Module 6 - PERPETUATION OF LIFE

Site: New Era University Printed by: Raymundo, Mharc Jhefferson P.

Course: Earth and Life Science Date: Tuesday, 16 January 2024, 12:25 AM
Book: Module 6 - PERPETUATION OF LIFE
 Description

Perpetuation of Life: Perpetuation is derived from the word PERPETUATE which means for something to carry on.
 Table of contents

1. Introduction

2. Learning Outcomes

3. Plant Reproduction
3.1. Asexual Reproduction
3.2. Sexual Reproduction

4. Animal Reproduction
4.1. Asexual Reproduction
4.2. Sexual Reproduction
 1. Introduction

In both plants and animals, the individual matures to the point of being sexually mature and capable of reproduction. Once
the animal is sexually mature, it can mate, or in the case of plants, carry out pollination and fertilization. This, in effect, completes the cycle of
reproduction of plants and animals.
 2. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson the students will be able to:

1. identify the type of plants in their backyard.

2. describe the different ways of how plants reproduce.

3. describe the different ways of how representative animals reproduce

5. create a slogan about the "Effects in the environment of illegal logging".

 3. Plant Reproduction

Perpetuation of Life: Perpetuation is derived from the word PERPETUATE which means for something to carry on. Plants reproduce in
two very different ways:

1. Asexual reproduction produces individuals that are genetically identical to the parent plant.

2. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves the production of male and female gametes, the transfer of the male gametes to the female
ovules in a process called pollination. After pollination occurs, fertilization happens and the ovules grow into seeds within a fruit.

Asexual Reproduction

Some plants can produce seeds without fertilization via apomixis where the ovule or ovary gives rise to new seeds. Here are the plants that
undergo asexual reproduction.

1. Corms look like true bulbs but they are solid, so they do not have layers of modified leaves. As the leaves and flowers grow, they absorb the
nutrients and the corm shrivels up and disappears. One or more additional corms are produced through the growing season and that’s how the
plant regenerates itself. Examples of corms include crocus, Gladiolas and tuberous begonias.
2. Bulb - Horticulturalists call these true bulbs to differentiate them from the all the other types. True bulbs consist of layers of modified leaves
and contain a miniature flower or sprout in the center. If you cut an onion in half from top to bottom you can see that the roots at the bottom of
the bulb anchor the plant to the ground and absorb water and nutrients. Other examples of true bulbs include garlic, amaryllis, tulips, daffodils
and lilies.

3. Tubers -
rhizomes, and stolon undergo vegetative reproduction.
 3.1. Asexual Reproduction

5 Types of asexual Reproduction

Some plants can produce seeds without fertilization via apomixis where the ovule or ovary gives rise to new seeds. Here are the plants that
undergo asexual reproduction.

1. Corms look like true bulbs but they are solid, so they do not have layers of modified leaves. As the leaves and flowers grow, they absorb the
nutrients and the corm shrivels up and disappears. One or more additional corms are produced through the growing season and that’s how the
plant regenerates itself. Examples of corms include crocus, Gladiolas and tuberous begonias.
corms
2. Bulb - Horticulturalists call these true bulbs to differentiate them from the all the other types. True bulbs consist of layers of modified leaves
and contain a miniature flower or sprout in the center. If you cut an onion in half from top to bottom you can see that the roots at the bottom of
the bulb anchor the plant to the ground and absorb water and nutrients. Other examples of true bulbs include garlic, amaryllis, tulips, daffodils
and lilies.

bulbs

3. Tubers - are usually short and thickened and typically grow below the soil. Largely composed of starch-storing parenchyma tissue, they
constitute the resting stage of various plants and enable overwintering in many species. Examples are potato, kūmara (storage
root), yam, taro, Jerusalem artichoke and ulluco.

4. Rhizomes - In botany and dendrology, a rhizome (/ˈraɪzoʊm/, from Ancient Greek: rhízōma "mass of roots", from rhizóō "cause to strike root")
is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and shoots from its nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just
rootstalks.
5. Stolon - also known as runners, are plants that propagate horizontally. though this plants have roots but they attach their stems to the ground
and let roots grow from their stems.

References:
https://eschooltoday.com/science/asexual-reproduction/what-is-stem-runners-in-vegetative-propagation.html
https://www.vegetables.co.nz/vegetable-classification/tubers/
 3.2. Sexual Reproduction

This type of reproduction in plants involves the production of male and female gametes, the transfer of the male gametes to the female
ovules in a process called pollination. After pollination occurs, fertilization happens and the ovules grow into seeds within a fruit.

All plants have a life cycle that consists of two distinct forms that differ in size and the number of chromosomes per cell. In flowering
plants, the large, familiar form that consists of roots, shoots, leaves, and reproductive structures (flowers and fruit) is diploid and is called the
sporophyte. The sporophyte produces haploid microscopic gametophytes that are dependent on tissues produced by the flower. The
reproductive cycle of a flowering plant is the regular, usually seasonal, cycling back and forth from sporophyte to gametophyte.

The flower produces two kinds of gametophytes, male and female. The female gametophyte arises from a cell within the ovule , a
small structure within the ovary of the flower. The ovary is a larger structure within the flower that contains and protects usually many ovules.
Flowering plants are unique in that their ovules are entirely enclosed in the ovary. The ovary itself is part of a larger structure called the carpel,
which consists of the stigma, style, and ovary. Each ovule is attached to ovary tissue by a stalk called the funicle. The point of attachment of
the funicle to the ovary is called the placenta.

As the flower develops from a bud, a cell within an ovule called the archespore enlarges to form an embryo-sac mother cell (EMC).
The EMC divides by meiosis to produce four megaspores. In this process the number of chromosomes is reduced from two sets in the EMC to
one set in the megaspores, making the megaspores haploid. Three of the four megaspores degenerate and disappear, while the fourth divides
mitotically three times to produce eight haploid cells. These cells together constitute the female gametophyte, called the embryo sac.

The eight embryo sac cells differentiate into two synergids, three antipodal cells, two fused endosperm nuclei, and an egg cell. The
mature embryo sac is situated at the outer opening (micropyle) of the ovule, ready to receive the sperm cells delivered by the male
gametophyte.

Pollen

The male gametophyte is the mature pollen grain. Pollen is produced in the anthers, which are attached at the distal end of filaments. The
filament and anther together constitute the stamen, the male sex organ. Flowers usually produce many stamens just inside of the petals. As
the flower matures, cells in the anther divide mitotically to produce pollen mother cells (PMC). The PMCs divide by meiosis to produce haploid
microspores in groups of four called tetrads. The microspores are housed within a single layer of cells called the tapetum, which provides
nutrition to the developing pollen grains.

Double Fertlization

Double fertilization begins when the pollen tube grows into one of the two synergid cells in the embryo sac, possibly as a result of
chemical attraction to calcium. After penetrating the synergid, the apex of the pollen tube breaks open, releasing the two sperm nuclei and
other contents into the synergid. As the synergid degenerates, it envelops the egg and endosperm cells, holding the two sperm nuclei close and
the other expelled contents of the pollen tube. The egg cell then opens and engulfs the sperm cell, whose membrane breaks apart and allows
the nucleus to move near the egg nucleus. The nuclear envelopes then disintegrate, and the two nuclei combine to form the single diploid
nucleus of the zygote. The other sperm cell fuses with the two endosperm nuclei, forming a single triploid cell, the primary endosperm cell,
which divides mitotically into the endosperm tissue.
Seed

The seed is the mature, fertilized ovule. After fertilization, the haploid cells of the embryo sac disintegrate. The maternally derived diploid
cells of the ovule develop into the hard, water-resistant outer covering of the seed, called the testa, or seed coat. The diploid zygote develops
into the embryo, and the triploid endosperm cells multiply and provide nutrition. The testa usually shows a scar called the hilum where the
ovule was originally attached to the funicle. In some seeds a ridge along the testa called the raphe shows where the funicle originally was
pressed against the ovule. The micropyle of the ovule usually survives as a small pore in the seed coat that allows passage of water during
germination of the seed.

Fruit

The fruit of a flowering plant is the mature ovary. As seeds mature, the surrounding ovary wall forms a protective structure that may aid
in dispersal. The surrounding ovary tissue is called the pericarp and consists of three layers. From the outside to inside, these layers are the
exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The exocarp is usually tough and skinlike. The mesocarp is often thick, succulent, and sweet. The endocarp,
which surrounds the seeds, may be hard and stony, as in most species with fleshy fruit, such as apricots.

Pollination and Pollinators

Pollination is the movement of pollen from the stamens to the stigma, where germination and growth of the pollen tube occur. Most
(approximately 96 percent) of all flowering plant species are hermaphroditic (possess both sexual functions within a plant, usually within every
flower), and thus an individual can be pollinated by its own pollen or by pollen from another individual. Seed produced through self-pollination
("selfed" seed) is often inferior in growth, survival, and fecundity to seed produced through outcross pollination ("outcrossed" seed). As a result,
in most species there is strong natural selection to maximize the proportion of outcrossed seed (the "outcrossing rate").

Spores

Spores are reproductive cells that are able to develop into a new individual without fusing with another cell (in contrast, seeds are
formed when male and female gametes join together). The microscopic spore cell has everything it needs to grow into a multicellular plant, and
under favorable conditions the cell will divide and grow. In plants, spores can be found on non-seed bearing plants including green algae,
mosses and ferns. Often, the spores are located on the underside of the leaves and are carried to a new area by wind or rain. Spores, unlike
seeds, are less likely to be eaten by animals, but they are at risk of being consumed by bacteria and fungi.

References:

http://www.biologyreference.com/Re-Se/Reproduction-in-Plants.html

https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/backgrounders/plant-reproduction

https://laidbackgardener.blog/tag/fern-spores/
 4. Animal Reproduction

Asexual reproduction in animals occurs through fission, budding, fragmentation, and parthenogenesis. ... Sexual reproduction starts with the
combination of a sperm and an egg in a process called fertilization. This can occur either outside the bodies or inside the female. The method
of fertilization varies among animals.
 4.1. Asexual Reproduction

Types of asexual reproduction in animals

1. Fission

Fission, also called binary fission, occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms and in some invertebrate, multi-celled organisms. After a period of
growth, an organism splits into two separate organisms. Some unicellular eukaryotic organisms undergo binary fission by mitosis. In other
organisms, part of the individual separates, forming a second individual. This process occurs, for example, in many asteroid echinoderms
through splitting of the central disk. Some sea anemones and some coral polyps also reproduce through fission.

2. Budding

Budding is a form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth of a part of a cell or body region leading to a separation from the
original organism into two individuals. Budding occurs commonly in some invertebrate animals such as corals and hydras. In hydras, a bud
forms that develops into an adult, which breaks away from the main body; whereas in coral budding, the bud does not detach and multiplies as
part of a new colony.

3. Fragmentation

Many sea stars reproduce asexually by fragmentation. For example, if the arm of an individual sea star is broken off it will regenerate a new sea
star. Fishery workers have been known to try to kill the sea stars that eat their clam or oyster beds by cutting them in half and throwing them
back into the ocean. Unfortunately for the workers, the two parts can each regenerate a new half, resulting in twice as many sea stars to prey
upon the oysters and clams. Fragmentation also occurs in annelid worms, turbellarians, and poriferans.

4. Parthenogenesis

Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction where an egg develops into a complete individual without being fertilized. The resulting
offspring can be either haploid or diploid, depending on the process and the species. Parthenogenesis occurs in invertebrates such as water
fleas, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, some ants, wasps, and bees. Bees use parthenogenesis to produce haploid males (drones) and diploid
females (workers). If an egg is fertilized, a queen is produced. The queen bee controls the reproduction of the hive bees to regulate the type of
bee produced.
References:

https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/13-1-how-animals-reproduce

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/reproduction-methods
 4.2. Sexual Reproduction

Mammals, birds, and some other animal species depend on heterozygous or homozygous chromosome combinations for sex determination.
This type of reproduction in animals occurs in three fundamental steps such as Gametogenesis (gametes production), Spawning or mating
(uniting the gametes), and Fertilization (marrying of gametes).

Hermaphroditism

Hermaphroditism occurs in animals in which one individual has both male and female reproductive systems. Invertebrates such as
earthworms, slugs, tapeworms, and snails are often hermaphroditic. Hermaphrodites may self-fertilize, but typically they will mate with
another of their species, fertilizing each other and both producing offspring. Self-fertilization is more common in animals that have limited
mobility or are not motile, such as barnacles and clams. Many species have specific mechanisms in place to prevent self-fertilization, because
it is an extreme form of inbreeding and usually produces less fit offspring.

External Fertilization

External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic environments where both eggs and sperm are released into the water. After the sperm reaches
the egg, fertilization takes place. Most external fertilization happens during the process of spawning where one or several females release their
eggs and the male(s) release sperm in the same area, at the same time. The spawning may be triggered by environmental signals, such as
water temperature or the length of daylight. Nearly all fish spawn, as do crustaceans (such as crabs and shrimp), mollusks (such as oysters),
squid, and echinoderms (such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers). Frogs, corals, mayflies, and mosquitoes also spawn

Internal Fertilization

Internal fertilization occurs most often in terrestrial animals, although some aquatic animals also use this method. Internal fertilization may
occur by the male directly depositing sperm in the female during mating. It may also occur by the male depositing sperm in the environment,
usually in a protective structure, which a female picks up to deposit the sperm in her reproductive tract. There are three ways that offspring are
produced following internal fertilization. In oviparity, fertilized eggs are laid outside the female’s body and develop there, receiving nourishment
from the yolk that is a part of the egg

Reference:

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/reproduction-methods

https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/13-1-how-animals-reproduce