and good preparation for both school and national examinations.
The book is prepared by Mr. Hamad H. Ali a teacher in Laureate international school Zanzibar.
Contact: +255 773 158 813
CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

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Table of Contents
TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS .................................................................................... 1

What is physics? ............................................................................................................................ 1
Branches of physics ....................................................................................................................... 1
Applications of Physics in Real Life ............................................................................................. 2
Importance of studying physics ..................................................................................................... 3
TOPIC 2. INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY ......................................................................... 4
Laboratory safety rule .................................................................................................................... 4
Laboratory Apparatus .................................................................................................................... 4
First Aid ......................................................................................................................................... 6
Fire ................................................................................................................................................. 7
Warning Signs ................................................................................................................................ 8
Basic principles of scientific observation .................................................................................... 10
TOPIC 3. MEASUREMENT.......................................................................................................... 12
Physical Quantities....................................................................................................................... 12
Length .......................................................................................................................................... 12
Vernier Calipers ........................................................................................................................... 13
Micrometer Screw Gauge ............................................................................................................ 15
Mass ............................................................................................................................................. 16
Time ............................................................................................................................................. 18
Derived quantities ........................................................................................................................ 19
Volume ......................................................................................................................................... 19
Volume of Irregular Objects ........................................................................................................ 21
Density ......................................................................................................................................... 23
Determination of densities of liquids ........................................................................................... 25
Relative density ............................................................................................................................ 27
Errors in measurement ................................................................................................................. 29

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TOPIC 4. FORCE ........................................................................................................................... 32

Fundamental types of forces ........................................................................................................ 32
Effects and type of Forces............................................................................................................ 34
TOPIC 5. ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE AND THE LAW OF FLOTATION ............................. 36
Concept of up thrust ..................................................................................................................... 36
Real weight and apparent weight ................................................................................................. 36
Archimedes Principle ................................................................................................................... 36
Determination of relative density ................................................................................................ 38
Sinking and floating ..................................................................................................................... 39
Application of the laws of floatation in everyday life ................................................................. 41
Hydrometer .................................................................................................................................. 43
TOPIC 6. STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER ....................................................... 46

Structure and Properties of Matter ............................................................................................... 46
Kinetic Theory of Matter ............................................................................................................. 46
Elasticity....................................................................................................................................... 46
Hook’s law ................................................................................................................................... 47
Surface Tension ........................................................................................................................... 48
Factor affecting the surface tension ............................................................................................. 49
Adhesion and Cohesion ............................................................................................................... 49
Capillarity..................................................................................................................................... 50
Osmosis ........................................................................................................................................ 51
Diffusion ...................................................................................................................................... 51
TOPIC 7. PRESSURE .................................................................................................................... 52
Pressure due to solid .................................................................................................................... 52
Pressure due to Liquid ................................................................................................................. 54
Pascal’s Principle ......................................................................................................................... 56

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Hydraulic Press ............................................................................................................................ 56

Atmospheric pressure................................................................................................................... 58
Hare’s apparatus........................................................................................................................... 59
Manometer ................................................................................................................................... 60
Barometer ..................................................................................................................................... 60
Siphon .......................................................................................................................................... 61
TOPIC 8. WORK ENERGY AND POWER .................................................................................. 63

Work............................................................................................................................................. 63
Energy .......................................................................................................................................... 64
Transformation of Energy ............................................................................................................ 67
Motion of a pendulum bob........................................................................................................... 68
Power ........................................................................................................................................... 69
TOPIC 9. LIGHT ............................................................................................................................ 71

Properties of light ......................................................................................................................... 71
Rays and beams of light ............................................................................................................... 71
Materials and light ....................................................................................................................... 72
Shadow ......................................................................................................................................... 72
Eclipse .......................................................................................................................................... 72
Pin-hole camera (dark chamber) .................................................................................................. 73
Reflection of light ........................................................................................................................ 75
Formation of image by plane mirror ............................................................................................ 76

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TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
Introduction to Physics → Physics can be divided into two main

categories: theoretical and practical
→ In primary school level, you studied a subject
known as science. Probably you learnt that Theoretical physics
science is the study of living and nonliving
This deals with the development of the new
things, or the study of nature.
theories. It is mostly practiced through critical
In secondary school level, science is divided into thinking and reading books. This is what is
three separate subjects. These are biology, taught in the classrooms.
chemistry and physics.
Practical physics
→ Biology deals with living things while
This deals with experimental testing of these
chemistry and physics deals with nonliving
new theories, hence; we can say that “physics is
things.
an experimental science which creates theories
What is physics? that are tested against observation of the natural
Physics is the study of the relationship between world”.
matter and energy. The people who study
Branches of physics
physics is called physicists
There are many branches of physics, include:
→ Physics comes from Greek word “physikos”
1. Acoustics – the study of sound and sound
which means “natural”.
waves
→ Matter is anything that has weight and 2. Astronomy – the study of universe
occupies space. There are three states of matter. 3. Biophysics – the study of physics in living
These are: things
4. Electronics – the study of flow of electrons
1) Solid: e.g. iron, stone, glass, book etc,
in the circuit
2) Liquids: e.g. water, milk, ethanol etc
5. Geophysics – the study of physical
3) Gases: e.g. hydrogen, oxygen, carbon
properties of the earth
dioxide etc.
6. Mechanics – the study of motion of bodies
→ Energy is the capacity of doing work. For a 7. Optics – the study of light and its properties
person to do work he must possess energy and 8. Electromagnetism - This is the study of
use the energy for doing the work. No energy no electrical and magnetic fields
work can be done.

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Relationship between Physics and Other  Barometer which used to measure the
Subject atmospheric pressure made by physicist
Chemistry, biology and physics are all natural Applications of Physics in Real Life
sciences, but physics is the most fundamental of The knowledge of physics is applied in different
them all. This is largely because the operations areas like homes, hospitals, banks, industries,
of other natural sciences depend on the airports, communications, etc.
application of physics in one way or another. At home
For example:
 All tools and machines used at home are
Chemistry: made by using physics: For example,
Composition and decomposing of matter Crowbars, Hammers, door handles, cutlery,
involves energy. For Example, hinges, car jack, pulleys, TV, radio, iron etec
 Cooking stoves, fuel burn to release heat In medical field

energy  Machines such laser, x-ray, incubators,
 Insect killers and Perfumes packed in ultrasound and infrared machines are
container by compressed which comes out invented by Physicists
with high pressure  Proper handling and correct use of these
Biology machines are based on the knowledge and
skills acquired in Physics.
Since biology is the scientific subject, which
involves living and non-living things, which Source of energy
may be micro and macro organism, it uses All sources of the earth energies are explained in
application of physics. For Example, physics, For example
 Microscope which made by physicist is used  Batteries and generators provide electrical
to observe micro organism energy
 Syringe is based on pressure from physics  bulbs they provide light energy
Mathematics In transport
Physicist should master mathematics because All vessels used in transportation are the results
physics problems may involve calculation of the concept of physics. For Example, cars,
ships, aeroplane, trains etc
Geography
In communication
Geography needs many instruments in its
applications: for Example, All devices used in communication systems are
the results of concept of physics. For Example,
 Rain gauge, wind vane and hygrometer are telephones, modems, television, cables etc
developed by physicist

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In entertainment Exercise 1
Physics enable people to enjoy a variety of 1. Define Physics.
leisure activities, games and photographic films, 2. What is science?
for example, digital appliances, exercise 3. Define the following terms
machines and other sport equipment. a. Matter
In industry b. Physicist
4. Mention and explain three branches of
Physicists have been able to come up with tools science.
and process that have resulted in advanced 5. What are the career opportunities for
technological equipment and new discoveries. physicists?
6. Mention four sea transport vessels that
In schools
relay on the laws of physics
The instruments and apparatus used in school 7. Mention any two forms of energy and
laboratories are made through the application of explain how they are useful in everyday
physics principles life.
8. Why it is important to study Physics?
Importance of studying physics
(give four points)
 It enables us answer different questions
9. Write down five domestic uses of
about physical properties of matter, e.g. why
electrical energy.
the ship floats on the sea while a small stone
10.Match the items in the table below
sinks?
 It enables people to acquire skills that are Item A Item B
required in different professions like
engineering, teaching etc. a) Physics i) Occupy space and has
 It is used in manufacturing different items mass
which are useful in our daily life, e.g. b) Matter ii) Related to physics
electric devices, machines, etc
 Physics develop a logical and numerate c) Chemistry iii) Physikos
mind. d) Physicists iv) Studies physics
 Physics makes our work easier for instance,
use of cars, aeroplanes, washing machines,
calculators etc.

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TOPIC 2. INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY

PRACTICE
9. Keep the laboratory equipment away from
A laboratory is a special room or building which edges of the corking bench.
is designed and equipped for carrying out 10.Never attempt to blow out fire even a small
scientific experiments.
one.
A laboratory is usually supplied with water, 11.Never use bare hands to handle hot objects.
sources of heat and electricity. It must also be 12.Do not use dirty or broken apparatus.
well equipped with tools commonly called 13.Report all accidents and injuries to the
apparatus, which are used for carrying out teacher or laboratory assistant.
14.After experiments:
experiments.
 Clean the working area
Laboratory safety rule  Wash your hands with water and soap.
Laboratories may contain dangerous and  Arrange all apparatus in their places
poisonous substances. And some of the studies Safety measures in physics laboratory
conducted in the laboratory can also be harmful,
1. A laboratory should be well ventilated and
hence; precautions are highly needed in the use door should open outwards.
of laboratory to avoid damage and accidents. 2. The working fire extinguishers should be
Some of the rules and precautions are: fitted in an accessible position.
1. Do not enter laboratory without permission. 3. Laboratory floor should not be polished as
2. Do not perform any un-authorized this will make them slippery.
experiment. 4. Laboratory should be equipped with the first
3. Avoid running, or playing in the laboratory aid kit.
4. Do not touch any electrical equipment with 5. Cabinets and drawer must present for storing
wet hands. apparatus
5. Ensure that all gases and water taps are 6. Emergence exit should present and easy to
closed after use. access and use
6. Handle all apparatus with care to avoid Laboratory Apparatus
damage. laboratory apparatus is the special tools or
7. Avoid tasting, eating or drinking anything in instruments used for carrying out the
the laboratory. experiments in the laboratory.
8. Arrange the materials you have used in an
orderly manner. → The table below shows some apparatus and
their uses

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Items Uses Photo Spring For

balance measuring
Measuring For force in
cylinder measuring Newton
volume of
liquids
Slotted Used for
masses measuring
the quantity
Thermomet For of matter.
er measuring
temperature
Magnets For
of
demonstratin
substances
g attraction
Stop watch To measure and
time repulsion
Ball and For

ring demonstratin
apparatus g thermal
A ruler For
expansion
measuring
length
Tripod For
Relative For stand providing a
density measuring platform for
bottle relative heating for
density of stability
liquid
Wire gauze For
Beaker Used as
providing
container
equal
also used to
distribution
estimate the
of heat while
volume of
burning
liquids
Calorimeter Used in
experiment Flasks For holding
to determine liquids
the quantity during
of heat. experiment

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Pipette For Electronic For

transferring balance measuring
specific but mass in more
small precise
volume of values
liquids
→ After experiment, apparatus should be  It prevents the victim’s condition from

cleaned and returned or stored to their position becoming worse
 It promotes recovery by bringing hope and
Exercise 2.1 encouragement to the victim
1. Define laboratory  It helps to reduce pain and suffering
2. List down any three features which  It prevents infection
differentiate a laboratory from other First Aid Kit
school facilities like library and
computer room A first aid kit is the small box contains items,
3. List down any five laboratory rules which are used to give help to a sick person.
4. Define laboratory apparatus Items Found in First Aid Kit
5. Draw the following apparatus and state
their uses  Antiseptic soap – For washing hands,
a. Measuring cylinder wounds and equipment
b. Beam balance  Assorted bandage – For covering wounds
c. Spring balance  Cotton wool – For cleaning, covering and
d. Ball and ring apparatus drying wounds
 Disposable sterile gloves - For preventing
direct contact with victim’s body fluids
First Aid  Liniment – For reducing muscular pain
First aid is the immediate help given to a sick or  Painkillers – for relieving pain
injured person before getting professional  Adhesive bandage (plaster) – For covering
medical help minor wounds
 Thermometer – For measure body
Importance of First Aid
temperature
 It helps to preserve life  Sterile gauze – For covering wounds to
protect them from dirty and germ

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 Scissors and razor blades – For cutting  No interference with electrical installation.
dressing materials  All electrical appliances must be switched
 Petroleum jelly – For smoothening and off after use.
soothing skin.  All sources of heat should not be kept near
Causes of Laboratory Accident the bench edges where they can be easily
knocked down.
 Slippery floor,
 Incorrect use and handling of apparatus,  All flammable substances should be locked
 Gas leakages from faulty gas taps, up in drawers or cabinet.
 Fires.
→ All these principles are aimed at preventing
 Failure to follow the right experimental
procedures and laid down safety rules. fire accidents but sometimes they do occur.
Therefore, when they occur we have a duty to
Fire stop it using appropriate fire extinguishers.
Fire is a chemical reaction that involve heat,
oxygen and fuel. They all combined together to The table below shows a suitable extinguisher
produce fire, flame, smoke and heat. for each class of fire.
→ Fire is a result of complete combustion
Fire Burning medium Most
Fire triangle class appropriate
extinguisher
Class Organic solids (wood, Water

A paper, plastics, wool)
Class Flammable liquids Dry powder,

B and gases e.g. petrol,
paraffin, alcohol
→ Fire is one of the most highly destructive in Class Flammable gases e.g. Dry powder
laboratory accidents. It can be caused by: C methane, LPG
1) Electrical fault Class Combustible Dry powder

2) Smoking materials D materials e.g.
3) Carelessness magnesium or sodium
4) Ignorance and negligence
Class Electrical hazards e.g. Carbon
Principles of fire prevention E damaged electrical dioxide
cables, switch boards
 No lighting of open fires near the building.
 No smoking in prohibited areas.
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→ Why water is not a suitable extinguisher for Warning Signs

fire class B? Warning signs are special symbols which are
used to indicate the type of danger or accident
Answer: Water is denser than flammable liquid
that can be caused by a particular substance.
so flammable liquids will float over water
results the fire continues. → This signs should have obeyed to avoid
Exercise 2.2 accidents, some of the warning signs are:
1. What is first aid? 1. Toxic

2. What is meant by first aid kit? Toxic symbol means that a substance is
3. Briefly explain the importance of giving dangerous and can cause death within a short
first aid to an injured person (three point) time. Toxic substances containing poisonous
4. Write true for correct and false for ingredients, Example, of toxic substance is jik,
incorrect statements for each of the mercury etc
following:
a) You should move the victim of electric
shock using a metallic object ------
b) First Aid helps to preserve life -----
c) Eating in the laboratory is prohibited---
d) It is not important to have a first aid kit → Toxic Substance Enter the Body Through
in a school-------
 Ingestion (by eating and drinking)
e) Thermometers are used for measuring
 Inhalation (by breathing)
body temperatures -----------
 By injection (by syringe, bite or insect)
5. What are the burning materials for the
following classes of fire? 2. Irritant/Harmful
a) Class A Harmful substance affects our health whenever
b) Class B we get exposed to them for long time. Examples
c) Class E of harmful substances are alcohol, paint,
6. State three necessary conditions for fire insecticides, cigarettes etc.
to occur?
7. Is it advisable to use water for stopping
fire caused by petrol? Why?
8. What are the causes of laboratory
accident?

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Flammable Radio Active
Flammable symbol means that the substance can Radioactive symbol means that the substance
catch fire easily. For Example, gasoil, kerosene, emits harmful radiations that can penetrate
human body and cause damage. For Example,
petrol, butane, methane, spirit etc
uranium, plutonium etc
Oxidizing Agent
Oxidizing agent symbol means that the

Danger of Electric Shock
substance can speed up the rate of burning. For
Example, oxygen gas, chlorine gas, fluorine gas Danger of electric shock symbol means that the
and hydrogen peroxide. substance can cause electric shock on touch. It
has very high voltage that that is dangerous to
human being.
Corrosive
Corrosive substances corrode floors, surfaces, as

well as skin. Examples are: acids, sodium, Fragile
hydroxide and ammonia
Fragile symbol means that: the material can
easily break, so they should be handled with
care. Example, glass.

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Explosive Basic principles of scientific observation

The knowledge of science is obtained by
Explosive symbol means that the substance can
performing systematic investigation. During
erupt or explode easily. Always store in a
scientific investigation scientific methods are
special container
applied. The goals of scientific methods are the
same but the methods may differ from one field
to another.
→ Scientific method is a set techniques used by

scientists to investigate a problem or answer the
questions.
→ Never store explosive material in glass
container because when explode pieces of glass → Also called scientific procedure or scientific
would fly all over and injure people investigation or scientific methods
Careful Steps of a Scientific Method
Careful symbol that is the caution advice you to 1. Problem identification: This is the first step
be carefully of scientific method. It is to identify a
problem or puzzling situation.
2. Asking questions: A physicist asks questions
based on what he/she has observed and want
to learn more about.
3. Formulation of hypothesis: hypothesis is
untested statement or an intelligent guess that
Keep Away from Water
tries to explain an observation.
Keep away from water symbol that is the 4. Performing an experiment: Experiment is
caution advice you to keep item away from the used to test selected hypothesis variables.
water. For Example, computer, mobile phones, These variables are categorized into three
radio etc aspects:
a) Independent variable: this is a variable
which cause other variables to change.
b) Dependent variables: this is the variable
which changes due to the change of
independent variable.
c) Controlled variable: this is a variable
which is kept constant throughout the
experiment.
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5. Data collection and analysis: from the Significance of the Scientific Procedure
experiment data is collected and presented in
 It helps us to solve scientific problems
a desired format. For example, in table
 It helps us to gain new knowledge
6. Data interpretation: after recording the
 It helps us to conduct project work
data, you may look for the possible trends
 It helps us to carry out field study
and you can explain why they occur that
 It helps us to solve problems or answer
way.
scientific questions
7. Data presentation: it involves the use of
mathematical concepts. This could include Exercise 2.3
the use of pie chart, line graphs, bar graphs.
1. What do you understand by the term
8. Drawing conclusion: a conclusion is a short warning signs?
summary which agrees or disagree with 2. List down any three significances of
hypothesis. warning signs to people.
3. What is scientific method?
→ The summary of scientific investigation is 4. Use a flow chart to write all steps
shown by the following flow chart involved in scientific investigation
5. Define hypothesis
6. What must be done if the conclusion is
not agreed with the hypothesis?
7. Fill the blank space by writing the correct
answers.
a. First aid prevents _________ from
becoming worse, _________recovery
by bringing _______ helps ______
pain and prevents infections
b. Toxic substance contains _______
and can inter our body by ________,
______ or __________
8. Draw the following warning signs:
i. Corrosive
ii. Flammable
iii. Toxic
9. Explain the following
a. Dependent variable
b. Independent variable
c. Controlled variable
10.What is the appropriate warning sign for
the following items?
a. A gallon of petrol
b. Electric post
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TOPIC 3. MEASUREMENT
Most of the experiments performed in the Fundamental Quantities

laboratory are quantitative in nature and hence
Fundamental quantities Are those quantities
they require measurement of some type.
which do not depend on other quantities for their
→ Measurement is the process of assigning
existence. They are not obtained from other
numbers to observations or events.
physical quantity. There are seven fundamental
→ Measurement have two parts; number part
and unit part. E.g. 25 km, 6 kg. quantities as shown in the following table.
 Number part: This gives the results or Physical quantity S. I. Unit Symbol
magnitude of the comparison or event or
observation 1. Length Metre m
 Unit part is a standard into which physical
quantities can be used. 2. Mass Kilogram Kg
→ The three basic quantities we measure are: 3. Time Second s

length, mass and time.
4. Electric Ampere A
→ For the ancient time, different countries used
current
different units to identify the same physical
quantity. For instance, Britain used foot for
5. Temperature Kelvin K
length, the pound for mass and the second for
time. This was foot-pound-second system. While 6. Amount of Mole mol
France used metre- kilogram- second system. In
1960, the general conference recommended the substance
use of uniform system called International
7. Luminous Candela cd
System of Units, shortened as S.I. units in all
languages. intensity
Physical Quantities
Quantity is the physical properties of matter that
can be measured. There are two types of Length
quantities, these are: fundamental quantities and Length is the interval between any two points.
derived quantities. There are different words to express length like;

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radius, diameter, height, circumference, Vernier Calipers

perimeter, width, height, pitch etc. It is an instrument used to measure small length
of an object to an accuracy of 0.01 cm. It is
→ The length is measured using metre rule, tape
more accurate than metre rule.
measure, veneer calipers, micrometer screw
gauge etc.
→ The S. I. unit of length is metre (m). There

are several other units obtained from the metre.
These are decimetre, centimetre, hectometer,
kilometre, etc.
→ For large multiples and sub multiples of

metre, the following words are used.
 Milli (m) = 10-3

 Kilo (K) = 103 Uses of Vernier calipers
 Micro (µ) = 10-6
 Outside jaws: They are used for measuring
 Mega (M) = 106
outside diameter of cylinder
 Giga (G) = 109
 Inside jaws: They are used for measuring
 Nano (n) = 10-9
inside diameter of cylinder
 Pico (p) = 10-12
 Depth probe: it is used to measure the depth
Measurement of length using metre rule of the cavity.
 Retainer: it is used for opening and closing
→ A metre rule is a wooden bar of 1 m long the movable jaws.
calibrated in centimeters and millmetres.  Locking screw: it is used for locking a
→ When taking measurement, the following movable jaw.
precautions must be taken so as to minimize the → A Vernier calipers can measure the length to
error. about 12 cm.
 Ensure the zero mark is placed exactly on
Reading the Vernier calipers
one end of the object.
 Put the metre rule to the contact with the After fixing the object on the jaws:
object.
1) Record the reading on the main scale which
 Observer’s eye must be perpendicular to the
precedes the zero mark of the sliding vernier
scale. Wrong positioning of the observer’s
scale. This will give you the first two digits.
eye results in an error called parallax error.
The reading is in centimetres.

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2) Look along the sliding vernier scale and

3. What is Vernier calipers?
record a mark which coincides with the
4. Fill the blanks space in each of the
mark on the main scale. This will give you
following:
the third digit. (the reading is in 10
a. The two parts of measurement are
divisions of mm, hence multiply it by 0.01
______and ______
to be in cm).
b. Length is measured in _________
c. The accuracy of metre rule _____cm
while that of Vernier calipers is _____cm
5. List down seven fundamental quantities
and their units.
6. Three uses of Vernier calipers are;
3) Add the linear scale reading with the a. _________________
Vernier scale reading to get the total b. __________________
reading. c. ___________________
Example 1. 7. The figures below are the part extracted
from the Vernier calipers. What is the
From below diagram, determine the diameter reading of each?
of object.
Solution:
Main scale reading = 9.9cm
Vernier scale reading = 2 x 0.01 = O.02cm
Total reading = (9.9 + 0.02) cm = 9.92cm

Exercise 3.1 8. Draw the Vernier scale of the Vernier
calipers to show the reading of:
1. Define the following terms
a. 2.6cm
a. Measurement
b. 1.38 cm
b. Physical quantities
c. 8.27 cm
2. Name three devices used to measure
the length of an object.

15
Micrometer Screw Gauge → Before using micrometer screw gauge, close

It is an instrument used to measure the diameter its jaws first to determining if it contains zero
of a very small object to an accuracy of error or not.
0.001cm. Usually it is used to measure diameter
→ Zero error is error arises when scale is not
of thin objects like wire and ball bearings. It is
starting from zero mark
more accurate than Vernier calipers
→ Zero error should be added or subtracted
→ It can measure small length up to 2.5 cm.
from all subsequent reading
Example 1,
From below diagram, determine the diameter of

object.
How to read?
After fixing the object with the anvil and the

spindle:
Solution:
1) Record the last visible mark on the sleeve
(the scale is in mm) Main scale = 9.5mm
2) Record the mark on the thimble which Thimble scale = 31 x 0.01mm = 0.31mm
coincides with the mark on the sleeve. The
thimble consists of 50 divisions or 100 Total reading = (9.5 + 0.31) mm = 9.81mm
divisions. To change in mm, multiply by Or total reading = 0.981cm
0.01 mm.
3) Add the sleeve scale with the thimble scale Exercise 3.2
to obtain the total reading.
1. What is micrometer screw gauge?
2. Draw a well labeled diagram for
micrometer screw gauge and state its
function
3. What is the difference between
micrometer screw gauge of 100 divisions
and the one with 50 divisions of their
thimble scale?
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4. To measure the diameter of a wire The S.I. unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). Other
using micrometer screw gauge, the wire units are; mg, cg, dg, hg tone etc.
is fixed between _______ and ______ The mass of an object seems to be the same as
5. Find the reading from the following its weight, but these are two different physical
diagrams quantities.
→ Difference between mass and weight
Mass Weight
1. It is the quantity 1. It is the force of
of matter in an gravity on an
object object
2. It is constant 2. It varies with
position
3. It is measured by 3. It is measured
beam balance by spring
balance
4. It is fundamental 4. It is derived
quantity quantity
5. The S.I. unit is 5. The S.I unit is
kilogram (kg) the Newton
(N)
6. Draw the micrometer screw gauge to Beam Balance

show the following reading:
a. 8.65 mm A beam balance is the device used to measure
b. 18.37mm mass of an object. There are different types of
beam balance like, lever arm balance, triple
beam balance and digital balance.
Mass
→ Lever arm balance uses principle of moment
Mass is the quantity of matter in an object. Mass
to measure the mass of unknown objects
is measured by a beam balance, triple balance,
digital balance, etc.

17
3) Move the 1-gram weight to the right until

the indicator just drops below the fixed
mark. Move again to the left mark and
record the value
4) Add the reading obtained to get total
reading.
Triple Beam Balance
Example,
Triple beam balance uses principle of moment to
measure the mass of unknown objects in gram. The diagram below shows the measurement of
piece of iron. Determine the mass of the object
Solution:
→ It contains three (triple) beam with specific
standard mass marking, which are: 100-gram beam reading is 0g
 100-gram beam 10-gram beam reading is 20g

 10-gram beam
1-gram beam reading is 5g
 1-gram beam
Mass of object is 0g + 20g + 5g = 25g
How to Use Triple Beam Balance?
The mass of object is = 25g
Move all three beams left when pan is empty
until reads zero mark. Then place an object to Digital Balance
the pan.
Digital balance is very sensitive weighting
1) Move the 100-gram weight to the right until balance. It can measure masses to an accuracy of
the indicator just drops below the fixed the thousandth (0.001g) of a gram. The object
mark. Move again to the left mark and placed on the pan on top of the balance and the
record the value mass read from the digital display
2) Move the 10-gram weight to the right until
the indicator just drops below the fixed
mark. Move again to the left mark and
record the value

18
Conversion of units of time
To convert units, you can use cross-

multiplication method, or short cut (you need to
multiply or divide by the equivalence value).
 If the conversion is from bigger to

smaller unit you have to multiply
 If the conversion is from smaller to
bigger unit, you have to divide
Time
Time is the period within which an event takes
place. Or Is the interval between two events. Example1
Time is measured by clock or stop watch. Change 36 hours into days and hours
The S.I. unit of time is the second (s). Other Solution

units of time are minute, hour, day, week, 1 day = 24 hours
month, year, decade, century and millennium.
36 hours =24 hours +12 hours =1 day 12 hours
→ Relations on units of time
Example 2:
Unit of time Equivalence
Change 6 days into minutes
1 minute 60 seconds
Solution.
1 hour 60 minutes
Since the conversion is from bigger to smaller
1 day 24 hours we have to multiply.
1 week 7 days 1 day = 24 hours and 1 hour =60 minutes
1 month 30 or 31 days 6 days = 6 × 24 × 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 = 8640𝑚𝑖𝑛
1 year 12 months Example 3:
1 decade 10 years How many weeks are there in 30240 minutes?
1 century 10 decades = 100 years Solution
1 10 centuries = 100 decades = Since the conversion is from smaller to bigger
millennium 1000 years we need to divide.
1 week =7 days, 1 day = 24 hours, 1Hour =
60minutes

19
30240 Volume of regular shaped objects

30240𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘 = 3𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑠
7 × 24 × 60
Regular objects have definite or known shapes.
Exercise 3.3 The volume of regular shaped objects can be

calculated using the formula.
1. What is mass?
2. Write down four differences between
mass and weight Volume = cross-sectional area × length
3. Define time and state its S.I unit produced
4. Convert the following units of time
a. 6¼ days into seconds. Volume of different regular objects:
b. 56 days into hours.
1) Cuboids: (rectangular block or box shaped)
c. 7200 seconds into hours.
5. How many hours are there in 3 Volume = length × breadth × height
weeks?
6. How many seconds will make 4 days? 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑏ℎ
Derived quantities Example 1.

Derived quantities are those quantities that Find the volume of a box whose dimensions are
depend on the other quantities for their 2.5 m, 1.6 m and 2 m.
existence; e.g. Area, Volume, Density, Pressure,
Speed, Acceleration, Force, Weight, etc. Solution
Volume Volume = 𝑙ℎ𝑏 = 2.5 𝑚 × 1.6 𝑚 × 2 𝑚

Volume is the amount of space occupied by an
𝑉 = 8 𝑚³
object.
2) Cube: is a cuboid whose dimensions are
→ The S.I. unit of volume is m3. Other units are
equal. (i.e. a box of equal sides)
cm3, litre, millilitre, decilitre, etc.
Volume = L3
Their equivalent is as follows
 1litre = 1000 cm3

 1litre = 1000 mL Example 1: Find the volume of the cube of sides
 I litre = 1dm3 (a) 2 cm (b) 3.2 cm
 1ml = 1cm3 Solution
a) Volume = L3
20
V= 2cm× 2cm ×2cm = 8 cm3 4) Sphere

b) Volume = L3
V= 3.2 cm×3.2 cm×3.2 cm = 32.786 cm3 4
Volume = 𝜋𝑟³
3
Example 2:
Find the length of the sides of the cubes whose
volumes is 27 cm3
Example
Solution
Find the volume of a sphere of radius (a) 21 cm.
3
V=L (b) 2.7 cm
3 3
√27𝑐𝑚³ = √𝐿³ Solution
3 3 4
√3³𝑐𝑚³ = √𝐿³ cancel cube root and power Volume = 𝜋𝑟³
3
4 22
3 cm = L V= × ×21cm×21cm×21cm
3 7
∴ Length of one side is 3cm V = 38808 cm3
3) Cylinder 5) Cone
1
Volume = 𝜋𝑟²ℎ Volume = 𝜋𝑟 3
3
Example: Example. Find the volume of cone whose radius

Find the volume of cylinder of diameter 14 cm is 2cm and its height is 9cm. (use π 3.14)
and height 20 cm Solution
1
Solution Volume = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3
𝑑 14𝑐𝑚 1
𝑟= = = 7𝑐𝑚 V = ×3.14×22 × 9
2 2 3
Then, volume = 𝜋𝑟²ℎ 𝑉 = 37.68𝑐𝑚3
V=
22
× 7𝑐𝑚 × 7𝑐𝑚 × 20 𝑐𝑚 ‫ ؞‬The volume of cone is 37.68𝑐𝑚3
7
𝑉 = 3080 𝑐𝑚³

21
Exercise 3.4 Displacement Method
1. What is derived quantities? Volume of irregular object is based on the

2. List down any five derived quantities and principle that when an object is completely
their S.I Units submerged in liquid, it displaces a volume of
3. Define volume and state its S.I unit liquid equals to its own volume. This can be
4. Calculate the volume of rectangular block done by either graduated cylinder or eureka can.
of sides 15cm, 8cm and 7cm. Write your
Using graduated cylinder
answer in
a. 𝑚3 A graduated cylinder is used to measure the
b. 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 (𝑙) volume of a liquid that is
(Ans a = 840 cm3, b = 0.84𝑙) poured into it. It can be
5. Find the length of the sides of the cubes used to measure the
whose volumes are: volume of small irregular
a. 216 cm3 solids.
b. 125 cm3
c. 1331 cm3 Suppose that you want to measure the volume of
22
6. Find the volume of cylinder of: (π = ) a small stone.
7
a. Radius 0.21cm and height 8 cm
Procedure:
b. Diameter 9 cm and height 42 cm
c. Diameter 3.5 cm and height 21cm. 1) Partly fill the measuring cylinder with water
and record the volume (V1).
Volume of Liquid 2) Tie a stone with a thread and gently lower it
into the measuring cylinder until it is fully
Litre is the standard unit used for measuring the immersed, and record the new volume of
volume of liquids. The instrument or apparatus water (V2).
used to measure volume of liquids include
 Burette
 Pipette
 Volumetric flask
 Measuring cylinder
Volume of Irregular Objects

Irregular objects have unknown shape. 3) To obtain the volume of the stone, find the
Examples stone, human body etc. The volume of difference of V2 and V1
irregular object is obtained by displacement
∴ V = V2 – V1
method or immersion method
22
Example 1:
When an irregular solid was immersed in 65 cm3

of water, the water level rose to 81 cm3. What is
the volume of the solid?
Solution
Steps
Volume of solid = V2 – V1
V = 81 cm3 – 65 cm3 1) Fill the eureka with water to the level of the
spout.
V = 16 cm3 2) Tie an irregular solid with a thread and
Example 2: gently lower into the eureka can until it is
fully immersed.
A cube of side 2cm is half way immersed into a 3) Collect the water displaced by the immersed
graduated measuring cylinder which was object and measure its volume by using
initially filled with 75 cm3 of water. What is the graduated measuring cylinder. This volume
final volume of water? is equal to the volume of the immersed
Solution object.
Volume of cube = L3 Example
V = 2cm×2cm×2cm = 8 cm3 A cylindrical piece of iron of radius 5 cm is

lowered into the eureka can. The volume of
1
Volume of immersed cube = × 8𝑐𝑚3 = 4𝑐𝑚3 displaced water was measured to be 628 cm3.
2
What is the length of the piece of iron? (use 𝜋 =
From V = V2 – V1
3.14)
→ V2 = V + V1
Solution
V2 = 75 cm³ + 4 cm³
Volume of iron = volume of displaced water
V2 = 79 cm³
𝜋𝑟²ℎ = 628
Volume of irregular solid using overflow can
(Eureka can) 628𝑐𝑚3
h=
3.14 × 5𝑐𝑚 × 5𝑐𝑚
The eureka can, can be used to measure the 628
volume of large objects that do not fit into the h = = 8 cm
78.5
graduated measuring cylinder.
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 8 𝑐𝑚.

23
Exercise 3.5 Conversation of units of density

Let the conversion is 1000kg/m3 to g/cm3
1. Calculate the volume of a cube of sides
8cm. 1000 𝑘𝑔 (1000 × 1000) 𝑔
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = but
1𝑚³ 1𝑚³
2. The volume of a brick is given as 60 cm3.
Given that its breadth and height are 6 cm 1 m = 100 cm, insert power 3 both sides.
and 4 cm respectively, calculate its → (1𝑚)3 = (100 𝑐𝑚)3
length.
3. A cylindrical tank has a diameter of 10 1m3 = 1, 000, 000 cm³
cm and a height of 12 cm. calculate its 1,000,000 𝑔
Then 1000 kg/m³ = = 1g/cm³
1,000 ,000 𝑐𝑚³
volume given that 𝜋 = 3.14.
4. A beaker contains 140 cm3 of liquid. A 25 Hence 1000 kg/m3 = 1g/cm3
cm3 pipette was used twice to transfer the
liquid to another beaker. What is the
volume left in the original beaker? This is used as a reference relation
5. What is the volume of an irregular solid
immersed in 50 cm3 of water contained in  To change kg/m3 to g/cm3, you need to
the beaker if it raises the water level to 57 divide by 1000.
cm3?  To change from g/cm3 to kg/m3 you
6. A sphere of radius 2.1 cm was immersed need to multiply by 1000.
into a graduated cylinder which was
partly filled with water. The water level
Example 1
rose to 111 cm3. What is the initial
reading of water before rising? (Ans. Express 2.25g/cm3 in kg/m3
72.192 cm3)
Solution
2.25g/cm3 = (2.25×1000) kg/m3 = 2250kg/m3

Density
Density is the mass of substance per unit Example 2
volume. Convert 400kg/m3 in to g/cm3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
→ 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = Solution
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
The S. I. unit for density is kilogram per cubic 400

400kg/m3 = ( ) 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
metre (kg/m3). Other units are: g/cm3, gram per 1000
milliliter (g/ml)
= 0.4g/cm3

24
𝑀𝐴 × 𝐷𝑔
Density of Regular Object → 𝑀𝑔 =
𝐷𝐴
The density of regular solids can be obtained 5.4 × 2.5
𝑀𝑔 = = 5𝑔
once its mass and volume have been measured. 2.7
Then divide mass by volume. Exercise 3.6

Example 1. What is density?
Square leads block of sides 5 cm has a mass of 2 2. A gold coin has a volume of 25cm3.
kg. Calculate the density of the lead block in What is the mass of the coin? (Density
of gold is 19.3 cm-3)
(i) g/cm3 (ii) kg/m3
3. A 200g solid lead ball is fully immersed
Solution in a eureka can filled with water. What
Mass = 2 kg = 2000 g volume of water will overflow? Given
the density of lead as 11.3 g/cm3
Length = 5 cm 4. If the volume of an object is increased
Volume = L3 = (5 cm)3 = 125 cm3 while it’s mass is held constant. What
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
happens to its density?
(i) Then density = 5. A metal cylinder has a height of 15 cm,
2000 𝑔 and a diameter of 6 cm. is it composed
= = 16𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
125 𝑐𝑚3 of copper, iron or lead? Given that mass
(ii) 16g/cm3 = (16×1000) kg/m3 of cylinder is 4.8 kg, density of copper
Density = 16,000 kg/m³ 8.3 g/cm3, density of iron 7.8g/cm3 and
density of lead is 11.3 g/cm3.
Example 2:
Density of irregular objects
What mass of the glass would have the same
volume as 5.4 g of aluminum? (use density of → The density of irregular solids can be
glass 2.5 g/cm3 and that of aluminum 2.7 g/cm3) obtained by the following steps
Solution 1) Measuring its mass using a beam balance.
2) Determining its volume by displacement
Given: mass of aluminum (MA) = 5.4 g density
method involving the eureka or graduated
of aluminum (DA) = 2.7 g/cm3; density of glass
cylinder.
(Dg) = 2.5 g/cm3; R.T.C mass of glass (Mg) = ?
3) Dividing the mass by volume obtained.
Volume of glass = volume of aluminum 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
Density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑀𝑔 𝑀𝐴
=
𝐷𝑔 𝐷𝐴

25
Example 1: 3) Measure the mass of beaker with the liquid
An irregular solid X has a mass of 50 g. when it (M2).

is totally immersed in water of volume 60cm3, 4) Subtract the mass M1 from M2 to obtain the
the final volume is read as 70 cm3. Calculate the mass of the liquid.
density of the irregular solid X.
5) Divide mass by volume to obtain density.
Solution
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
Mass of solid = 50 g Density of liquid =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
Volume of solid = 70 cm3 – 60 cm3 = 10 cm3 𝑚2 −𝑚1

𝐷 =
𝑉
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
The density of solid =
Example:
509
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 5 g/cm3
10 𝑐𝑚³
In an experiment to determine the density of
Practice question liquid Y. the following results were obtained:
mass of empty beaker = 500g, mass of beaker +
A solid with an irregular shape has a mass of
liquid (25 cm3) = 600 g. what results were
178 g. the body is totally immersed in water of
obtained as the density of liquid Y?
volume 60 cm3 contained in a measuring
cylinder. If the final volume of water is 80 cm3, Solution
calculate the density of the body. (Ans. 8.9 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑌
g/cm3) Density of liquid =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑌
Determination of densities of liquids 600 𝑔−500 𝑔

𝐷= = 4𝑔/𝑐𝑚³
25 𝑐𝑚³
We use a density bottle of known volume, V
Practice question
A clean dry beaker has a mass of 200 g. A 200

cm³ of a certain liquid is poured into the beaker.
If the mass of the beaker and its contents is 360
g. calculate the density of the liquid in (i) g/cm³
(ii) kg/m³ Ans. (i) 0.8 g/cm³ (ii) 800kg/m³
Steps: Density bottle
It is a bottle of fixed volume used for measuring

1) Measure the mass of an empty beaker (M1).
the density of liquids as well as insoluble
2) Pour into it known volume (V) of liquid.

26
granules. The density bottle has volume usually Hence volume of sand = mass of water
50 ml or 100 ml. (remember that 1 ml = 1 cm³) displaced by sand
Practice question Mass of water displaced = mass of water in (3)

– mass of water added in (2)
In an experiment, a 50ml density bottle was used
Mass of water displaced = (M3–M0) – (M2–M1)
to find the density of liquid turpentine. The mass
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑
of density bottle when empty was found to be Therefore: Density of sand =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑
24.2 g. The bottle was then filled with turpentine
𝑀1−𝑀0
and then sealed with a stopper. The bottle was → 𝐷 = (𝑀3−𝑀0)−
(𝑀2−𝑀1)
dried up by using a blotting paper. If the mass of
the bottle and contents was found to be 67.81 g. Volume of sand = volume of bottle – volume of
Find the density of the turpentine. water added in (2)
= VT – mass of water added
(Ans. 0.87 g/cm³)
= VT – (M2 – M1)
Determination of density of insoluble
𝑀1−𝑀0
granules using density bottle Then the density of sand =
𝑉𝑇−(𝑀2−𝑀1)
Suppose we wish to determine the density of Example

sand using density bottle.
Find the density of lead shots from the following
readings:
Mass of empty density bottle = 16g
Mass of bottle + lead shots = 129 g
Mass of bottle + lead shots + water = 169 g
Mass of bottle + water only = 66 g
To find the density of sand, the mass of the sand

and volume must be known.
Solution
Mass of sand =M₁ - M0, 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑠
Density of lead shots =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑠
Volume of sand = volume of water displaced by
sand 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑠
𝐷 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟−𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑
Since density of water is 1 g/cm3, then the
𝑀1−𝑀0
volume of water is in cm3 = mass of water in g. 𝐷 = (𝑀3−𝑀0)−
(𝑀2−𝑀1)

27
129 𝑔 − 16𝑔 Example 1: An object has a density of 7 g/cm³.

=
(66 𝑔 − 16 𝑔) − (169 𝑔 − 129 9) Calculate its relative density.
113 𝑔
=
50 𝑔 − 40 𝑔 Solution
113 𝑔
= (1 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1𝑐𝑚3 )
10 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 7 𝑔/𝑐𝑚³
= 11.3 𝑔/𝑐𝑚³
R.D = = =7
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1 𝑔/𝑐𝑚³
Practice question Example2:

Find the density of sand from the following A piece of copper metal of volume 5.1 cm³ has a
information:
mass of 41.6 g. calculate the relative density of
1. Mass of empty density bottle, = 4g the copper.
Mass of bottle with sand = 94g
Solution
Mass of bottle with sand and water = 110g
Mass of bottle with water = 70g 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
Density of copper =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
(Ans = 1.8 g/cm3)
41.6 𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 8.16𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
2. Mass of density bottle with water = 70.64 g 5.1 𝑐𝑚3
Mass of bottle filled with water + sand Therefore: RD = 8.16

(outside the bottle) = 78.79 g
Mass of bottle + water + sand (inside the Relative density of liquids
bottle) = 75.66g The relative density of liquids can easily be
(Ans. 2.6 g/cm³) determined by using a relative density bottle.
Relative density The bottle is usually 25 ml or 50 ml.
Relative density of a substance is the ratio of the
density of substance to the density of water.
→ R. D measures how much the substance is

denser than water. Water is the mostly used as
the reference material since its density is unit
(i.e. 1 g/cm³). For example, the R.D of iron is
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
7.8; this means that the iron is 7.8 times denser RD of liquid =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
than water.
𝑀𝐿 𝑀𝑤
𝑅. 𝐷 = ÷
→ R. D has no unit since it is a ratio of two 𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝑤
same quantities. 𝑀𝐿 𝑉𝑤
𝑅. 𝐷 = ×
𝑉𝐿 𝑀𝑤

28
Since the same bottle is used, then VL = VW Example:

Then
𝑀𝐿 𝑀1−𝑀0 A block of metal has a mass of 264 g. The block
RD = =
𝑀𝑤 𝑀2−𝑀0 is totally immersed in water filling up an
overflow can. If 24 cm3 of water overflew
Example
through the spout of the can into the beaker;
A relative density bottle has a mass of 16.6 g
(a) Calculate the relative density of the metal
when dry and empty. Its mass is 58.1 g when
full of turpentine and 64.6g when full of water. (b) What volume of the metal would have a
Find the relative density of the turpentine. mass of 68 g?
Solution Solution
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙
RD = (a) RD of metal =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
58.1 𝑔−14.6 𝑔
𝑅. 𝐷 = = 0.87 𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟.
64.6 𝑔−14.6 𝑔
264 𝑔
Exercise 3.7 Hence, RD = = 11
24 𝑔
𝑚
The density bottle of 25 ml has a mass of 15 (b) From d =
𝑣
g when empty. Its mass is measured to be 𝑚
→𝑣=
35 g when full of liquid X. While its mass is 𝑑
68 𝑔
40 g when full of water. Calculate: 𝑣= = 6.18 𝑐𝑚³
11 𝑔/𝑐𝑚³
(i) The density of water in kg/m3
Density of Mixture
(ii) The density of liquid X in kg/m3
(iii) The relative density of liquid X Mixture is compound consist two or more
(Answers (i) 1000 kg/m3 (ii) 800 substances which combine physically. Example,
kg/m3 (iii) 0.8) water and oil, maize and rice, maize and alcohol
→ When two substances 1 & 2 are mixed
Relative density of solids 1) Density total is not equal to the sum of

The relative density of solids can be obtained the densities of two substances
with the help of overflow can to obtain the 2) MT = M1 + M2
3) VT = V1 + V2
amount of water displaced. Then
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
RD of solid =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

29
Practice question 5. Calculate the volume of the block with

1. A crown made of gold and silver has a measurements; 0.5m×10cm×5cm
volume of 60ml and a mass of 1.05kg. Find
6. A pebble displaces 15cm3 of water. It has
the mass of gold contained in the crown.
a mass of 45g. what is the density of the
(Density of gold 19.3g/ml, density of silver is
pebble?
10.5g/ml) (Ans = 92g)
7. A rectangular metal block measuring 8cm
2. 250ml of water are mixed with one litre of
by 5cm by 2cm has a mass of 880g. what
methylated spirit. Calculate the mass of
will be the mass of a block of the same
mixture, assuming that there is no change of
metal measuring 6cm by 4cm by 1cm?
volume of mixing (relative density of
8. Find the masses of 1cm3, 6cm3 and 10cm3
methylated spirit is 0.80) (Ans = 1050g)
of wood of density 0.9 g/cm3.
Application of Density and Relative Density 9. A 30ml density bottle was filled with
in Our Daily Life kerosene and found to weigh 86g. If the
mass of empty dry bottle is 62g, find the
 It is used to design various structure like density of kerosene (Ans = 0.8 g/cm3)
ship, planes etc 10.A 50ml density bottle has a mass of 45g
 Used to select building materials when empty. What will be the mass of
 Used to design equipment used in swimming bottle when it is full of mercury of
and diving relative density 13.6? (Ans = 725g)
Exercise 3.8
Errors in measurement
1. Write down two differences between Error is a small deviation in the measured value
density and relative density from true value. Or
2. Define measurement.
Error is the difference between the measured
3. Write 4 differences between mass and and the true value.
weight.
4. Change the following units into S.I unit: Example
1
(a) 250 cm (b) 1.7 km (c) 4 hours A form one student measured the diameter of
2
copper wire which is 0.001 cm using a
3
(d) 40 mm2 (e) 2 hm (f) 400 mm micrometer screw gauge. He observed that the
4
diameter of the wire is 0.012 cm. what error did
(g) 180 km/h (h) 3600 kg/cm3 the student’s measurement make?
Solution
Error = true value – measured value

30
OR Types of errors
Error = measured value – true value There are three common types of errors. These
= 0.012 cm – 0.001 are: parallax error, zero error and instrumental
error.
= 0.011 cm Ans.
 Parallax error is the error that occurs when
Sources of errors
the observer takes measurements from the
Usually errors arise due to several reasons. wrong position.
Some of the reasons are:
(a) Fault during manufacture: when the

measuring instruments is not manufactured
as per the specification.
(b) Damage during use: this can be caused by
different reasons for instance wrong
handling or carelessness.
→ Position B and C lead to parallax errors
(c) Poor storage: apparatus should be well
since the eye is not perpendicular to the
stored away from the factors that can affect
mark of scale
their accuracy like dust and heat.
 Zero error is the error that occurs when the
(d) Human factor: this happens when the
initial reading of the pointer is not at zero
human’s experiment makes mistakes while
mark. Both Vernier calipers and micrometer
taking measurement.
screw gauge may have this type of error.
Ways to minimize errors  Instrumental error is the error that occurs
(i) The observer must be skilled enough to due to instrument itself.
avoid mistakes in taking measurements.
(ii) The instruments must be checked their Important of Measurement
accuracy before use. → Architectures and engineers refer to the
(iii) Proper handling of the instruments to density of various building materials when
avoid damage. designing bridges, buildings etc.
(iv) Good storage of the instruments
(v) Avoid over heating instruments. → To know the exact quantity of items in trade
system.
31
→ Correct dosage is given to the patient when 3. A cubic tank holds 8000kg of water.
correct measurement is done. What are the dimensions of the tank?
→ The clothes must be measured to fit the body. (Ans 2m by 2m by 2m)
4. Change the following units
Exercise 3.9 a) 120s to min (b) 2.15 m to cm
5. What is the reading of the following
1. The diagram below shows part of the micrometer screw gauge.?
instrument used for measuring the
length of the object.
Referring to the above figure, answer the

following questions
a) Write the name of scale labelled A and
B
b) Record the reading registered by this 6. Define error and state any three causes
instrument if the scale B is calibrated in of error
mm 7. How parallax error can be avoided.
c) Write the name of this instrument 8. The pointer on a clock balance reads
d) The length of one side of a cube is 5grams when the pan is empty. When
5.22cm and its mass is 65.8g. What is some potatoes are put into the pan the
pointer reads 5½kg. What is the correct
the density of the cube?
2. What is the relative density of liquid x, mass of potatoes on the pan? Express
if the bottle has a capacity of 50ml? your answer in gram.
9. Briefly explain how can you determine
the density of your body? Write the
formula obtained from your information.
10.What are the significance of
measurement under the following field?
a) Medicine
b) Engineering

32
TOPIC 4. FORCE
→ Force is an influence that changes or tends to

→ There are four types of fundamental forces:
change the body’s state of rest or uniform
motion in a straight line. OR  The force of gravity (weight)
→ Force is a push or a pull experienced by an  The electromagnetic force
object.  The strong nuclear force
 The weak nuclear force
→ The S.I unit of force is the Newton (N), and it
is measured by a spring balance. Electromagnetic Force
Types of forces Electromagnetic force is the force associated

with production field due to movement of
There are two types of forces. These are: electrons. Both electric and magnetic forces are
(i) Fundamental forces electromagnetic forces.
(ii) Non fundamental forces → For Example, formation of molecule, Atoms

attract each other due to electromagnetic force.
These can be divided further into contact force
and action at a distance force. Properties of Electromagnetic Force
Contact forces  It may be attractive or repulsion in nature

 It is a central force
Contact force is the force in which two  It is stronger than gravitational force
interacting bodies are physically in contact with  It is a long-range (operates over a very long
each other.eg kicking a ball, pulling a cart etc. distance)
Action at a distance forces Strong Nuclear Force
Action at a distance force is the force in which Strong nuclear force is the force which holds the
two interacting bodies are not in physical constituents of the atomic nucleus. It acts within
contact with each other e.g. magnetic force. the nucleus of the atom.
Fundamental types of forces → Example of strong nuclear force is the
Fundamental forces are the basic forces in nuclear energy obtained from nuclear reactions
nature that cannot be explained by action of (fusion or fission)
another forces.

33
Properties of Strong Nuclear Force  It is central force (it act on object along the
line joining the centre of object and planet)
 It is basically an attractive force
 It operates over very long distance
 It is a short-range (operates only up to
distance of the order of 10-14m) → The weight of an object (W) is given by:
 It is a non-central force (it does not act at the
W = mg Where: m- is the mass in kg,
centre)
 It is stronger than gravitation force → The weight of a body decreases as you
increase the altitude, Thus the pull of gravity on
Weak Nuclear Force 1
the moon is of that on the earth surface.
6
Weak nuclear force is the force which appears
only in certain nuclear. → A Newton is a force required to give a mass
of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m/s². Hence F= ma,
Properties of Weak Nuclear Force where a is acceleration of a body.
 Stronger than gravitation force Example 1:
 Weaker than electromagnetic force
A body with a mass of 30 kg is moving at an
 Weaker than strong nuclear force
acceleration of 60 ms-2. Calculate its force.
 Operates on small ranges of up to 10-17m.
Given: mass (m) = 30 kg,
Force of Gravity
Acceleration (a) = 60 ms-2
→ Gravity is the force that attract the body
F =ma = 30 kg× 60ms-2 = 1800 N
toward the center of the earth. All object falls
down if thrown up due to force of gravity. Example 2:
→ The weight of a body is the force of gravity What is the mass of an object of weight 2.5 N on
which act on an object. For every 1kg object the the earth’s surface? (Use g= 10 N/kg)
earth gravity is 9.8N ≈ 10N. This pull of gravity Given: weight, W = 2.5N, g = 10N/kg
is denoted by “g” which has two meanings
W = mg …...make m subject
 Gravitational field strength, g = 10N/kg 𝑊 2.5
⇒m= = = 0.25 𝑘𝑔
 Acceleration due to gravity, g = 10m/s2 𝑔 10
Properties of Force of Gravity Example 3:

A rocket moves upwards with a net force of
 It is always attractive
1000N. If its mass is 200 kg, calculate its
 Weakest force among others force
acceleration.

34
F = ma …… make a subject 1) Stretching

𝐹 1000 𝑁
⇒a= = = 5𝑚/𝑠² Stretching force is the force which passes
𝑚 200 𝑘𝑔
through a string when it is pulled tightly.
Exercise 4.1 → Stretching force makes elastic materials to be
1. What is force? State its S.I unit. longer or bigger than their original size.
2. What is newton? → Example when a rubber cord is pulled
3. With example, differentiate between
contact forces and action at a distance
forces
4. List down all fundamental types of forces
5. Define weight
6. List down any three properties of strong 2) Compression
nuclear forces.
7. Haji has a mass of 72 kg. Determine the Compression force is the force that causes to
weight of Haji on: decrease the size of an object; e.g. when a spring
a. The earth surface. is pressed.
b. The surface of the moon.
(Use g = 9.8N/kg)
8. Rocket moves from the earth to a planet
x. if it weighs 10, 000N and 30N on the
earth and on plane t x respectively
determine the gravitation force on planet → Some objects when compressed they tend to
x (Ans 𝑔𝑥 = 0.03𝑁/𝑘𝑔 ) return to their original size. This is another type
of force called restoring force
3) Attraction
Non - Fundamental Forces
Attraction force is the force that pulls the objects
Non fundamental force is any force that can be toward each other. For Example, magnetic
derived from other forces. Example elastic force forces
of a spring.
4) Repulsion
Effects and type of Forces
Repulsion is the force that pushes the objects
There several types of forces due to their effect
away from each other. For Example, when the
on an object. Some of them are:
same poles of magnetic are facing each other

35
5) Torsion Factor Affect Air Resistance

Torsion force is a force produced when a solid  Size and shape of the body
matter twisted  The speed of fluid
 The density of the fluid
6) Friction
Friction force is the force that opposes the 9) Normal Force
motion of two objects in contact. It prevents a Normal force is the force that supports the
body from sliding. exerted force by an object.
Importance of Friction Force 10) Applied Force
 Friction between feet and the ground enables Applied force is the external force that cause the
man to walk system or body to change position
 Friction between object on the surface
enable it to rest Exercise 4.2
 Friction between match and match stick
produce fire 1. Write true or false.
 Friction enable stopper to close the bottle of a. Friction force between two surfaces in
wine, juice etc contact can be reduced to zero value ___
b. Restoring force is opposite direction to
Disadvantage of Friction
the force causing the deformation_____
 It reduces the efficiency of the machine c. Kerosene oil has large viscous force than
 It causes wear and tear bodies parts. water________
Example, shoes etc 2. What is friction? List down two advantages
Ways to reduce friction of friction
3. Fill the blank space
 Using lubricant e.g. oil, grease etc a. Three forces that can be demonstrated
 Using rollers
by the helical spring are________,
 Polishing of the surface
_____ and __________
7) Viscosity b. The liquid which is used to reduce
Viscosity force is the force which resists fluid friction is called ________
(liquid or gas) to flow. Honey is more viscous c. The air resistance force depends
than water. Viscosity depends on inter molecular on_____, ________, and _________
forces of fluids. d. The force between the layers of fluid
8) Air Resistance that resist the fluid to flow is
called_______
Air resistance is the force that resists the 4. Calculate the weight of
movement of an object through air.
a. A stone of mass 3.6kg
b. A piece of wood of mass 600g.
36
TOPIC 5. ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE AND THE

LAW OF FLOTATION
Concept of up thrust → The apparent loss in weight when the object

Consider a ball that is totally immersed in water
and immediately released, what will happen? is in liquid is called upthrust. Hence from the
figure above the loss in weight is 2N. hence
U = RW – AW
Archimedes Principle
Archimedes principle also called the law of
buoyancy which state that “When a body is
Once the ball is released, the will be pushed up totally or partially immersed in a fluid, it
with great force. This force is what we call experiences an upthrust which is equal to the
upthrust or buoyant force. weight of the fluid displaced”
→ Upthrust is an upward force of liquids that
acts on an immersed object.
Real weight and apparent weight

→ Real weight is the weight of a body in air.
→Apparent weight is the weight of a body in a
liquid.
From Arhimedes’ principle
Upthrust = Weight of fluid displaced
U = mg, ……. Where m = ρV
→ U = 𝜌𝑙 𝑉𝑙 𝑔
Where:
𝜌𝑙 – Density of liquid
𝑉𝑙 − Volume of liquid displaced

37
Remember: RW = U + AW
→ 1g = 0.01N RW = 2.5 + 4.2 = 6.7N
→ for water 1g = 1cm3 = 1ml Practice questions,
Example 1,
1) When an object is totally immersed in water,
Given Weight of body in air is 10.10N, weight its weight is recorded as 3.1N if its weight in
of body when immersed in water is 9.2N. Find air is 4.9N. Find upthrust. (Ans, U = 1.8N)
the upthrust. 2) A body immersed in water displaced 1.1N of
Given the liquid if its weight while in water is
3.3N. Find the weight in air. (Ans = 4.4N)
Real weight (RW) = 10.10N
Example 3
Apparent weight, AW = 9.2N
A cube of side 4 cm is totally immersed in liquid
RTC Upthrust (U) =?
of density 1.36 g/cm3. What is the up thrust of
Solution liquid on a cube?
From: U = RW - AW Given:
U = 10.10 – 9.2 Volume of cube (V) = Volume of liquid
displaced = 4cm×4cm×4cm = 64cm3
U = 0.9N
Example 2, Density of liquid (𝜌) = 1.36 g/cm3
The weight of a body when totally immersed in R.T.C upthrust (U) = ?

a liquid is 4.2N if the weight of the liquid Solution
displaced is 2.5N. Find the weight of the body in
air. U = 𝜌𝑉𝑔
𝑔 3
𝑁
Given ⇒ 𝑈 = 1.36 × 64𝑐𝑚 × 10
𝑐𝑚3 𝑘𝑔
Apparent weight, AW = 4.2N
𝑏𝑢𝑡 1 𝑘𝑔 = 1000 𝑔
Upthrust, U = 2.5N 𝑁
𝑈 = 1.36𝑔 × 64 × 0.01
𝑔
RTF Real weight, RW =?
𝑈 = 0.8704 𝑁
Solution
From: U = RW - AW …...make RW subject

38
Example 4 4. When the object is totally immersed in

When an object is totally immersed in graduated water its weight is recorded as 3.1 N. If its
cylinder the water level raise from 25cm3 to weight in the air is 7.9, calculate the up
30cm3. thrust acting on this object.
5. An aluminum cube of sides 20cm is
(a) What is the upthrust of water? totally immersed in water.
(b) What is the density of the object if its a. What is the up thrust of water?
mass is 35 g? b. What is the mass of water
displaced? (Ans. (a) 80 N (b) 8 kg)
(c) Will the object float or sink in the water?
Explain. 6. A body weighs 3.0 N in air. When it is
Solution completely immersed in a liquid its
weight is 2.2 N. find the buoyant force
Volume of water displaced = V2 - V1
exerted by the liquid. (0.8 N)
V = 30 cm3 – 25cm3 = 5 cm3 7. When a body is totally immersed in a
liquid it weighs 3.2 N. Find the weight of
(a) Up thrust = 𝜌𝑉𝑔 the body in air if it displaces 1.5 N of the
𝑔 𝑁 liquid. (Ans. 4.7 N)
𝑈=1 × 5𝑐𝑚3 × 0.01 = 0.05N
𝑐𝑚3 𝑔 8. A body lost 0.6 N in its weight when it is
totally immersed in water. Calculate its
(b) Given mass (m) = 35 g, then
volume in cm3. (Ans. 60 N)
𝑀 35 𝑔 𝑔 9. 25N was displaced when an object is
Density = = =7 totally immersed in methanol of density
𝑉 5 𝑐𝑚3 𝑐𝑚3
0.80g/cm3. Calculate the volume of object.
(c) The object will sink in the water because (Ans = 3125cm3)
its density is greater than the density of
water.
Exercise 5.1 Determination of relative density
Relative density is the ratio of density of
1. Define upthrust and state its S.I unit substance to the density of water…
2. Why an object weigh less in liquid
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
than in air? 𝑅. 𝐷 =
3. What is
a. Real weight → Three formula have been derived from the
b. Apparent weight above basic formula.

39
1) R.D in terms of masses Weight in liquid Q = 5.4 N.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 Calculate the relative density and the density of
𝑅. 𝐷 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 the liquid Q
N:B the substance must has volume equal to the Solution

volume of water
𝑢𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
Practice questions 𝑅. 𝐷 (𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑) =
𝑢𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
a) A block of metal has a mass of 264 g. the 8.6 𝑁−5.4 𝑁 3.2 𝑁

𝑅. 𝐷 = = = 1.2
8.6 𝑁−6.0 𝑁 2.6 𝑁
block is totally immersed in water filling
up an overflow can. if 24 g of water 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
From 𝑅. 𝐷 =
overflew through the spout of the can into
the beaker, calculate the relative density ⇒ 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑅. 𝐷 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
of the metal. (Ans. 11)
b) A relative density bottle has a mass of 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1.2 × 1𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 = 1.2𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
14.6 g when dry and empty. Its mass is Practice question
58.1 g when full of turpentine. And 64.6g
when full of water. Find the relative Using data given below. What is the relative
density of turpentine (Ans. 0.87). density of liquid?
2) RD in terms of real weight and upthrust: Weight of body in air = 15 N
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑅. 𝐷 = Weight of body in water = 11N
𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Practice question Weight of body in liquid = 9N

An object weighs 9.3 N in air, and 5.3 N (Ans = 1.5)
when totally immersed in in water. Find
the relative density of the object. Sinking and floating
(Ans. 2.325) Sinking: Is the tendency of an object to fall to
3) R.D in terms of upthrust (R.D of Liquid) the bottom of the fluid.
𝑢𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑅. 𝐷 (𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑) = Floating: is the tendency of an object to remain
𝑢𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
on the surface of the fluid.
Example: In an experiment to determine the
relative density of liquid Q a solid M weighed as Conditions for a body to float.
follows:
 The density of the body must be less than
Weight in air = 8.6 N that of the surrounding fluid
Weight in water = 6.0 N  The upthrust due to the liquid must be equal
to the total weight of the object.

40
 Apparent weight of the submerged object 𝑉𝐿

Where is fraction submerged.
must be equal to zero. 𝑉𝑆
Therefore:
From: Up thrust = RW – AW, but AW = 0
Vl
⇒ U = RW % of volume submerged = × 100% OR
Vs
𝜌𝑠
⇒ Up thrust = real weight % submerged = × 100% .
𝜌𝑙
If the liquid is water, then

The law of floatation 𝜌𝑠
= 𝑅. 𝐷𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒.
𝜌𝑙
This law states that ‘a floating body displaces its
own weight of fluid in which it floats.’ % submerged = R.D ×100%
𝑉𝑙
→ Consider a piece of wood of density ρS and Also density of substance = × 𝜌𝑙
𝑉𝑠
volume Vs floats on the liquid of density ρL. If
volume VL is displaced by the wood as shown ⇒ 𝜌𝑠 = 𝜌𝑙 × 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑
Example
A boat has a mass of 1000 tonnes, and it is

floating on the water while a 40% of volume is
submerged. Calculate
a. The upthrust of water
b. The volume of water displaced in m3
c. The relative density of the boat
From the law of floatation; d. The density of the boat in kg/m3
e. The volume of the boat in m3
upthrust = real weight
Given mass of boat = 1000 t = 1000000 kg
weight of displaced liquid = weight of a
substance. Solution
But weight = mg. Hence: (a) Upthrust = real weight
mLg = mSg, …… cancel g U = mg
mL = mS …...but m = ρV U = 1,000,000kg 10 N/kg
ρLVL = ρSVS U = 10,000,000 N

𝑀
𝑉𝐿 𝜌𝑆 (b) from 𝐷 =
⇒ = 𝑉
𝑉𝑆 𝜌𝐿

41
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
⇒ Volume = Application of the laws of floatation in
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
everyday life
1,000,000 𝑘𝑔
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑘𝑔 = 1000 𝑚3 → There are many objects and vessels that float
1000 3
𝑚 or can be made to float. Balloons, canoes, ships,
(c) % submerged = R.D ×100% boats and submarines all apply the law of
floatation.
⇒ 40% = 𝑅𝐷 × 100%
A ship
⇒ R.D = 0.4
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 A ship is made of steel and large pieces of iron
(d) From R.D =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 but still floats in the water while a coin sink in
⇒ 𝐷. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑡 = 𝑅. 𝐷 × 𝐷. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 the water. Why?
𝑘𝑔 This question can be answered using two

𝐷. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑡 = 0.4 × 1000 3
= 400𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 conditions. First: A ship is very large and
𝑚
𝑀 hollow. A hollow space is filled with air which
(e) From 𝐷 = is less dense than water. Therefore, hollow space
𝐷
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 filled with air make the average density of ship
⇒ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 to be less than the density of water. Second: A
1,000,000 𝑘𝑔 ship displaces large amount of water to provide
𝑉 = 𝑘𝑔 = 2500 𝑚3
400 3 large upthrust force which support the ship to
𝑚
float.
Exercise 5.2
Plimsoll line:
1. State:
a. Archimedes’ principle This is a line which shows the safe limit of
b. The law of floatation loading in ship. Since as the ship is loaded its
2. What are the conditions for the mass and density increase which result the ship
object to float in liquid? to sink in water.
3. A floating piece of wood has ¼ of its
volume in water. If the mass of wood
is 80g, calculate:
a. The upthrust of water.
b. The amount of water displaced.
c. The relative density of the wood.
d. The density of the wood.
e. The total volume of the piece of
wood.

42
Where: Mechanism
F = for fresh water Balloon is filled with a light gas e.g. Helium
which displace volume of air equal to its
S = for sea in summer time volume. Since filled hot gas has low density
W = for sea in winter time than surrounding cold air, then the balloon floats
on air.
TF = tropical fresh water
WNA = winter in Atlantic
T = Tropical
Sub marine
A submarine has ballast tanks which make it
float or sink.
→ When it is required to dive, sea water is
allowed to flow into the ballast tanks until the
Drifting force = Up thrust – Total weight
total density is greater than the density of water.
→ When it is required to float, air is forced into → For the balloon to just lift the ground
the tanks pushing out the water until the density
Upthrust of cold air = total wait of balloon
of submarine is less than the density of water.
𝜌𝑐 𝑉𝐶 𝑔 = 𝑚 𝑇 𝑔
𝜌𝑐 𝑉𝐶 𝑔 = (𝑚𝑡 + 𝑚ℎ )𝑔 ………. cancel g
𝜌𝑐 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑚𝑡 + 𝑚ℎ … . . 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚ℎ = 𝜌ℎ 𝑉ℎ
𝜌𝑐 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑚𝑡 + 𝜌ℎ 𝑉ℎ …. but Vc = Vh = V
Vh – Volume of hot gas inside balloon
Hot air balloon
Vc – Volume of cold air displaced by balloon
Hot air balloon is an air device used to carry
objects at a high altitude. Then
𝜌𝑐 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑡 + 𝜌ℎ 𝑉 … . . 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑉 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑚𝑡
𝑉=
𝜌𝑐 − 𝜌ℎ

43
Where: Practice question

 mt - total mass of balloon and its content A hot air balloon including the envelope,
 ρc - the density of surrounding cold air gondola, burner and fuel and one passenger has
 ρh - the density of hot air inside balloon a total mass of 450kg. Air outside balloon is at
20℃ and has a density of 1.29kg/m3 the air
Example, inside at temperature 120℃ has density of
A balloon has a capacity of 20m3 and it is filled 0.90kg/m3. To what volume must the envelope
with hydrogen. The balloon fabric and the expand to just lift the balloon into the air?
container have a mass of 2.5kg. What mass of (Ans 1153.8m3)
instruments can be lifted by the balloon?
(Density of hydrogen = 0.089kg/m3 and density Hydrometer
of air is 1.29kg/m3) A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure
the relative density of liquids. A hydrometer
Given
consists of:
Total mass = mt = mi + mb
→ A hollow narrow glass tube (stem).it is very
Volume capacity, v = 20m3 thin to allow greater change in height for small
Mass of balloon, mb = 2.5kg change in density.
Density of hot air, ρh = 0.089kg/m3 → A paper scale inside stem graduated in

densities. Small number at the top and large
Density of cold air, ρc = 1.29kg/m3
number at the bottom (inverted) because it sinks
Mass of instrument), mi = ? more in denser liquid than less dense liquid
Solution → A large air bulb to displace large amount of
𝑚𝑡 liquid and provide sufficient upthrust to make it
𝑉=
𝜌𝑐 − 𝜌ℎ
float.
𝑚𝑖 + 𝑚𝑏
𝑉=
𝜌𝑐 − 𝜌ℎ → Mercury or lead shots weighted on the bulb
𝑚𝑖 +2.5 to make it float upright.
20 = …. cross multiplication
1.29−0.089
𝑚𝑖 + 2.5 = 20(1.29 − 0.089)

𝑚𝑖 = 24.02 − 2.5 = 21.52𝑘𝑔
‫ ؞‬The mass of instrument that can be lifted is
21.52kg

44
Relative Density of Liquid by Hydrometer Solution

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜌1 𝐴ℎ
→ R.D = From, 𝑉 =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌2 − 𝜌1
→ 0.8×0.5×16
R.D =
𝐿𝑤 𝑉= = 32𝑐𝑚3
𝐿𝑙 1−0.8
‫ ؞‬The volume below 1g/cm3 is 32cm3

Determination of the volume of bulb
Making simple hydrometer
Consider the hydrometer below with uniform
It can be made by using a test tube weighed
stem of cross-sectional are A and length h
down with wax and a piece of graph paper
inside the test tube to make the scale.
→ Since the hydrometer float, then

A simple hydrometer
Upthrust = real wight
Exercise 5.3
→ upthrust in liqid 1 = upthrust in liquid 2
1. Define the following
ρ1(V + Ah) g = ρ2Vg……. Cancel g a. floating
b. sinking
ρ1(V + Ah) = ρ2V……. make V subject c. plimsoll mark
2. What is the function of ballast tanks in
𝜌1 𝐴ℎ
𝑉= submarine?
𝜌2 − 𝜌1
3. An ordinary hydrometer of mass 27g
floats with 4cm of its stem out of water.
Example, If cross section area of stem is 0.75cm2
calculate
A hydrometer is used to measure density of a. The total volume of stem just under
liquid between 1g/cm3 to 0.8g/cm3 (The area of the surface of the liquid
cross section of stem is 0.5cm2). Find the b. The relative density of the liquid
volume of hydrometer below 1.0 g/cm3, if the (Ans a = 30cm3, b = 0.9)
length between the two scales reading is 16cm

45
4. The mass of a piece of cork (0.25

g/cm3) is 20g. What fraction of the
cork is immersed when it floats in a) buoy in equilibrium and state the
water? (Ans= ¼) direction of each force.
5. A uniform pencil floats upright in b) Determine the tension in the cable
water with 8cm of its length (Ans b, = 212N)
immersed. What length is immersed
when its floats in glycerol (density of
glycerol is 1.3 g/cm3) (Ans = 6.2cm)
6. A balloon and the gas in it have a
mass of 450g and its volume is 500
litres. What is the maximum load it
can lift in air of density 1.3 g/cm3?
(Ans = 200g)
7. An iron cube of mass 480g and
density of 8g/cm³ is suspended half- 10. A spring balance has a maximum reading
way immersed in an oil of density of 10N and the length of calibrated scale is
0.9g/cm³. Find the tension force in the 20 cm. A rectangular metal block
suspension. (4.53N) measuring 10cm by 3cm by 2cm is hung
8. A solid of weight 6.0N is suspended on the balance and stretches the spring by
by a string in water. The tension in the 15cm. Calculate:
string is 4.5N. find a) The weinght of the block
a. the volume of the solid b) The mass of the block
b. its relative density c) The density of the metal from which
c. its density the block is made. (Assume that the
acceleration of a free fall is 10m/s2.
(Ans.a= 150cm³, b= 4, c= 4g/cm³)
(answers: a =
9. The figure below shows a buoy B,of b=
volume 40litres and mass 10kg.it is c=
held in position in sea water of density
1.04g/cm3 (1.04kg/litre) by a light
3
cable fixed to the bottom so that of
4
the volume of the buoy is below the
surface of sea water.

46


TOPIC 6. STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Properties of gases
Structure and Properties of Matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies  Particles are far apart than in liquid.
space. There are three physical states of matter  Have indefinite shape and volume.
(solids, liquids and gases)  Have weakest intermolecular forces.
→ Matter is made up of tiny particles called  Particles are free to move
atoms or molecules. The particles of matter Kinetic Theory of Matter
differ from one state to another. It state that “All matter is made up of very small
particles which are moving in random motion”
 Motion of solid particles are in vibration

 Motion of liquid and gas particles are in
random motion
→ Matter is not continuous but made up of Elasticity

particles. This was proved by Robert Brown in → Elasticity is the ability of some materials to
1927 who observed by microscope that particles return to their original shape and size when
of matter move a short distance in an irregular stretched force is removed. Examples of objects
zigzag manner. This motion is called Brownian with this ability are: rubber band, spring,
motion. balloons etc.
Properties of Solid → Elastic materials: Are those materials which

return to their original shape and size when
 Particles are closely packed together. stretched force is released. (They undergo both
 Has definite shape and volume. elastic and plastic deformation) e.g. rubber band.
 Has a strongest inter-molecular force.
→ Inelastic/plastic materials: Are materials
 Particles are not free to move.
which do not return to their original shape and
Properties of liquid size. (They undergo only plastic deformation)
e.g. wet clay
 Particles are at a small distance apart.
 Take the shape of the container. → Elastic limit: Is the maximum point beyond
 Has definite volume. which elastic material undergo plastic
 Has weaker inter-molecular force than solid. deformation. (Elastic deformation is reversible
 Particles move to small distance. while plastic deformation is irreversible)

47
→ Brittle materials: Are those materials which Interpretation

do not undergo elastic deformation. (They break
 Point A- proportionality limit
just when elastic limit is reached) e.g. glass,
block, etc.  Point B – elastic limit
 Point C – material undergo plastic
Hook’s law deformation
The hook’s law states that “the force applied in  Point D- material break
elastic body is directly proportional to the
extension produced, provided that elastic limit is Regions
not exceeded”
 OA – force is proportional to extension
Mathematically
 AB – large force produces small extension
Fαe  BC – region of plastic deformation
→ F = ke…. Make k subject  Beyond C - material break.
𝐹 Application of elasticity
k=
𝑒
Elasticity has a variety of applications in
k – is called “Elastic force constant” OR “The
different areas. Some of its applications are:
coefficient of stiffness of material”
 Spring in furniture
→ Coefficient of stiffness is the measure of how
much force is required to produce a unit  Rubber band s that hold things together
extension.  Toys like balloons and balls
 Rubber tires
→ Stiffness means the extent to which an object  Clothing
resist deformation in response to applied force.  Shock absorbing spring in vehicles.
Graphical representation of Hook’s law Example:
When a load of 0.6N is hung from the rubber

cord, the cord extends by 3cm. (a) what is the
coefficient of stiffness of the cord? (b) How long
will the rubber cord be extended if another 0.2 N
load is added? (If elastic limit is not exceeded)
Solution
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 0.6 𝑁
𝑎) 𝐾 = = = 0.2 𝑁/𝑐𝑚
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 3 𝑐𝑚
b) New force = 0.6N + 0.2N = 0.8N

48
from F = ke Mass (g) 20 40 80

𝐹
→𝑒= Extension (cm) 2.4 4
𝑘
𝐹 0.8
𝑒= = = 4𝑐𝑚
𝑘 0.2
Surface Tension
Exercise 6.1 Surface tension is the ability of a surface of
1. What is Brownian motion? liquid to behave like a fully stretched elastic
2. Give differences between solid, liquids skin. Surface tension occurs due to cohesion
and gases in terms of: forces.
a. Brownian motion
b. Distance of separation of particles
c. Intermolecular forces
d. Compressibility
3. What is elasticity?
4. List down four application of elasticity in → Surface tension enables insects such as water
our daily life situations striders and mosquitoes to walk on the water.
5. State hooks law, draw the graph to verify Also it allows small objects like needles and
it razor blades to float on the water surface.
6. What is How Surface Tensions Occur?
a. Elastic material
b. Elastic limit Particles at the surface have no neighbor
molecules which tend to possess strongest
c. Brittle material
attraction force up on their nearest neighbor on
7. State the kinetic theory of mater. the surface, this result elastic nature (surface
8. When a mass of 2kg is suspended to a tension) of the liquids surface.
spring of 10cm long, the spring extends
→ If an object placed on surface of liquid its
to 14cm. find the force constant of the
weight pushes downward cause a deformation,
spring in N/m. the surface tension resists that deformation by
9. A force of 9.6 N stretches a spring 6 cm, pushing the object upward.
while a force of 14.4 N stretches it 9 cm.
what force will be the required to stretch
the spring 15 cm?
10. In experiment to verify hooks law, the
spring of k = 25 was used. Complete the
table and draw the graph of mass, (m) in
gram against extension, (e) in centimeter.

49
→ When detergent is added to the water, the Application of Surface Tension

surface tension decreases.
1) Cleaning action of soap, e.g. detergent lower
→ Detergents are examples of surfactants. surface tension between particles of cloth
(a substance that reduces the surface tension) and dirty, and hence dirty will be removed
easily.
→ The term surfactant is an acronym for
2) Mosquitoes normally lay their eggs in water.
Surface Active Agent.
When small amount of oil is poured on the
Surface tension in a soap solution water, it lowers the surface tension which
Suspend a loop of thin cotton thread between a results sinking of eggs
circular wire with handle. Dip a wire in a soap 3) Surfactants are also used to make emulsion
solution. On removing the wire out, a soap film of two liquids like oil and water
covering the whole area is formed. Puncture the 4) It used in extraction of impurities in
film at the middle. The remaining film behaves laboratory
like an elastic skin trying to contract with forces 5) Hot soup has lower surface tension as a
acting equally on the cotton thread. This causes result soup spread over a large area of the
a cotton thread to be a circular loop. tongue, hence hot soup is tastier that cold
one
Adhesion and Cohesion

→ Cohesion is the force of attraction between
the molecules of the same substance.
→ Adhesion is the force of attraction between

the molecules of different substances.
→ The difference between cohesive and

adhesive properties yield different drops of
Factor affecting the surface tension
liquids, different meniscus of liquids and
 Nature of the liquid: Different liquids have
different capillarity.
different surface tension. For example,
mercury has higher surface tension than Formation of drops on a glass surface
water.
→ A drop of water on a glass spreads over the
 Contamination: impurities in liquid lower
surface due to greater adhesion than cohesion.
the surface tension.
Thus water wets the glass.
 Temperature: Surface tension of liquid
decreases with the increase in temperature.

50
Capillarity
Capillarity is the rising or falling of liquids in a
narrow tube.
→ Capillarity depends on the tube diameter or

→ A drop of mercury remains spherical due to radius. The smaller the diameter the higher the
greater cohesion than adhesion. Thus mercury liquid will rise/fall in it. (Capillarity height is
does not wet the glass. inversely proportional to the diameter).
Shapes of menisci of liquids → Water rises in the tube and above the level of
the water in the vessel due to greater adhesion
→ Meniscus is the shape of liquid surface in the than cohesion.
container.
→ Mercury falls in the tube and below the level

→ Water has concave meniscus due to greater
of the mercury in the vessel due to greater
adhesion which pull the water up the walls of
cohesion than adhesion.
the glass than cohesion.
Application of capillarity
→ Mercury has convex meniscus due to the
greater cohesion than adhesion.  It facilitates the transport of water from the
roots to the leaves.
Application of cohesion and adhesion forces
 It facilitates the circulation of blood in
 If we want to stick two different objects animals.
together, we use adhesive effect of tape or  It promotes the movement of ground water.
glue.  It is used in towel and cloth to absorb
 Adhesion is the source of friction between water.
two substances.  Kerosene rises up a wick due to capillarity
 Cohesion assists in the transportation of  Ink rises into the blotting paper through
water in plants and animals. those fine pores
 Ink stick on paper because of adhesion.

51
Osmosis Application of Osmosis

Osmosis is the movement of a solvent from a
 Absorption of water from the ground it to
region of low concentration to a region of high
the plant
concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane.  Controlling the concentration of minerals in
the body of an aquatic organism.
→ A dry seed of a bean or maize when soaked  Filtration process
in cold water for several hours absorbs water by
osmosis process as a result they bulge and Diffusion
become soft. Diffusion is the movement of a particle from a
region of high concentration to a region of low
Demonstration of osmosis by using Irish concentration. Examples of diffusion:
potato
 The spreading of smell of a rotten cat from
Peel an Irish potato and make a deep scoop into the site of decay.
it. Half fill the scoop with sugar solution and put  The spreading of perfumes
a mark using a pin, and then place the potato in a  The spreading of copper II sulphate in the
vessel containing water. Several hours later, the water. (the whole mixture becomes blue)
scoop is observed to contain water from the
vessel and the level of water now in the scoop is Application of diffusion
above the initial mark of the pin.  Balancing the concentration of water and
nutrients in and out the cells of living
organisms.
 Detecting harmful substance in the
environment.
 In the use of air refreshers and other sprays.
 In the process of respiration.
Exercise 6.2
1. Define the following and give two

→ The membrane is called semi-permeable
applications of each
because only water can pass through it. This is
a) Osmosis
because membrane has intermolecular spaces
b) Diffusion
which are smaller than sugar molecules but
c) Capillarity
bigger than water molecules. Hence water
d) Surface tension
molecules can pass through intermolecular space
e) Cohesion
of membrane.
f) Adhesion
52
TOPIC 7. PRESSURE
Pressure → Maximum pressure is exerted when the base

area is minimum. Hence face CBEG must be in
Pressure is the force per unit area.
contact with the surface
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹)
Pressure (P) = 𝐹
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
→ The smaller the area, the greater the pressure
exerted.
→ Minimum pressure is exerted when the base
The S.I unit of pressure is N/m2 which is area is maximum. Hence face CDFE must lay
referred to as Pascal (Pa)
down.
∴ 1𝑁/𝑚2 = 1 𝑃𝑎 𝐹
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥
Other units are: atmosphere (atm), mmHg, bar
etc Example:
Their equivalence is:
A block of wood of mass 3kg and measures 5m
 1Pa = 1N/m2 by 10m by 4m is placed on the table. Calculate
 1atm = 760mmHg the minimum and maximum pressure that can be
 1atm = 100000N/m2 = 105Pa exerted.
 1atm = 1bar Solution
Pressure due to solid Force = mg = 30 N
Pressure in solids depends on weight/normal
Minimum area = 5m×4m = 20 m2
force and the surface area in contact.
Maximum area = 10m×5m = 50 m2
→ A rectangular block can exert three different
𝐹 30 𝑁
pressure when it rest on the horizontal surface. 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 1.5 𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 20 𝑚²
𝐹 30 𝑁
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 0.6 Pa
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 50 𝑚²
Example 2
A tip of needle has across-sectional area of 1×

10-6m2. If a doctor applied a force of 20 N to a

53
syringe that is connected to a needle. What is the  Knives and razor blades are made with sharp
pressure exerted to the tip of the needle? edge to increase pressure and facilitate
cutting easily.
Solution
 Foundations of the buildings are constructed
𝐹 20 𝑁 to be wide to reduce the pressure exerted by
Pressure = = = 2 × 107 𝑃𝑎
𝐴 1 𝑋 10ˉ6 𝑚2
the normal force of the building due to small
Example 3 area
 Stands of the bicycle and motorcycles are
A tank of water of 30,800 kg is placed on the
made to be flat to prevent them from sinking
floor and exerted a pressure of 2KPa. What is
in the land.
the base radius of the tank?
 Feet of elephant cannot sink into soft soil
Given: mass = 30800kg even if it is very heavy. This is due to large
surface area over elephant feet that reduce
⇒ Force = 308000 N pressure.
Pressure = 2 KPa = 2000 Pa  It is painful to walk barefoot on a road that
is covered by pebbles
𝐹
P = … ….make A subject
𝐴 Exercise 7.1
𝐹 308000 𝑁
⇒ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = = = 154 𝑚2 1. Define pressure and state its S.I unit
𝑃 2000 𝑃𝑎
2. Pressure due to solid depends on two factors
Then A = 𝜋𝑟 2
a. What are they?
22 b. Briefly explain the variation of each
154 = × 𝑟2
7 factor with pressure.
154 × 7 3. Why tractor works on soft ground are made
⇒𝑟=
22
with large and wide tyres?
⇒𝑟 =7𝑚 4. A rectangular block weighing 250N has
dimension 34cm, 25cm by 10cm. what is the
Application of pressure due to solid greatest pressure it can exerts on the ground
Pressure due to solid has wide practical (Ans =10000 N/m2
application. 5. A woman weighing 500N wear a pair of
shoes with heels of area 250m2, what is the
 Nails, pins, screws are made with sharp pressure exerted on the floor by a heel of her
point to increase their penetrating power by shoes? (Ans = 2Pa)
large pressure exerted due to small area. 6. A rectangular block of mass 1.5kg rests on a
horizontal table. If it is measures 40cm by

54
30cm by 20cm. Calculate the greatest and Pressure in liquids depends on:
least pressure that the block can exert.
(i) The depth of water (liquid) (h)
7. A rectangular metal block with sides 1.5m
(ii) The density of liquid (𝜌) and doesnot
by 1.2m of the 1.0m rests on a horizontal
depend on area.
surface. If the density of the metal is
7000kg/m3. Calculate the maximum and Example 1.
minimum pressure that block can exert on Calculate the pressure exerted on a diver at a
the surface. depth of 20m below the surface of water in a
Pressure due to Liquid sea. (Use density of water 1000 kg/m3, g =
A liquid exerts pressure on an immersed object 9.8m/s2)
as well as on the walls of the container holding Solution
it. As particles move (Brownian motion) they
exert force when they collide which result to the Pressure (P) = h 𝜌𝑔
pressure in the liquid. P = 20×1000×9.8 = 19600 Pa
Formulas for the pressure in liquids Example 2
𝑃 = ℎ𝜌𝑔 A cube of side 2 cm is completely submerged in

water so that the bottom of the cube is at a depth
Derivation of the formula of 10 cm. (use g = 10 N/kg and density
Consider a liquid in the cylindrical container ofwateris1000 kg/m3)
below (a) What is the difference between the
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹) pressure on the bottom of the cube and the
From (P) = pressure on its top?
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)
(b) Determine the difference in forces on the
But force (F) = mg, then top and bottom.
𝑚𝑔 (c) What is the weight of water displaced by
Pressure (P) = . But
𝐴 the cube?
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚) = 𝜌𝑉 substituting m.
Solution
𝜌𝑉𝑔
Pressure (P) = . 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉) = 𝐴ℎ
𝐴
𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔
Pressure (P) = cancel A then
𝐴
Pressure (P) = h 𝜌𝑔
This formula P = h 𝜌𝑔is called hydrostatic
pressure equation.

55
(a) At bottom, h = 10 cm = 0.1 m 2. The pressure at a bottom of a well is

P= h 𝜌𝑔 98000N/m2. How deep is the well? (Ans =
P= 0.1 × 1000 × 10 = 1000 𝑃𝑎 98m)
At the top; h =10 – 2 = 8 cm = 0.08 m 3. A rectangular tank measures 5m by 3m at its
Pressure (P) at the top = h 𝜌𝑔 base. It contains water to a height of 3m.
Calculate the pressure on the base of the
𝑃 = 0.08 × 1000 × 10 = 800 𝑃𝑎 tank.
Difference between pressure (△P) 4. A small submarine has an area of 1000 m².
△P = 1000 Pa – 800 Pa = 200 Pa What force would be exerted on the
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹) submarine by the water, if it was submerged
(b) Pressure (P) =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴) to a depth of 50m? (use g = 10 N/kg and 𝜌 =
→ Force = Pressure (P) ×Area (A) 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚³)
but Area = L2 at both sides. 5. A cylindrical tank full of glycerin exerts a
Force at bottom = P at bottom × Area pressure of 200 KPa on the ground surface. If
Force at bottom= 1000 ×(0.02)2 = 0.4 N the tank has a height of 15m, calculate the
Force at the top = P at the top ×Area density of the glycerin. (Ans. 333.33)
Force at bottom = 800 × (0.02)2 = 0.32N 6. A cylindrical tank of radius 10m contains
Difference in Force (△F)
2512 m³ of water, what pressure does it exert
△F= 0.4N - 0.32N = 0.08N
0.08 N; is the upthrust exerted by water on the ground surface. (use g=10 m/s2, 𝜋 =
on the cube) 3.14 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚³) (Ans 80KPa)
(c) Volume of water displaced (V) = volume of
Experiments to show the variation of
cube
pressure with depth
V = 0.02m×0.02m×0.02m = 0.000008m3
Take a tall vessel and punch three holes at
Then mass of water displaced (m) = 𝜌𝑉 different height and fill the vessel with water as
shown.
𝑘𝑔
m = 1000 × 0.000008𝑚3 = 0.008 𝑘𝑔
𝑚3 → A hole C
Weight = mg produces the
most powerful
Weight = 0.008kg ×10 N/kg = 0.08N jet so it spurts
Exercise 7.2 the water to the
furthest distance
1. What will the pressure due to column of while hole A
water of height 4m? (40000Pa) produces the least powerful jet so it spurts the

56
water to the shortest distance. This means that liquid will be transmitted equally throughout the
the pressure at hole C is greater than the liquid”
pressure at hole A due to different heights.
→ Pascal’s principle is widely used in hydraulic
Therefore, pressure in liquids increase with
devices like hydraulic press.
depth.
Hydraulic Press
Application of pressure due to liquid depth
Hydraulic press is a device used to change small
 The bottom of the dam and the swimming force to be large by using Pascal’s principle.
pool are made thicker than top, so as to
withstands the massive pressure exerted at
the bottom.
 Water tanks have their outlets fixed at the
bottom to produce the powerful jet due to
high pressure. (depth increase)
 The water bubbles increase its volume as it
raises from bottom to the top of the pond
because pressure decreases. (depth decrease) Pressure is the same at both two pistons
 A hole at the bottom of a ship is more
dangerous than one near the surface P at small piston = P at large piston
𝑓 𝐹
→ Pressure in liquids depends only in depth. So =
𝑎 𝐴
liquids find its own level in the container, liquid
flows from high pressure to low pressure. A
communication vessel and sprit level work on But: A = πR2 and a = πr2
this principle. 𝑓 𝐹
→ =
𝑟2 𝑅2
Also the work done by small piston is equal to

the work done by large piston
fd = FD …... but force = P×A
𝑃 × 𝑎 × 𝑑 = 𝑃 × 𝐴 × 𝐷 … … 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙 𝑃
→ The liquid is at the same level even though
each part has different shape. 𝑎𝑑 = 𝐴𝐷
Pascal’s Principle → Effort force is applied to small piston so as
The Pascal’s principle states that “Any external to raise a heavy weight called Load.
pressure applied to the surface of an enclosed

57
Example 1 Solution:
In a hydraulic press the area of the piston to 𝑓 𝐹

From: = … … 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐹 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
which the effort is applied is 5cm2. If the press 𝑑2 𝐷2
can raise a weight of 2KN when an effort of 𝑓𝐷2

→𝐹=
400N is applied, what is the area of the piston 𝑑2
under the load? 300×0.72
𝐹= = 3333.33𝑁
0.212
Given
Small Piston Force, f =200N Exercise 7.3
Large Piston Force, F = 2KN = 2000N 1. Briefly explain the following
2 a. Why the walls of dams and swimming
Small piston area, a = 5cm
pools are constructed thicker at bottom
Large piston area, A = ?
than at the top?
Solution: b. Why a hole at the bottom of floating
𝑓 𝐹 ship is more dangerous than one near
From: =
𝑎 𝐴 the surface?
𝐹𝑎 c. Why deep sea divers may bleed from
→𝐴=
𝑓 their nose as they come out from the
2000𝑁×5𝑐𝑚2 sea.?
𝐴= = 25𝑐𝑚2 2. State the Pascal’s principle
200𝑁
3. What is hydraulic press?
Example,
4. Piston of hydraulic press has their areas
Hydraulic press has a large circular piston of given as 0.0003m2 and 0.02m2 respectively.
diameter 0.7m and circular piston to which the The 120N is required to push down the
effort is applied of diameter 0.21m. A force of small piston, find the force required to push
300N is exerted on small piston. Find the force large piston (Ans = 8000N)
required to lift a heavy load 5. A hydraulic lift has piston with areas of
0.02m2 and 0.1m2. A car with a weight of
Data given
5000N sits on platform mounted on the
Small piston diameter, d = 0.21m large piston
Large piston diameter, D = 0.7m a. How much force applied on small
piston?
Small Piston Force, f =300N b. How for must small piston fall when
R.T.F Large Piston Force, F = ? large piston raise the car at 0.3m?
(Ans, f = 10000N, d = 0.15m)

58
6. A car of mass 8000kg, one of its tyres → when the force on the brake pedal is
having an area of 50cm2 in contact with withdrawn the return spring pulls back the brake
ground. Find the pressure of the four- shoe which then pushes the slave cylinder piston
wheel car exerted on ground by the car back and the drum is free to rotate.
(Ans = 4000000Pa)
7. A hydraulic brake has a force of 500 N
applied to a piston whose area is 5 cm2.
a. What is the pressure transmitted
throughout the liquid?
b. If the other piston has an area of 20
cm2, what is the force exerted on it?
Application of hydraulic press

Atmospheric pressure
 It is used in industries to compress bulky It is the pressure exerted by the air to the earth’s
items e.g. bales of cotton. surface.
 It is used in hydraulic brakes. → Atmospheric pressure decreases as the
 It is used in industries in the formation of altitude increases above the sea level. At sea
metals. level the atmospheric pressure is maximum. It is
 It is used in powerful devices like bull- 101,325 Pa, or 760 mmHg. Our body fluid
exerts pressure slightly greater than this.
dozers etc.
 It is used in car lifting. → Astronaut wear spacesuit so as to maintain
 It is used in industries to form car bodies the pressure on their body.
into the required shapes Experiment to show that air exert pressure
 It used to make hydraulic jack
Boil a small quantity of water in an open tin.
 It is used in extraction of oil from the oil
Remove the tin from the source of the heat and
seed close it tightly, then pour cold water on it. The
Hydraulic brake system tin will be crushed.
When force is applied on the brake pedal, it

exerts pressure on the master cylinder which is
transmitted by the brake fluid to the slave
cylinders which cause the pistons of the slave
cylinders to open the brake shoes and hence the
brake lining presses the drum which resist the
drum to rotate.

59
The tin is crushed because, pouring cold water → The atmospheric pressure pushes the liquids
result the vapour inside the tin to condense and up the tubes to different heights due to
hence reduce the inside pressure. Hence, the differences in density.
atmospheric pressure will be greater than the
Pressure in both tubes will be the same
pressure inside the tin. And the tin will be
crushed by the atmospheric pressure. Pressure at A = Pressure at B
→ Atmospheric pressure acts in all directions ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔 = ℎ2 𝜌2 𝑔 … . . 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙 𝑔
this is shown by tumbler experiment as follows:
ℎ₁𝜌₁ = ℎ₂𝜌₂
Example
Two limbs of an inverted U- tube are deepen

into water and paraffin while no air at the top of
the tube, the paraffin column was 20.4cm and
the water column was 16cm. calculate the
density of paraffin.
→ Fill a tumbler to the brim with water and
place the card over the top so that there is no air Given:
between the card and water. On holding the height of water column (h1) = 16cm
tumbler upside down, the water does not flow
Density of water (𝜌₁) = 1000kg/m3
out. This is due to large upward atmospheric
pressure than downward liquid pressure. Height of paraffin (h2) = 20.2cm
(P >hρg) R.T.C density of paraffin (𝜌₂)
Hare’s apparatus Solution

It is a device used to compare the densities of From ℎ₁𝜌₁ = ℎ₂𝜌₂
two liquids when the air at the top is sucked out,
ℎ₁𝜌₁ 16 × 1000
⇒ 𝜌₂ = = = 784.32 𝑘𝑔/𝑚³
ℎ₂ 20.4
Practice question
In an experiment to determine the density of

liquid X by Hare’s apparatus, the oil of density
1.3 g/cm3 was used. The following results were
obtained:

60
The length of liquid X column = 16.5cm, and Solution

the length of oil column = 12.5 cm. (a) find the
Liquid pressure = hρg but h=15 mm=0.015 m
density of liquid X. (b) using your knowledge of
density of liquid write the name of liquid X. Liquid pressure = 0.015×1000×10=150 Pa
Manometer b) Gas pressure = atmospheric pressure+liquid
Manometer is device for measuring gas pressure pressure
in the container
Gas pressure = 1.01×105Pa+150Pa =101150Pa
→ On measuring the gas pressure one end is
connected to a gas chamber by means of a Barometer
It is an instrument used to measure atmospheric
rubber tube. The gas pressure pushes the liquid
down and causes the liquid to rise to the height pressure. The first barometer was made by
Italian scientist Torricelli in 1643.
(h).
Simple barometer
Is the most fundamental of the other types of

barometers. Barometric liquid
used was mercury. Simple
barometer is hard glass tube
of 1 metre long. Atmospheric
pressure pushes mercury at 76
cm at sea level. As the altitude
increases this level decreases.
→ The difference in height between the two
tubes is called “liquid head” (h). Then Fortin barometer
Gas pressure = atmospheric pressure + liquid A fortin barometer is a modified simple

pressure. barometer.
Example: → It measures atmospheric pressure more

accurate. It is mostly used in laboratory.
The liquid head of manometer on measuring gas
pressure was recordedas15mm of water. If the Disadvantages of fortin barometer
atmospheric pressure is 1.01×105 Pa. calculate  It uses mercury which is expensive and toxic.
(a) Pressure due to weight of liquid column  It is not portable as it is 1m long and contains
(b) Pressure of the gas. liquid.
 It must be mounted in vertical position.

61
For these reasons an aneroid barometer is then

preferred.
Aneroid barometer
It is a small portable barometer with no liquid in

it.
Uses of siphon
 It is used in toilets (in automatic flashing

tank and chain and ball flashing tank)
 It is used in special rain gauge called siphon
rain gauge to drain out excess water.
 It is used in drainage system to drain water to
one point.
→ It is also used by pilots as an altimeter to  It is used in special rain gauge called siphon
measure the altitude of a plane. This is because rain gauge which are able to automatically
for every 16 km rise, atmospheric pressure
drain out excess water
decreases to one tenth 1/10 to its original value.
→ A self-recording of aneroid barometer used in Automatic Flushing Tank
weather stations is called barograph where a Water flows slowly from the tap into the tank,
marker pen is used instead of a pointer and
complete one revolution in one week. raises above the top of the
siphon tube to complete
Application of Atmospheric Pressure the height, h. The siphon
There are variety of common and even simple flushes water until it
device that make a use of the atmospheric reaches the bottom of the
pressure to work. They include Siphon, lift shorten limb at A. this
pump, force pump, syringe and bicycle pump action is repeated after
Siphon every few minutes. This kind of appliance is
A siphon is a tube used to draw a liquid from used in places which have to be kept clean
one vessel to another due to differences in continually. E.g. urinating places
hydraulic pressure.
Chain and Ball Flushing Tank
→ The liquid rises in the tube because it is
pushed by atmospheric pressure. No additional As water increase, the ball float (moves up) until
energy is required. it reaches at the top which close the valve tap
and prevent more water to inter the tank

62
→ The siphon action is start when the chain is → It can lift water up to a height of 10m
pulled, it results a
Force pump:
plunger to push
water into the bend It is a modification of a lift pump. It is able to
of the siphon and draw water from greater depth than the lift
empty the tank. pump. It uses a motor to operate.
Syringe
→ The valve opens and fill the tank again to
repeat the action. A syringe is a simplest pump that consists of a
plunger that fits in a barrel.
Lift Pump
→ when a plunger is pulled
Lift pump: is a device used to draw water from out, pressure inside barrel is
underground sources. reduced and atmospheric
pressure pushes the fluid in.
→ When the plunger is
pushed in the pressure
inside the barrel increases
and the fluid is pushed out.
Uses of syringe:
 It is used by a doctor in injection
 It is used to measure liquids in laboratory
 It is used to apply certain compounds e.g.
glue or lubricant
Bicycle Pump
How does it work? It consists of a hollow metal cylinder and a

movable piston.
→ Up stroke: it reduces the pressure under the
piston. Transfer valve is closed and water above →Up stroke: pressure
the piston is removed out. The intake valve is below the piston is
opened by atmospheric pressure that pushes reduced and air is filled
water from underground into the barrel. below the piston.
→ Down stroke: pressure below the piston is → Down stroke: pressure

increased and closes the intake valve. The below the piston is
transfer valve opens and water flows above the increased and cause the
piston. valve to open then air is forced into the tyre.

63
TOPIC 8. WORK ENERGY AND POWER
Work Given
→ Work is the product of force and distance
Wight, w = 800N
moved in the direction of force.
Distance, d = 2m
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 (𝑊) = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑒(𝐹) × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑑)
R.T.C Work done, w =?
→ The S. I unit of work is joule (J). ie (1Nm = 1
Joule) Solution
→ A joule is a work done when a force of one From: W = F x d
Newton moves an object through a distance of 1
W = 800 x 2
m in the direction of force.
W = 1600J
Requirements for the work to be done
Example 2,
 There must be force acting on an object.
 The force must move the object parallel to it How much work is done to lift a 7kg object a
(same or opposite direction) distance of 2m and then hold it at that height for
10s
Determining the work done by an applied
force Given
Mass, m = 7kg
 If the force and distance are in opposite
direction, the work is done BY the object Wight, w = (7 x 10) N = 70N
 If the force and distance are in the same
Distance, d = 2m
direction the work is done ON the object
 If the force and distance are perpendicular R.T.C done, w.d = ?
(at right angle), no work is done Solution
 If the force and distance are at some angle,
only the part of the force parallel to the From: w.d = F x d
distance, does a work. w.d = 70 x 2
Example 1, w.d = 140J
A sack of maize which weighs 800N is lifted to Therefore, work done used to lift 7kg about 2m
height of 2m. What work done against gravity in the same direction is 140J and the work done
used to hold (d = 0m) for 10s is 0J

64
Example 3, 5. A woman carries a load of 20kg on her head

and walks 2m. calculate the work done.
A force of 80N pulls a box along a smooth and
6. A man pushes a van against a force of 300N
level ground a distance of 5m. Calculate the
for a distance of 10m. how much work did
work done by force.
he do?
Solution 7. A man lifts a load of 2.8kg through a height
of 5m. calculate the work done.
From: W = F x d
8. What mass can be raised 20m above the
W = 80 x 5 ground by 8500J of work?
W = 400J Energy
Energy is the capacity of doing work. (Without
Example 4 energy, no work can be done).
A pulley generates 100 kJ of work, pulling up 2 →The S. I. unit of work is the Joule (J).
packets of 50 kg cement. At what height are the
Forms of energy
packets raised?
There are different forms of energy like heat
Given: work done = 100kJ = 100000J; energy, sound energy, electrical energy, nuclear
Mass (m) = 2×50kg = 100kg energy. Etc.
→ Mechanical energy can be classified as
R.T.C. height = ? kinetic and potential energies.
Solution Kinetic energy (K. E.)
Work done = mgh (make h the subject) → Kinetic energy is the energy due to motion.
𝑊 100000
Kinetic energy includes thermal energy.
h= = = 10 𝑚 Electromagnetic energy, sound energy, light
𝑚𝑔 100 × 10
energy etc.
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 100 𝑚
Potential energy (P.E)
Exercise 8.1 Potential energy is the energy due to position.
1. Define work, and state its S.I.unit Potential energy includes: chemical potential
energy (C.P.E), elastic potential energy (E.P.E),
2. Work are the two conditions for the work to
gravitational energy (G.P.E), and nuclear energy
be done? (N.P.E)
3. Define joule
4. A man uses 30N pushing the wall for → The sum of potential energy and kinetic
15minute. Did he do any work? Explain energy is mechanical energy.
your answer

65
Calculation of kinetic energy Example 2,

1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 What is the kinetic energy of a 12g bullet
2
travelling at 320m/s?
𝑚 − 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Given:
𝑣 − 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠
As the object moves its velocity changes from Mass, m = 12g = 0.12kg
initial velocity (vi) to final velocity (vf). hence Speed, v = 320m/s
Change in △K.E = K.Ef – K.Ei
R.T.F kinetic energy, k.e = ?
1 2 1 2
= 𝑚𝑉𝑓 − 𝑚𝑉𝑖
2 2 Solution
𝟏
= 𝑚(𝑉𝑓 2 − 𝑉𝑖 2 ) From: 𝐾. 𝐸 =
1
𝑚𝑣 2
𝟐
2
N.B velocity must be in m/s. if it is given in 1
𝐾. 𝐸 = × 0.12 × 3202 = 6144𝐽
km/h, it must be changed by relation 2
(10 m/s = 36 km/h) or any other means. Practice question
Example 1: Anna has a mass of 80kg. If she runs at a speed

of 10m/s. calculate her kinetic energy. (Ans =
An object has a mass of 5kg. 4000J)
(a) what is its K.E if its speed is (i) 5m/s, (ii) Calculation of potential energy (P.E)
10m/s,
(b) What is the change of K.E from 5m/s to P.E = mhg ……..where
10m/s?  m- mass in kg
Solution  g- acceleration due to gravity = 9.8m/s²
or ≈ 10𝑚/𝑠 2
1 1
(a) (i) K.E = 𝑚𝑉 2 = × 5 × 5² = 62.5 𝐽  h- height from reference level
2 2
1
(ii) K.E = 𝑚𝑉 2 =
1
× 5 × 102 = 250𝐽 → If the reference is not indicated, it is taken to
2 2 be the ground level.
𝟏
(𝑏) △ 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚(𝑉𝑓 2 − 𝑉𝑖 2 ) → As the object rises or falls its height changes
𝟐
from initial height (hi) to final height (hf). Hence
△ 𝐾. 𝐸 = ½ × 5(102 − 52 ) = 187.5𝐽
change in P.E = P.Ef – P.Ei
The change in K.E is 187.5J
△P = mghf - mghi = mg(hf - hi)

66
N.B: The G.P.E can be either positive or (a) m = 2 kg, h = 0 m;

negative depending on the position of reference P.E = mgh ⇒ 2×10× 0 = 0J.
level.
(b) m = 2 kg, h = 1.2 m;
→ When height (h) is measured from the bottom
P.E = mgh ⇒ 2 ×10 ×1.2 = 24J
it is considered to be positive while when height
(h) is measured from the top to the bottom it is (c) m = 2 kg, h = 2.8 – 1.2 = 1.6 m but it is
considered to be negative. negative since it is measured from the
Example 1 ceiling; P.E = mgh ⇒ 2 ×10 ×-1.6 = -32J
(negative sign indicates that P.E is
A stone of mass 2 kg falls from a height of 25 m
above the ground. Calculate the potential energy measured in negative direction)
possessed by a stone.
(d) change in P.E = mg(hf -hi)
Solution △P.E ⇒ 2×10×(2.8m – 1.2m)
P.E = mgh = 2 × 9.8 × 25 = 490 J △P.E = 20×1.6 = 32 Joules
Example 2
Exercise 8.2
A 2kg object is at rest on the table 1.2m above
the floor. The ceiling in the room is 2.8m above 1. What is energy?
the floor. What gravitational potential energy of 2. Two types of mechanical energy
the object relative to: are______ and ____________
(a) The table top 3. Mwazume lifts a 15kg monitor from the
floor to the table top of 120cm high.
(b) The floor
Calculate its gain in gravitational
(c) The ceiling potential energy. (use g = 10 m/s²).
(Ans 180J)
(d) What is the change in P.E if the object is
lifted from the table to the ceiling? (Use g = 10 4. A stone of mass 10kg is dropped from
m/s2) rest to the ground 10m down. If it hits
the ground with a velocity of 20 m/s.
Solution
determine it’s a) kinetic energy b)
potential energy
5. A stone of 2kg falls from a height of
25m above the ground. Calculate
potential energy possessed by the stone
(Ans = 500J)

67
6. A lorry of mass 1 tone is moving at a Upward motion

velocity of 72 km/h, knocks a wall. K.E decreases due to the decrease of velocity,
Calculate the energy transferred to the while P.E increases due to increase in height.
wall. (Ans. 200KJ) → The K.E lost is equal to the P.E gained.
Transformation of Energy At the top

Energy can be changes from one form to another K.E is zero since velocity is zero while P.E is
by the device known as transducer maximum since the body has attained its
𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 maximum height (P.E = mgh(max)).
 Chemical energy → electrical energy.
𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 Downward motion
 Electrical energy → mechanical energy
𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
 Mechanical energy → electrical P.E decreases due to height decrease, while K.E
energy increases due to the increase in velocity.
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙
 Solar energy → electrical energy → P.E lost is equal to the K.E gained.
𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑟
 Chemical energy → mechanical At the bottom
energy
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑟 P.E is zero since the height is zero, while K.E is
 Electrical energy → sound energy
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
maximum since velocity is maximum.
(i) Electrical energy → heat energy 1
(K.E = 𝑚𝑉²)
2
Principle of conservation of energy
→ At any point between the top and the bottom
The law of conservation of energy states that K.E + P.E = P.E(max) or K.E(max).
‘Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but
Example
it can be transformed from one form to another.’
A ball of mass 0.2kg is dropped from a height of
→ P.E and K.E can be transformed into each
20m. on impact with the ground it loses 30J of
other. Consider a body which is thrown
energy before rebounding. Calculate
vertically upwards and shown
(a) The velocity of the ball when it is 12m
above the ground.
(b) The height which the ball reaches on the
rebound.

68
Solution Practice question
A stone of mass 2kg is released from a height of

2m above the ground. Find
a. Total energy
b. Potential energy at heat of 0.5m
c. Kinetic energy at height of 0.5m
d. Velocity acquired at 0.5m
Total energy = P.E(max) (Ans a = 40J, b = 10J, c = √30J, d
= mgh ⇒ 0.2×10×20 = 40J =5.48m/s)
At 12m above the ground Motion of a pendulum bob

Consider a bob of mass m is suspended by a
P.E = mgh ⇒ 0.2×10×12 = 24J string so that it can swing from one side to
another.
Also K.E + P.E = Total Energy
K.E + 24J = 40J ⇒ K.E = 16J

1
𝑚𝑉² = 16
2
1
× 0.2 × 𝑉 2 = 16
2
0.1 16
V² =
0.1 0.1
At C and A: The P.E is maximum while K.E is
√𝑉² = √160 zero.
At B: The P.E is zero while K.E is maximum.
V = 4√10 m/s
From C to B: P.E decreases while K.E increases.
∴ 𝐴 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑡 12𝑚 𝑖𝑠 4√10 m/s.
From B to A: P.E increases while K.E decreases.
(c) Energy remained after rebound
→ At any point along the path, K.E + P.E = ET
Energy = 40J – 30J = 10J.
P.E = mgh Example
10 J = 0.2×10×h
A pendulum bob of 0.8 kg swing from side to
⇒h=5m
side and reach a maximum height of1.2 m from
its equilibrium level.

69
(a) What will be its velocity as it swings 1

×0.8 ×(2)² + 0.8×10×h = 9.6
2
through its lowest point?
(b) What will be its velocity when it is 0.9 m 1.6 + 8ℎ = 9.6
above reference level?
8ℎ = 9.6 − 1.6
(c) At what height above equilibrium level
will its velocity be 2.0 m/s? 8ℎ = 8
Solution ℎ=1𝑚
(a) P.E (max) = mgh Uses of mechanical energy
P.Emax = 0.8 ×10×1.2 = 9.6J (1) It facilitates the stability of the motion
At lowest point K.E is maximum = 9.6J (2) It helps the object to move around
1 (3) It is used in the performance of work
𝑚𝑉² = 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 (4) It can be transferred to other form of energy
2
1 like light energy etc.
0.8 × 𝑉 2 = 9.6
2
9.6
Power
2
𝑉 = = 24 Power is the rate of doing work. OR
0.4
𝑉 = 2√6 m/s Power is the rate at which energy is consumed.

∴ 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 2√6 m/s Power =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
OR
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
(c) At 0.9 m 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑
K.E + P.E = Total energy 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃) =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
1
𝑚𝑉 2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 9.6 𝐽 The S.I unit of power is Watt. (1j/s = 1watt)
2
1
× 0.8V² + 0.8×10× 0.9 = 9.6 For engineering purposes horse power is more
2
0.4𝑉² + 7.2 = 9.6 convenient as a practical unit of power.
0.4𝑉² = 9.6 − 7.2 1hp = 746W ≈ 750𝑊
0.4𝑉 2 = 2.4
2.4 Larger units of power are kilowatt (KW) and
𝑉2 = =6
0.4 Megawatt (MW).
𝑉 = √6 𝑚/𝑠
(d) K.E + P.E = P.E (max) Example
1 A pump rises 100 kg of water steadily through a

𝑚𝑉 2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 9.6 𝐽
2 height of 30 m in 10 s. what is the power
developed by the pump?

70
Given Exercise 8.3

Mass (m) = 100kg, height (h) = 30m, 1. Define power and state its S.I unit
time (t) = 10 sec 2. Using a motion of pendulum bob, briefly
Solution explain the transformation of energy as the
bob swing from left to right.
𝑚𝑔ℎ
Power = 3. State the principle of conservation of energy.
𝑡
4. A man weighing 800N takes a minute to run
100× 10× 30
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = 3000𝑊 upstairs. In so doing he ascends a vertical
10
height of 3m. find his power in horse power?
Since work causes a change in energy (∆𝐸) then 5. Calculate the power in hp of a water pump
power can be considered as the rate of change of which can lift 100kg of water through a
energy. vertical height of 5m in 2seconds.
(Use 1hp = 746 Watt).
∆𝐸
P= 6. A 50 kg girl runs up a staircase of 50 steps
𝑡
each of 15cm in 5seconds.
Example 2. a) Find the work done against gravity.
b) At what power is she running?
How much power is required to accelerate 1 (Ans: a = 37.5J, b = 7.5W)
tone car from 20m/s to 25m/s in 10seconds? 7. A car of mass 1200kg starts from rest at the
bottom of the hill 4m high and reaches the
Given: mass (m) = 1tone = 1000kg
top with a velocity of 15m/s. if it took the car
Initial velocity (vi) = 20m/s 12seconds to reach the top. What is the power
output of its engine? Express your answer in
Final velocity (vf) = 25m/s both Watt and horse power.
Time (t) = 10seconds 8. How much work is done in stopping a 1500
kg car travelling at 20 m/s?
Solution 9. How much power is required to accelerate a
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾.𝐸 1000kg car from rest to 26.7m/s in 8s?
Power =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (Ans = 44500W)
1
𝑚(𝑉𝑓2 −𝑉𝑖²) 10.Calculate the work done in each case below.
2
= Indicate if the work is done on the object or
𝑡
by the object.
1 2
× 1000 (25 − 20²) a) A 10kg object is lifted to a height of 5m
=2 above the ground
10
b) The object is held at that height of 5m for
= 11250 Watt 7s
c) The object is lowered back to the ground.

71
TOPIC 9. LIGHT
→ Light is the form of energy which stimulates categorized into two main groups; luminous
the sense of vision. Without light nothing can be sources and non-luminous sources
seen.
Luminous sources
Properties of light
These are objects that produce light on their
 Light radiates from the source: it means
own. There are natural (which gives light
light spread out (propagate) from the source.
naturally) e.g. sun, stars, fire flies,
 Light travels in a straight line.
bioluminescence fly etc. and artificial sources
 Light transfers energy
(manmade objects) e.g. bulb, torch, lamp etc
 Light travels in a vacuum. (Empty space)
 Light travels at fastest speed (3×108m/s) → Objects that emit light after being heated are
called incandescent bodies; example electric
→ Experiment to show that light travels in a
bulb, candle flame etc.
straight line.
Non-luminous bodies
Place three cardboard having small holes at the
centre and a candle at one side as shown. These are objects that do not produce light on
their own. (they cannot be seen without light
from other sources) e.g. moon, planets, mirror,
satellites etc
Non-luminous bodies are also called illuminated

bodies.
Observation: you will see the source of light
only if the three holes are in a straight line. Rays and beams of light
When one card is moved slightly from the A ray is a straight line path of a light. It is
straight line you will not be able to see the light. always presented by a line with an arrow to
This shows that light never band, it always show the direction from the source.
travels in straight line. The behaviour of light to A ray
travel only in a straight line is called rectilinear
propagation of light. Beam is the collection of rays of light.
Sources of light Types of beams
These are the objects which emits light. Sun is There are three types of beams: Parallel,
the main source of light. Sources of light can be convergent and divergent beams.

72
Parallel beam: Is the collection of rays which is Translucent materials

seen to keep the same distance apart. (they never
These are materials which allow only part of
meet)
light to pass through them. Eg tinted glass, oiled
paper, frosted glass etc.
Opaque material
These are materials which do not allow light to

Divergent beam: is the collection of rays which pass through them. E.g. wall, stone, rock, mirror
seem to spread out from the point. (they diverge etc. (they always make a shadow on a screen)
as they continue)
Shadow
A shadow is a dark area formed when the
opaque objects lie in the path of light.
Types of shadows
 Umbra: is the region of a shadow of the total

darkness
Convergent beam: is the collection of rays  Penumbra: is the region of a shadow of the
which seem to come close and meet at a point. partial darkness.
Materials and light

When regarding light transmission ability,
materials are classified into three types. Eclipse
Transparent materials, Translucent materials and Eclipse is an astronomical event that occurs
Opaque materials when the heavenly body moves in the shadow of
another heavenly body.
Transparent materials
Types of eclipse
These are materials that allow light to pass
through them. E.g. air, glass, clear plastic, water  Lunar eclipse (eclipse of the moon) and
etc  Solar eclipse (eclipse of the sun)

73
Solar eclipse: is the type of eclipse that occurs When the hole is faced an object which is
when the moon is passing between the sun and illuminated by a lamp, an inverted real image is
the earth. The moon blocks light from the sun to focused on the translucent window.
reach the earth during the day.
Annular eclipse occurs when the moon’s shadow

does not reach the earth’s surface. An observer → When the hole is made larger than the pin
will see the ring of light around a shadow of the hole the image formed is blurred image. (out of
moon. focus)
→ A pin hole camera is used to observe the

solar eclipse and to examine the laws of
projection. Also it has been used by surveyors to
take photographs. The image is magnified and
diminished if the box is moved towards and
Lunar eclipse: is the type of eclipse that occurs
away from the object.
when the earth is between the moon and the sun.
Magnification (m)
Magnification is the behaviour of an image to

appear larger or smaller than the object.
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝐼𝐻)
𝑀= 𝑜𝑟
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑂𝐻)
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑉)

During lunar eclipse the moon can still be seen. 𝑀=
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑈)
This is due to refraction of sun light by the earth.
𝐼𝐻 𝑉
Pin-hole camera (dark chamber) → =
𝑂𝐻 𝑈
A pin-hole camera is a rectangular opaque box
Example 1
with a translucent window on one side.
What is height of an image of an object 2cm
→ A small hole H, the size of a pin is punctured
high which is placed 125cm from a pinhole
in the middle of the side opposite to the window.
camera which is 21cm long?

74
Given: OH = 2cm; U = 125cm; V = 21cm; Exercise 9.1

R.T.F image height, IH = ? 1. Define the following terms
a. Light
Solution b. Luminous object
𝐼𝐻 𝑉 c. Non luminous object
= 2. With the help of diagram explain an
𝑂𝐻 𝑈
𝑉 × 𝑂𝐻 2 × 21
experiment to show that light travels in
⇒ 𝐼𝐻 = = = 0.336𝑐𝑚 straight line
𝑈 125
3. What is eclipse?
Example 2 4. Explain how solar eclipse occurs
5. Objects that emit light when being heated
The pinhole camera was used to take a picture of are called _________
a ship that was 50m away. The image of the ship 6. Differentiate between ray and beam
formed on the screen of the camera had a height 7. Draw a rays for
of 30mm. if the pin hole had a magnification of a. Parallel beam
0.0025. Calculate; b. Divergent beam
(i) the height of the ship c. Convergent beam
(ii) The length of the pinhole camera. 8. What is shadow? Explain how shadow is
formed
Given: 9. What is meant by:
a. Opaque material
Object distance(U) = 50m,
b. Transparent materials
Image height (IH) = 30mm c. Translucent materials
10.What is pin hole camera?
Magnification (M) = 0.0025, 11.Draw a diagram for pin hole camera and
R.T.C Object height (OH) = ?, V = ? list down any three characteristics of
image formed by it
𝐼𝐻
(𝑖)𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑀 = 12.A candle flame of height 5 cm is placed 20
𝑂𝐻
cm in front of a pinhole camera in a dark
𝐼𝐻 30 room. If the distance between a hole and a
⇒ 𝑂𝐻 = = = 12000𝑚𝑚 = 12𝑚
𝑀 0.0025 camera plate is 28 cm. Find the height of
𝑉 the image formed on the camera plate.
(𝑖𝑖)𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑉 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑈 (Ans. 7 cm)
𝑉 = 𝑀𝑈 13.The length of the camera box is 10cm, an
object of length 2m is photographed when
𝑉 = 0.0025 × 50 = 0.125𝑚 = 12.5 𝑐𝑚 it is 100cm from the hole. Calculate
(i) magnification
(ii) length of the image
(Ans. M= 0.1, 20 cm)

75
Reflection of light Laws of reflection:

Reflection is the bouncing back of light when it
There are two laws of reflection.
meets an obstacle in its path. There are two
types of reflections. 1) The incident ray, reflected ray and the
normal line all lie on the same plane at the
1) Regular reflection (specula reflection)
point of incidence.
2) Irregular reflection (diffused reflection)
2) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle
Regular reflection of reflection. (θi= θr)
This is the type of reflection which occurs on the

smooth surface. Regular reflection results in
sharp image. Best example is reflection on the
plane mirror.
Meanings of terms
 Incident ray is the ray from the source which

strikes the surface
 Reflected ray is the ray which leaves the
reflecting surface
 Normal line is an imaginary line drawn
Irregular reflection (Diffuse reflection) perpendicular to the surface (90º)
This is the type of reflection which occurs on the  The angle of incidence (i) is the angle
rough surface. The reflected rays are not parallel formed by the incident ray and the normal
and no image is formed. line.
 The angle of reflection (r) is the angle
formed by the reflected ray and the normal
line.
Reflection by rotating mirror
When a fixed incident ray falls on a rotating
plane mirror, the angle through which the
reflected ray turns is twice the angle through
which the mirror rotates.

76
→ A sharp image is formed on a plane mirror

due to regular reflection. The image formed is
according to the laws of reflection.
Characteristics of image formed on a plane

mirror.
 The image formed is virtual. It is behind the

mirror where no real rays of light pass,
except seemed to appear so.
The incidence angle for mirror1 = i  The image is upright.
 The image is the same size as the object.
Incident angle for mirror 2 = i + θ (OH = IH hence magnification is 1).
Reflected angle for mirror 2 = x + y  The image distance is equal to the object
distance (V = U).
= x + (i – θ)
 The image formed is laterally inverted.
Using the law of reflection (right side becomes left side and vice versa)
Incident angle = reflected angle Image in inclined mirror (multiple mirrors)
i + θ = x + (i – θ)
The number of images depends on the angle
x = 2θ between the two mirrors. If the angle between
them is 90º, these are called right angle mirrors.
Where
x - is the angle through which the reflected ray
turns.
Formation of image by plane mirror
→ A plane mirror is a smooth glass which is
silvered at one side.
→The number of image can be calculated using

the formula;
360
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒(𝑛) = − 1
𝜃

77
So for right angle mirrors 6. Calculate the value for the incident angle if
the reflected ray makes 460 with the mirror.
No. of image = 3.
Application of reflection
From 360 360
𝑛= −1 ⇒ 𝜃 =
𝜃 𝑛+1 Reflection of light is used in plane mirror and
also in periscope.
→ If the mirrors are placed parallel to each
A periscope: is an instrument used to see an
other (0º) multiple images are formed depending
360 360 object from a hidden position. It consists of a
upon the𝑛length
= − 1the⇒mirrors.
of 𝜃=
𝜃 𝑛+1 tube fitted with mirrors at each end at an angle
360 of 45º
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 = − 1=∞
0
Uses of periscope
→ The number of image increase as if the angle  It is used in submarine to look on the surface
between mirror decreases of sea.
Exercise 9.2  It is used during warfare. Soldiers observe
potential dangers when they hide in trenches.
1. Define reflection  The modern telescope has been invented
2. State the laws of reflection from the periscope. Telescope uses lenses
3. Write down three differences between image instead of mirror to make far away objects
formed by a plane mirror and the one formed appear larger and nearer.
by a pin hole camera
4. Calculate the number of images formed by Telescope
two mirrors placed at an angle of Telescope is the instrument which uses lenses
(a) 30º (b) 12º instead of mirror to make far away object to
5. Two mirrors are placed at an angle 𝜃 form 4 appear larger and near. Often are used to
images. Find the value of angle 𝜃. observing star

78
Exercise 9.3
1. How do the following words appear when viewed on a plane mirror?
(a) FIRE (b) UMBRELLA
2. Rays of light are incident on a mirror that is inclined at 300 as shown below.
a) What will be the angle of reflection?
b) Copy and show both incident rays and reflected rays
3. Define the following terms

a) Incident ray
b) Angle of reflection
c) Normal
4. Give two difference between periscope and telescope
5. The branch of physics deals with the light and its property is called ___________
6. Write T for the correct statement and F for incorrect statement
a) Moon is an example of luminous object__________________
b) A mirror is transparent material______________________
c) Pin hole camera forms a real image_____________________
d) To see your whole body in a plane mirror, the mirror must be larger than or equal to
your height______________________
e) When two mirrors are place with angle 8o between them. The number of image
formed is larger than 8__________________

79
REFERENCES
Oxford (2008). Physics for Zanzibar secondary schools forms 1&2: Dar es Salaam: Oxford
university press Tanzania Ltd
Abbott, A.F(1989). Physics 5thedition: Madrid: Hermann Education
Nelkon, M. (1981). Principles of Physics: 8thedition.Essex: Longman
Nyambari Nyangwine (2008): Contemporary Physics for secondary schools book one: Dar es
Salaam. Tanzania: Nyambari Nyangwine publishers
Longhorn (2014): Fundamentals of Physics form one: Nairobi Kenya. Longhorn Kenya Ltd

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CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS .................................................................................... 1

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

TOPIC 4. FORCE ........................................................................................................................... 32

TOPIC 6. STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER ....................................................... 46

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

Hydraulic Press ............................................................................................................................ 56

TOPIC 8. WORK ENERGY AND POWER .................................................................................. 63

TOPIC 9. LIGHT ............................................................................................................................ 71

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

Introduction to Physics → Physics can be divided into two main

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

 Cooking stoves, fuel burn to release heat In medical field

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

TOPIC 2. INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

Items Uses Photo Spring For

Ball and For

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

Pipette For Electronic For

→ After experiment, apparatus should be  It prevents the victim’s condition from

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

Class Organic solids (wood, Water

Class Flammable liquids Dry powder,

1) Electrical fault Class Combustible Dry powder

→ Why water is not a suitable extinguisher for Warning Signs

1. What is first aid? 1. Toxic

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

Flammable Radio Active

Oxidizing agent symbol means that the

Corrosive substances corrode floors, surfaces, as

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

Explosive Basic principles of scientific observation

→ Scientific method is a set techniques used by

Careful Steps of a Scientific Method

Most of the experiments performed in the Fundamental Quantities

→ The three basic quantities we measure are: 3. Time Second s

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

radius, diameter, height, circumference, Vernier Calipers

→ The S. I. unit of length is metre (m). There

→ For large multiples and sub multiples of

 Milli (m) = 10-3

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

2) Look along the sliding vernier scale and

Main scale reading = 9.9cm

Vernier scale reading = 2 x 0.01 = O.02cm

Total reading = (9.9 + 0.02) cm = 9.92cm

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)

Micrometer Screw Gauge → Before using micrometer screw gauge, close

From below diagram, determine the diameter of

After fixing the object with the anvil and the

6. Draw the micrometer screw gauge to Beam Balance

CLASS ROOM EDITION (2020) . PHYSISCS BY HAMAD H. (0773158813)