LITERATURE-IN-ENGLISH

PAPER 1:

The word “Literature” originates from a Latin word “litera” which mean printed material. It is
also an offshoot of the word ‘literate’ which means able to read and write

Definitions of Literature:

 The term Literature can be defined as the window through which the people’s culture or
way of life is seen, thus, literature is a mirror through which man sees the good, bad, and
ugly parts of life.
 Literature is defined as written artistic words, especially those with high lasting artistic
value.
 Literature is ant artwork which uses language
 Literature is a total experience shaped into beauty and attractiveness.
 Literature is defined as a piece of writing that is valued as work of art, especially novel,
play, and poetry.
 Literature is a reflection of social, political, economic, and cultural realities

Literature as a Field of Study:

Literature is a form or act of expression that concerns itself with not just what is expressed but
the manner of its expression

Forms/Types of Literature:

 Oral literature
 Written literature

ORAL LITERATURE

This refers to the type of literature that is delivered by means of mouth. It is presented orally or
in spoken form. Oral literature is made by different elements such as proverbs, recitations, songs,
chants, lullabies, myth, folktale, riddle, legend, idioms, folk drama, fables epic poetry and
anecdote. It is usually done with some lyrical qualities which is passed from generation to
generation.
Elements/ Examples of Oral Literature

Proverbs: is a well- known phrase or sentence that gives advice or say something that is
generally true.

Recitation: refers to the act of saying a piece of poetry before an audience

Chants: these are prayer songs sung for religious purpose.

Lullabies: are songs to soothe children or babies

Folktales: is a very old traditional story from a particular place that was originally passed on to
people in a spoken form

Riddles: refers to a puzzle that is set in order to make somebody discover the hidden meanings.

Anecdote: is a brief story about an interesting, amusing or strange event. Writers tell anecdote or
include them in a larger work, to entertain the readers or to make a point.

Epic: is a long narrative poem, about the adventures of a hero, whose actions reflect the ideas
and values of a nation or a group. Epics address universal concerns such as good and evil, life
and death, and other serious subjects.

Fable: is a brief story or poem usually with animal characters that teaches a lesson or a moral
about

Folk tales: is a story composed orally and then passed from person to person by word of mouth.

Legend: is a widely told story about the past-one that may or may not have a foundation in fact.
Or is a story that is handled down from the past and may tell about something that is really
happened.

Parable: a short story that teaches a moral or spiritual lesson, especially one of those told by
Jesus as recorded in the Bible.

Ballad: is a song-like narrative poem that tells a story, often one dealing with adventure and
romance. Most ballads are written in four-six lines stanzas and have regular rhythms and rhyme
scheme.
Tall tale: This is an exaggerated far-fetched story that is obviously untrue but is told as though it
should be believed. Most tall tales are humorous.

Idioms: a group of words whose meaning is different from the meaning of individual words.

WRITTEN LITERATURE:

This is a type of literature that presents the message through in written form. This began with the
invention of writings. This has two major forms. Fiction and non-fiction.

Non-fiction Literature:

This kind of literature that deals with factual materials or events. The people written about in
non-fictions are real. Literary non-fictions are written to be read just the same way as fictions.

Examples of Non- fiction:

 Autobiography

This is an account of someone’s life experience written by himself/herself. The person may
choose to tell about an important event from his/her life or tell the whole life story up to the time
when it is written. Forms of autobiography are: personal narratives, journals, memoirs, diaries,
letters, etc. Autobiographies are almost always written in the first person ‘I’.

 Biography

This is a story of someone’s life and experiences written by another person. In biographies the
author may choose to interview the biographical subject and also gather information from other
sources. The subjects of Biographies are often famous people.

 Essay

This is a short piece of writing in which the writer shares his/her point of view about a certain
subject. Essays can be classified as formal and informal, personal or impersonal. A formal essay
is highly organized, thoroughly researched, and serious in tone. An informal essay is lighter in
tone and usually reflects the writer’s feeling and personality.
  Informational articles

these are articles that present factual materials about a specific subject. They appear in
newspapers, magazines, and in reference books like Encyclopedias, almanacs, and atlases.

Fiction:

It is a kind of literature that deals with non- factual materials or events. Characters, setting and
events are the product of imaginations from the author. It can be inspired by the actual events or
completely Made up. The chief function of fiction is to entertain; but it often serves to instruct, to
edify, to persuade, to arouse or even to incite.

Examples of Fictions:

 Novel

This is any extended fictional prose narrative. Its use is customarily restricted to narrative in
which the representation of character occurs either in a static condition or in the process of
development as the results of events or actions.

 Novella:

This is a fiction that is longer than a short story but shorter than a novel. It is longer than a short
story but the characters are not fully developed as in novel.

 Short Stories:

This is usually about imaginative characters and events that is short enough to be read from the
beginning to the end without stopping. It is a short brief work of fiction that can be generally be
read in one sitting. There are four elements of a short story: setting, plot, character and theme.
The main difference is partly dictated by length. In short stories, characters are not fully
developed and usually centre on one idea. Other minor elements include, point of view,
symbolism, flashback, fictitious quality, etc.
  Novelette

This applies to all work of prose fiction of intermediate length, longer than a short story and
shorter than a novel. The novelia also displays the customary compact structure of the short story
with the greater development of character, theme, and action of the novel.

 Epistolary novel

This is a term used to describe a novel in which the narrative is carried forward by letters written
by one or more of the characters.

 Emotive prose

The motive of an emotive prose is to produce emotional effect on the reader. The writer’s
objective is to make the reader experience pity, awe, sorrow, fear, likeness, joy, love, etc.

 Scientific prose

This is a kind of prose where the author gives an exact account of how things happened. It also
includes everything to natural science, philosophy, theology, politics and social sciences, law,
sports, etc.

The Difference between Fiction and Non- Fiction:

 Fiction uses imaginative language that involves the use of figures of speech while non-
fiction does not use figurative language.
 Fiction describes imaginary events while nonfiction describes real things
 Fiction aimed to entertain rather than informing while non-fiction aimed to inform people
about what happened.
 Fictions uses imaginary characters while non-fiction involves the use of real characters.
 Fiction based on the writers’ choice while non-fiction writing the writer is not free to
write what he/she wants.
Basic Elements of Fiction:

 Narrative voice:

Narrative point of view is the perspective from which the events in the story are observed and
recounted. To determine the point of view, identify who is telling the story, that is, the viewer
through whose eyes the readers see the action.

Types of Narrative Voice:

 First Person or Participant narrator

This can be eye-witness, observing what other characters say and do, yet they cannot enter the
minds of the other characters and is unable to grasp their inner thoughts. The first person narrator
can summarize events and retreat from a scene to meditate on its significance

 Second Person Point of View:

With second-person point of view, the writer addresses the reader using the pronoun “you”.
. It forces the reader into the story, making them part of the action

 Third Person Point of View

In third-person narration, the narrator exists outside the events of the story, and relates the
actions of the characters by referring to their names or by the third-person pronouns he, she, or
they. Third-person narration can be further classified into several types:

 Omniscient point of view,

 Limited point of view
 Objective point of view

 Omniscient Point of View

The omniscient point of view allows great freedom in that the narrator knows all there is to know
about the characters, externally and internally:

 The third-person narrator describes what characters are feeling and thinking.
 The third-person narrator describes what characters do.
  The narrator may comment on event and characters, thus explaining their significance to
the reader.

 Limited Omniscient Point of View

The author knows everything about a particular character:

 The story is portrayed through the eyes of one character, and there is sense of distance
from the other characters.
 Character’s thoughts are known. The story is more unified through the use of this point of
view.

 Objective Point of View

The objective point of view allows inferences to be made by readers through their observance of
dialogue and external action. Readers are not directly influenced by the author’s statements.

OTHER ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE:

 Setting
 Plot and plot structure
 Characters/characterization
 Atmosphere (mood)
 Tone
 Style
 Authorial purpose/ intent-theme
 Irony

Characteristics / features of Literature:

 Literature can be fictional and non-fictional.

 It is aesthetic.
 The art of literature is affective in that it tends to invoke emotional response of the reader.
 Literature is expressive
 It is language that uses words as important instrument.
  It has forms and content
 It is imaginative
 It expresses thoughts and feelings
 It reveals hidden facts

Function, Purpose, Importance of Literature:

The importance of literature cannot be over-emphasized. It includes:

 Literature helps to entertain people as it makes them to be in pleasurable mood.

 It exposes to us the realities of human existence.
 Through literature, we have the opportunity to learn and understand human life in all
rounds.
 It exposes students to the beauty of language.
 Literature serves as a mirror through which we learn the culture norms of other people.
 It broadens our mind over uncertainties of life.
 It is information oriented as it instills people with knowledge everything, thereby making
the world a better place

Figures of Speech/ Literary Device-Techniques and Elements:

Figures of speech is a word or group of words that describes one thing in terms of another and is
not meant to be understood as literally true.

Used well, figures of speech greatly enhances your fiction, and can be very economical way of
getting an image or a point across. From ancient times to the present, such figurative locutions
have been extensively employed by orators and writers to strengthen and embellish their styles of
speech and composition.
Simile:

A simile is a figure of speech that compares two unlike things using the words “like” or “as”

EXAMPLES:

1. Jay is as brave as a lion.

2. Mr. Gori is like an old pig.
3. Her eyes are like diamond
4. The ship went through the waves as a plough goes through round ground.
5. As cool as a cucumber
6. As white as snow
7. ‘Life is just like an ice-cream, enjoy it before it melts.

Metaphor:

A metaphor is a figure of speech that directly compares one thing to another for rhetorical effect.
With metaphor, the qualities of one thing are figurative carried over to another, or one thing
replacing another.

EXAMPLES:

1. Dude, I am drowning in work

2. Life is a lifeway
3. He is a shining star
4. The snow is a white blanket
5. She is an early bird.
6. They have hatched a new plot against me.
7. The LORD is my shepherd.

Personification:

Personification is a literary device that gives human characteristics to nonhuman things or

inanimate objects. The nonhuman things can be animals, objects, or even a concept. The human
characteristics given to these things can be emotions, behaviors, or actions.
 EXAMPLES

1. The moon smiled down on our team.

2. The story jumped off the paged.
3. The light danced on the surface of the water.
4. The wind howled in the night.
5. Life does not treat sister jane well.
6. Our car isn’t well; she has engine problem.
7. You have to swallow your pride...
8. “death laid its icy hands on kings.
9. Necessity is the mother of invention

Apostrophe:

Apostrophe refers to a speech or address to a person who is not present or to a personified object.

EXAMPLES:

1. Come on, Phone, give me a ring!

2. Chocolate, why must you be so delicious.
3. Alarm clock, please don’t fail me.
4. Seven, you are my lucky number.
5. Heaven, help us.
6. Life, why are you treating her this way.
7. ‘Caesar, only if you were alive’
8. ‘O stone, O might, O heart of man- made God, Thou art the emblem of our hope’

Alliteration:

Alliteration is a repetitive use of the same consonant sound at the beginning of two or more
words on the same line.

It places more emphasis on the sound rather than the letter itself, for in pronunciation, the initial
letters may not sound the same but once in writing they sound the same and the sound is
achieved.
 EXAMPLES:

1. Bouncing baby boy. (b-sound)

2. I saw a plantain planter planting plantain in his plantain plantation. (p-sound)
3. Full fish followed our forefather’s footsteps. (f-sound)
4. Peter picked a peck of pickled peppers. ( p-sound)
5. Sally sells seashells by the seashore. (s- sound)
6. The boy buzzed around as busy as a bee. ( b-sound)

Assonance:

Assonance is a repetitive use of the same vowel sound at the beginning of two or more words on
the same line. It is like a direct opposite of alliteration.

EXAMPLES:

1. The bat is back in a bad basket. (a-sound)

2. Go slow over the road. (o-sound)
3. Here the mellow wedding bells. (e- sound)
4. The crumbling thunder of seas. (u-sound)
5. A rolling stone gathers no moss. (o-sound)

Onomatopoeia:

An onomatopoeia is a word that sounds like the noise it describes. It is also the naming of a thing
or action by imitation of natural sounds. When a word suggests its meaning, it is referred to as an
onomatopoeia.

EXAMPLES

1. Boom, boom, so went the gunshots.

2. The pitter-patter of the rain
3. The snake hissed
4. The gun boomed
5. Brag, crag, went down the walls.
6. The apes are jabbering all over the bough.
7. ‘The humming bees’
 8. The buzzing saw
9. Splash
10. bang

Pun:

Pun simply means “playing upon words”. It may be used in a way repetitive of a particular word
while its meaning may not be really clear.

EXAMPLES:

1. The sole trader mends soles and wins souls for Christ.
2. You are better late than be late.
3. The rest of the people had gone to the rest house to rest with the rest.
4. As I was jogging down the road, early this evening, I was Mr. Promise Jugging his bottle
of wine.

Repetition:

This is said to be used when an item or expression occurs more than once in a write-up.

EXAMPLES:

1. Nightfall; nightfall, you are my mortal enemy

Nightfall, Nightfall, why were you ever created?

Rhetorical Question:

This is a question that does not need an answer. It is intended to make the listener search his/her
conscience.

EXAMPLES:

1. Who wouldn’t want to be a millionaire?

2. Do we really want our planet to survive?
3. Are you kidding me?
4. Can birds fly?
5. Did you help me when I needed help? Did you once offer to interceded on my
behalf? Did you do anything to lesson my load?
Euphemism:

In this figure of speech, a nice and pleasant statement is used instead of bad and unpleasant one.

EXAMPLES:

1. He has departed from the truth. (lied)

2. John has kicked the bucket. (died)
3. The pupils could not make the mark. (failed)
4. The manager was let go for underperforming in his task. (fired)
5. She is not a liar, she is just creative with the truth.
6. She isn’t sick-she is under the weather.

Hyperbole/ Overstatement:

Hyperbole is a literary technique where an author or speaker intentionally uses exaggeration and
overstatement for emphasis and effect.

EXAMPLES:

1. I am so hungry I could eat all the food here.

2. My brother said that he had a million things to do when he was actually sitting idly.
3. Rory went on forever about the city she lived in.
4. The man is taller than the SL Bank
5. The man had the strength of a thousand elephant.
6. The water rose as high as the mountain
7. She wept and wept until there was a sea of tears.

Oxymoron:

This is a contradictory expression whereby two words of opposite meanings are placed together.

EXAMPLE:

1. Painful pleasure
2. Gentle pain
3. Beloved enemy
 4. Illuminating darkness
5. Necessary evil
6. Loving haters
7. Alone together
8. Close distance
9. True lies
10. Open secret
11. Pretty ugly face
12. Living deaths
13. Silence noise
14. Freezing fire

Metonymy:

This is a figure of speech in which the name of an object or concept is replaced with a word
closely related to or suggested by the original.

EXAMPLES:

1. The crown pursued nobody. (Crown stands for the King)

2. Skirt and Trousers along the road. (Wearers)
3. The bench has decided to acquit the culprit. (judge)
4. The bullets took over the government of Niger. (the military)
5. The house adopted the motion. (the people)
6. All hands must be on deck. (support)
7. ‘we waited hopelessly for two sunsets’
8. ‘He has a good name’. ‘Name’ refers to reputation.
Synecdoche:

Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which the whole is represented by a part or a part by the
whole.

EXAMPLES:

1. I can see six hands dancing for pieces of silver. (people)

2. All hands must be on deck. (support)
3. My eyes have seen the salvation of the Lord.
4. By the last head count, SL was said to be 7.5 million in population.
5. He has several mouths to feed. Here mouth represents people.

Pathetic Fallacy:

In this figure of speech, we credit nature with human qualities. Here it could be in sympathy with
human beings in a state of grief or nature celebrating with human beings in a state of happiness.

EXAMPLES:

1. The raindrops wept around him.

2. A friendly sun shone down brightly on the party quests as they arrived in the garden.
3. The weather is miserable outside

Irony:

Irony occurs when a moment of dialogue contradicts what the audience expects from a character
or story. In other words, irony in literature happens when the opposite of what you would expect
actually occurs.

Types of Irony:

 Dramatic irony
 Verbal irony
 Situational irony
Dramatic Irony: Also known as tragic irony, this type of irony occurs when the audience knows
something that the main characters do not.

Verbal Irony: This is a statement in which the speaker’s words are inconsistent with the
speaker’s intent.

Situation Irony: This is the irony of something happening that is very different to what was
expected or intended.

Example:

1. The son of the English teacher fails the English Exam.

2. The daughter of a rich merchant is expelled from school for lack of school fees of le
20,000.

Paradox:

A paradox in writing is a statement that appears to contradict itself but upon further inspection
reveals a deeper truth, or meaning.

EXAMPLES:

1. The enemy of my enemy is my friend.

2. If you don’t risk anything, you risk everything.
3. Nobody can make you feel inferior without your consent.
4. The pen is mightier than the sword.
5. The louder you are, the less they here.
6. The egg is the father of the cock
7. The best way to learn a subject is to teach it.

Sarcasm:

Sarcasm is a form of verbal irony that mocks, ridicules, or express contempt. It is a form of
verbal irony in which, under the guise of praise, a caustic, bitter expression of strong
condemnation is given.
 Examples:

1. These are the holy men who will enter paradise alive.
2. Oh! You are God’s great gift to womanhood.
3. These are the geniuses ready to change the future of this country.
4. You can eat the food; after all I have no mouth.

Satire:

Satire is the art of making someone or something look ridiculous, raising laughter in order to
embarrass, humble, or discredit its target.

Allusion:

Allusion is a literal device in which the writer or speaker refers either directly or indirectly to a
famous person, event, place or thing in history or to a work of art or literature. Allusion calls to
mind the idea and emotion associated with a well-known event or published.

Types of Allusion:

 Biblical allusion
 Literary allusion
 Classical allusion
 Historical allusion

Biblical Allusion: This refers to a brief mentioning of a Bible story in a work of art.

Literary Allusion: This is an allusion that is taken from literature.

Classical Allusion: This refers to stories and characters in ancient books written by Romans and
Greek.

Historical Allusion: this is an allusion drawn from history.

Foreshadowing;

This is when the author hints at events yet to come in a story. Similar to flashback, this technique
is also used to create tension or suspense- giving readers just enough breadcrumbs to keep them
hungry for more.
Humor:

This is a way of presenting event in a way to prompt laughter. It could be satirical in nature.

Caricature:

A caricature is a literary work which ridicules a person by exaggerating and distorting his most
prominent features.

Exposition:

Exposition is a literary device that is meant to relay background information about a main
character, setting, event or other element of the narrative.

Rhetoric:

This is the art of using words persuasively in speech and writing. It involves a manner in which
the listener would be persuaded to respond in the way the speaker wants. This is a technique
commonly used by politician.

Epigram:

Epigram is a short witting saying. It is a brief, clever, and memorable statement.

EXAMPLES

1. More haste, less speed, let’s go gently.

2. Nothing worthwhile is ever easy.
3. There are no gains without pains.
4. I can’t resist everything but temptation.

Panegyric:

Panegyric is a praise of a person or group of people.

Theme:

A theme is the main idea or subject that is being discussed or described in a piece of writing. The
theme of a story can be conveyed using characters, setting, dialogue, or plot etc. common themes
are love, war, deceit, revenge, fate, destiny, etc.
Tone/ Mood:

It reflects the feeling of the writer which the reader cannot feel except through the words of the
speaker. So, the mood of the author could be felt through the tone which can be derived through
the words. It could be sober, sympathetic, unsympathetic or harsh.

Imagery:

This refers to the mental pictures which are experienced by the reader of a person. It is also used
to show vivid description that appeals to a reader’s senses to create an image or idea in their
head.

Style:

This is the literary element that describes the ways that the author uses words- the author’s word
choice, sentence structure, figurative language, use of sound device, dialogue, and sentence
arrangement all work together to establish mood, images, and meaning in the text.

Attitude:

Attitude in literature is how an author or character feels about something in a novel.

Atmosphere:

Atmosphere in literature is the way an author uses setting, objects or thoughts of characters to
create emotion, mood, or experiences for the reader.

Symbolism:

It is a literary device that use one object to stand for something else or to mean something else.
Actions can be symbolic, such as washing hands to indicate non-involvement. Some symbols are
universal, with general accepted meaning, such as a crown to mean superiority or the color red to
mean danger. Sunrise symbolizes the beginning of the struggle and symbolizes the end of the
struggle in the poem ‘Sunrise’.
Literary Appreciation:

Literary appreciation is a conscious attempt to read and understand a literary work and find out
whether it is good or bad. Three basic questions come into focus when a piece of literary
work is to be appreciated:

 What is the writer telling the reader? (theme)

 How is the writer expressing himself or herself? (style)
 What is the relationship between the subject matter and style (personal judgement)?

Allegory:

Allegory is the expression of truth about human existence by means of symbolic fictional figures
and their action. It is a type of writing in which the character is made to represent something
more than we see of them. Sometimes, the character in allegorical writing are animals who are
made to represent some classes of people in the society.

Prolepsis:

Prolepsis is a device in literature where the order of events in a story is disrupted so that a future
plot points is told earlier in the narrative than it actually occurs.

Genres of Literature

 PROSE
 DRAMA
 POETRY

A. PROSE:

A prose is a genre of literature that is applied to all forms of written or spoken expressions which
does not follow any structure of rhyming or meter. Rather, prose follows a grammatical structure
using words to compose phrases that are arranged into sentences and paragraph.
Features of Prose:

 Prose makes use of plain and ordinary language, grammatical structure.

 Prose uses both fictional and non-fictional characters to narrate its story and achieve its
purpose.
 Prose does not make use of rhythmic pattern or meter.
 The technique employed in a prose is that of a story teller. Prose tells a story by
systematic recitation of an event.
 It is characterized by style, though style varies from writer to writer.

Types of Prose:

 Fictional prose
 Non-fiction
 Heroic prose
 Prose poetry

Fictional Prose is a narrative writing drawn from the imagination of the author rather than from
history or fact. It is any unreal story which deals with invented people and events. Fictional prose
is mostly associated with novels, short stories, fables, parables, fairy tales and folklores.

Non- fictional Prose deals with the true experiences and happenings. It contains mostly facts.
Examples of non-fictional prose includes memoirs, diary, brochures, adverts, biography,
autobiography

Heroic Prose is a work of writing that is meant to be recited and passed on through oral or
written tradition. Legends, mythology, fables, and parables are examples of heroic prose that
have been passed on over time in preservation.

Prose Poetry is a type of writing that combines lyrical and metric elements of traditional poetry
with idiomatic elements of prose, such as standard punctuation, the lack of line breaks and
avoiding verse.
Features of Prose Poetry:

 It uses figurative language such as metaphor, simile, and figures of speech in order to
create vivid imagery.
 It is relatively loose in its forms and has no strict structure other than it being written in
paragraphs using standard punctuation.
 Prose poetry does not contain strict meter but does often use techniques, like alliteration
and repetition. To heighten a prose poem’s rhythm.

Narrative Techniques used by Prose Writers.

In writing any of the prose works, the writer makes use of different devices to narrate his story.
The main narrative methods include the following:

 Epistolary:

This is a letter writing method. When a book takes the form of a series of long letters, such book
will be said to be in epistolary mode.

 Autobiographical

This method tells a story in the first person: “I and We”. The narrator is the person who has
experienced or witnessed the event he narrates.

 Omniscient

This method is otherwise known as the Eye of God Narrative method. While the author makes
use of this method, he narrates in the third person. This story comes from an unidentified voice
who claims to be all-knowing, all-present, and has a direct access to explore even the minds of
the characters.

 Stream of Consciousness:
Stream of consciousness writing refers to a narrative technique where the thoughts and emotions
of a narrator or character are written out such that a reader can track the fluid mental state of
these characters.

It is also the method that is used to explore and reveal the inner flow of thought of the characters.

 Flashback

This is a device that is used to reveal to the reader’s past event which might have happened
before the prevailing narration. It is a sudden return to an earlier time by the writer in order to
provide readers with as many details.

 Dialogue

Dialogue is a common device that is used by a story teller or novelist. Dialogue forms an integral
part of drama. Therefore, novelists often employ dialogue in prose in order to deliberately make
their narrative a bit dramatic.

B. DRAMA/ PLAY:

Drama is a type of literature that tells a story through actions and dialogue and is written to be
performed on stage by actors. Drama has some element of short stories: Setting, plot, characters,
theme, climax, conflict, symbolism, etc.

Dramatic Techniques used in Drama:

 Dialogue

These are the words that the character speaks in a play. It is a conversation between characters. It
is the dialogue that reveals the character ‘s qualities, personality traits, and reactions to other
characters.

The Main Dramatic Function of dialogue:

 To reveal character
 To convey information
 To show the mood at a given moment
  To indicate thought
 To produce an action
 To clarify a conflict.
 Soliloquy/ Monologue

This is a speech made by a character when he/she is alone on stage. Or it is a speech in which a
character alone on stage, expressing her thoughts and feeling aloud for the benefit of the
audience, often in a revealing way.

Aside:

This is a direct address of the audience by a character. The other characters donot hear what is
being said.

Stage Direction:

These are the instructions/notes included in a play/drama which describes how the work is to be
performed or staged. They indicate areas of the stage in which actors sit, stand, speak, exit, enter,
etc.

Terms used in Drama/ play

 Character/ Characterization

A character means a participant in any work of art. Characterization is the act of creating and
developing a character. It is the way the writer reveals the personality of a character. A character-
is a person or an animal that takes part in the action of a literary work.

Authors use two major methods of characterization; Direct and indirect.

 Direct characterization: When using the direct characterization, a writer tells the
character’s traits or characteristics. Eg, brave, corrupt, weak, etc.
 Indirect characterization: When using indirect characterization, a writer depends on
the reader to draw conclusion/ judgement about the character’s traits by using the
evidence the writer gives:
1. Through the words of the character.
2. Through the description of the character’s look and clothing
 3. Through the description of the character’s feelings and thoughts.
4. Through comments made about a character by another character in the story.
5. Through the character’s behavior.
 Anthropomorphic Characterization: is the characterization of animals, inanimate
objects, or natural phenomena as people. Animal characters personified create particular
effects, especially when the animal characters contain connotative, metaphoric connects
to human traits. Eg. Fox=sly, weasel=duplicity, swam=elegance.

Types of Characters:

 Dynamic Character: this is the character that changes behavior very easily. A
dynamic character is also called flexible or developing character.
 Static Character: This is the character that does not change behavior in the work of
art. Static character is alternatively known as rigid or conservative character.
 Flat character: is the type of character who is one dimensional, he or she is shallow or
thin and he has not got depth. He or she is also called a wooden character.
 Round character: is the type of character who is a much-dimensional one, he or she is
a complex one given different attributes.
 Major/Main Character: When a character often comes into focus in a literary work, he
is referred to as major character.
 Minor Character: The character that plays little role is called a minor character.
 Stock: “borrowed” personage or archetype, closely related to stereotype.
 Stereotype: a character so little individualized as to show only qualities of an
occupation, or national, ethnic, or other group to which he belongs.
 Universal character: this character is faced with problems and trait common to all
humanity.
 Individual character: this is a character that is more eccentric and unusual
representation of character.

Function of Character:

 Protagonist:
This is the principal figure in the story.

 Antagonist:

This is the character with whom the protagonist is engaged in a struggle. Note that a conflicting
agency not embodied in an actual character is called an antagonist force.

 Confident:

This is the character in whom another character (usually the protagonist) confides in.

 Foil:

This is a secondary character serving as a backdrop (mirror) for a more important character.
Typically, the foil is rather ordinary and static so that the unusual qualities of the primary
character will be more striking in contrast.

 Monologue

A monologue is a speech made by one performer in a play in the presence of other characters.

 Plot:

This is the arrangement of events in a work of art. It simply indicates the sequential manner in
which one event leads to another. A plot may start from the beginning of the story down to the
middle of the story and later to the end.

 Dialogue

Dialogue is a common device that is used by a story teller or novelist. Dialogue forms an integral
part of drama. Therefore, novelists often employ dialogue in prose in order to deliberately make
their narrative a bit dramatic.

 Setting:

Setting in literature refers to the time, place, and environment in which a story occurs.
  Protagonist/Antagonist:

A protagonist is the main character in a story, and the person that the story is usually written
about. The writer usually develops the plot around the protagonist. An antagonist is a person that
opposes or fights against another character (usually the protagonist)

 Conflict:

This is the struggle or disagreement that the protagonist or antagonist faces. The conflict is one
of the most important elements of stories, novels and plays because it causes the actions. There
are two kinds of conflicts:

1. Internal conflict:

This takes place within the mind of a character. The character struggles to make decision. Take
action, or overcome a feeling.

2. External conflict

This is the one in which the character struggles against some outside forces, such as another
person. In this category we can get further subdivision of conflicts such as, economic conflict,
political conflict, family conflict, social conflict, etc.

 Climax:

The climax of a story is the point in the narrative where the tension, excitement, or stakes reach
the highest level. It is often the conclusion of a story’s main conflict and sets up for either a
successful resolution.

 Diction:

Diction refers to the vocabulary, language, or choice of words of the writer. It is the manner of
expressing one’s ideas using words.

 Suspense;’
In literature, suspense is an uneasy feeling that a reader gets when they don’t know what is going
to happen next. A writer creates suspense through a controlled release of information to readers
that raises key questions and make readers eager, but terrified, to find out what happens.

 Tragic Hero:

A tragic hero is the protagonist of a tragic story or drama, in which, despite their virtuous and
sympathetic traits and ambitions, they ultimately meet defeat, suffering, or even an untimely end.

 Catharsis:

Catharsis is a literary device used to stimulate a release of emotions. It can be applied to any type
of art that makes audience feel intense emotions such as pain or sadness, but ultimately leads to a
feeling of release.

 Tension:

Tension in a literary context is the sense that something ominous is right around the corner.
Mystery novels are full of tension, and they generally feature tense scenes from beginning to
end.

 Rising action:

Rising action in literature refers to all the events that happen in a story on the way to the climax.
The rising action pushes the plot along, building tension to keep us invested in the story as it
moves forward.

 Prologue/ Prelude:

This is an exposition or explanation done by a writer at the beginning of a story. It usually occurs
in a play.

 Epilogue:

An explanation or expression on a story written by author at the end of the story. In some plays,
the epilogue is spoken by one of the actors to bring the curtain down on the play.

 Flaw:

This is the main thing that leads to the fall of a hero.

  Pathos:

Pathos, or the appeal to emotion, means to persuade an audience by purposely evoking certain
emotions to make them feel the way the author wants them to feel. Usually such a pity exists in a
tragedy for a tragic-hero.

 Dilemma:

A dilemma is a conflict, problem, or situation with two possible solutions. When a dilemma
occurs, a person has to make the difficult choice between two desirable options, or contrastingly,
two undesirable options.

 Mime:

Mime is the use of movements and gestures in order to express something or tell story without
using speech.

 Eponymous:

An eponymous hero or heroine is the character in a play or book whose name is the title of that
play or book.

 Poetic Justice:

It is a term used to convey the idea that evil is punished appropriately and the good rewarded.

 Catastrophe:

This is the tragic conclusion of a play or narrative.

 Conflict:

 Types of Drama
 Comedy
This type of play aims at provoking smiles and laughter. It is a lighter form of drama which
aimed primarily at amusing and ends happily.

 Tragedy

This is a serious play with a sad ending.

 Tragi-comedy

This is a play which employs a plot suitable to tragedy but which ends happily like a comedy.
The action is serious in theme and subject matter and sometimes in tones as well.

It also seems to be leading to a tragic catastrophe until an unexpected turn in events, bringing
about a happy resolution.

 Farce

This is a play provoking excessive laughter or in other words funny play for the theater based on
unlikely situation.

 Burlesque

This is a form of comedy characterized by ridiculous exaggeration through a form of caricature.

Burlesque is also a form of performance or a piece of writing which tries to make something
look silly by representing it in a humorous way.

 Melodrama

A melodrama is a literary or dramatic genre in which standard tropes and elements are
exaggerated to elicit emotional response from audiences or readers.

POETRY

Definitions of Poetry:

 Poetry is a type of literature based on the interplay of words and rhythm.

  A poetry is a composition of high beauty of thought or language and artistic form, in
verse or prose. (Chambers Student Dictionary)
 Poetry is emotion put into measure. (Thomas Hardy)
 Poetry is the language of the imagination and the passions. (William Hazlitt).
 Poetry is a rhythmical form of words which express an imaginative-emotional-
intellectual experience of the writer. (Clive Sansom)
 Poetry is the spontaneous outflow of powerful feelings. (Wordsworth)
 Poetry is an art form in which human language is used for its aesthetic qualities.
(Wikipedia)

Poems are meant to be recited or sung and words are arranged in such a way that they touch
reader’s senses, emotions and mind.

Poem is a metrical composition in which ideas, emotions and feelings are presented using
imaginative and creative language

Appreciation of Poetry:

In appreciation of poems there are different things to be considered in order to grasp the meaning
and the intension of the poet.

 The title of the poem:

The title of the poem may give a clue of what the poem is about. Nevertheless, it is advised not
to rely much on the titles or take them for granted. Some titles are ironical as they6 represent the
opposite of what actually happens

 The tone and mood of the poem:

Tone refers to the voice quality which expresses the poet’s emotions. The tone can be harsh,
polite, scary, rude, happy, lovely, romantic, etc.

The mood/atmosphere is the feeling/attitude that the poem conveys to the readers/ listeners.
Descriptive words and phrases contribute to the mood of the poem. The mood of the poet can be
serious, fearful, satirical, lovely, optimistic, etc.

 The structure of the poem:

Here, we look at the way the poem is being structured by looking at:

 Number and length of verses

 Number and length of stanzas
 Rhyme: is the repetition of similar sounds at the end of words in a stanza. The pattern of
rhymes in a stanza is called Rhyming scheme. If a poem has a rhyming scheme that
follows a particular consistent order, we refer to it as a regular rhyming scheme. If the
poem has no particular order, we say it has irregular rhyming scheme.

 The Types of the Poem:

Broadly, the poems are classified into the following

1. Narrative poem:

This is a poem that tells a story. This is like prose fiction because it contains similar elements, a
setting, characters, and a plot. The plot contains rising actions or the events that develop as
conflict; a climax or a turning point and falling action when the conflict is resolved.

2. Lyric poem:

This is usually short and expresses the personal thoughts, emotions, and feelings of a single
speakers.

3. Didactic poem

This is a poem that instructs the readers. It gives lessons to the readers. They are mainly on
political and social matters.

4. Epic poem:

This refers to a long poem that presents heroic actions of great men and women in history of a
nation.

5. Ode poem
This is a poem that addresses a person or a thing or cerebrates an event like wedding, birthdays,
independence, etc.

6. Elegy

Is a poem that expresses sorrow about someone who has died.

7. Ballad

Ballad is a dialogue like poem in which there are two or more people speaking in turn

8. Sonnet:

A sonnet is a lyric poem that contains 14 lines (verses) in one stanza. A sonnet has two parts, the
first lines are called octet and the last 6 lines are called sestet.

 The Poetic Diction/Choice of Words:

1. Choice of words:

This refers to the selection and arrangement of words in a poem. This is also done for economy.
Very few words may be selected to convey a very strong powerful message. The choice of words
helps to get the theme and the message across.

2. Literary devices/figures of speech:

We also look at the literary devices or figures of speech such as simile, metaphor, imaginary,
personification, euphemism, paradox, symbolism. Irony, hyperbole, etc.

3. Poetic devices:
 Poetic license

This is the freedom/privilege by which the poet is allowed to violate/ break certain grammatical
rules to achieve a poetic effect.

 Sound/musical devices:

All the sound devices are looked at under the general term repetition. There are

 Refrain
This is the repetition of words, phrase or lines at the end of every stanza in a poem. It acts like a
chorus in the poem.

 Alliteration

This is the repetition of consonant sounds mostly at the beginning of words which are nearby.

 Assonance

This is the repetition of similar vowel within words close to one another with different consonant
sounds.

 Consonant

This is the repetition of consonant sounds at the end of words in stressed syllables.

 Reiteration

This is the repetition of the same word for emphasis.

 Rhyme

Rhyme is the repetition of similar sounds at the end of words in a stanza.

 Themes of the Poem

These are the general main ideas of the poem. The common themes in most poems include;
classes, poverty, unemployment, oppression, exploitation, corruption, marginalization, love,
identity, betrayal, racial, segregation, etc.

 Massages from the Poem

These are lessons we learn from different poems. They show what the reader has to do after
reading the poem. They show the way forward or give solutions to problems discussed in the
poem. Mostly, we get messages from themes.

 Relevance of the Poem

This is the applicability of the poem’s message in contemporary societies. We assess whether or
not the poet has been successful in addressing the issues that are relevant to our lives currently. It
is interesting to note however that the poem may not necessary be relevant across time and
space. In one case, a poem might be relevant in one society but may be irrelevant in another.

 Stanzas and Types:

A Stanza is a formal division of lines in a poem, considered as a unit. Many poems are made up
of stanzas that are separated by spaces. Each stanza states and develops ingle idea. Stanzas are
commonly named according to the number of verses/lines found in them as follows:

1. Monometer: one-line stanza

2. Couplet: two-lined stanza
3. Tercet: Three- line stanza
4. Quatrain: four-line stanza
5. Cinquain: five-line stanza
6. Sestet: Six-line stanza
7. Heptastich: seven-line stanza
8. Octave: eight-line stanza
9. Nonet: nine-line stanza
10. Decima: ten-line stanza
11. Ronde(roundel): Eleven- line stanza
12. Dodecasyllabic: Twelve-line stanza
13. Rondel: thirteen-line stanza
14. Sonnet: fourteen-line stanza

 Rhythm

Rhythm can be described as the beat and space of a poem. It is also a regular series of sounds or
movements.
  Rhyme:

Is the similarity of sounds at the end of consecutive lines or at the same interval in a stanza.

 If a poem has a rhyming scheme that follows a particular consistent order, we refer to it
as a REGULAR RHYMING SCHEME
 If the poem has no particular consistent order, we say it has IRREGULAR RHYMING
SCHEME.

Types of Rhyme:

 Masculine rhyme:

Masculine Rhyme is rhyme between final stressed syllable of the words.

Examples

1. Blow and flow

2. Confess and redress
3. Fair and compare
4. Dog and log
5. Collect and direct
6. Hell and bell

 Feminine rhyme (Double Rhyme):

This is a rhyme between stressed syllables followed by one or more unstressed syllable.

Examples

1. Steaming and beaming

2. Willow and billow
3. Harrow and barrow
4. Power and hour
5. Measles and weasels

Note: Feminine rhyme consists of two unstressed syllables while masculine rhyme has one final
stressed syllable of a word.
  Alternative rhyme:

An alternate rhyme occurs when the rhyming final sound of the first line agrees with the third
line, while the second line agrees with the fourth line, hence the rhyme scheme ‘abab’.

Examples

1. ‘life is like a thorny rose ……………………………………..A

Scars of memories …………………………………………….B
List of unexplained experiences with unending close………….A
Can never cease to forgotten in centuries’. ……………………B

2. ‘Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day ……………………………..A

Thou are more lovely and more temperate ……………………………..B
Rough winds do shake the darkling buds of May ………………………A
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date. …………………………..B

 Couplet rhyme:

Couple rhyme is any rhyme scheme in which rhyme occurs in pairs such as AABBCC. The
rhymes themselves are called couplet.

Examples:

1. I went to see ………………………………………………………A.

The beauty of the sea ……………………………………………….A
A make-up of natural designs ………………………………………..B
Garnish with stars that shines ………………………………………..B
 Sailors, for its attraction, cannot cease to sail ………………………..C
Journey of a good catch prevails. ……………………………………..C

 Monorhyme:

This is the term used for poems that use one rhyme through the entire rhyme of each lines.

Example:

1. The pen is mightier than the sword

The book cannot be equal with the word
Else, it is s fraud.

 Perfect/exact rhyme

This is when the sounds match mostly at the end.

Example:

1. Came and fame

 Imperfect rhyme

Imperfect Rhyme is when the sounds do not match exactly.

Example:

1. Hunger and plumber

 Metre:
In poetry, metre or meter is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse or lines in verse. Meter is also
a combination of the number of beats and the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables in
each line. Example of meter: Iambic pentameter.

SECTION B: PRECRIBED TEXT FOR APRICAN PROSE: ‘Who is to Blame’ by

Alhagi Mohamed Abu Sesay:

Let try the following questions AND and their possible direct or implied answers.

1. Why do you think Sento is the only assistance in the home of her parent?
Point/s to Note:
 This is because her elder brothers, Amadu and Karimu, were grownups and they now
lived their individual lives with their wives and children
2. What kinds of items does the Bouya Train normally carry to Freetown?
Point/s to Note:
 The Bouya train, which was the first to reach Freetown from the provinces used to carry
along with its fresh produce mainly from Bradford and other towns along the rail-road.
3. Outline the things that Sento loves to do and the things she never enjoys.
Point/s to Note:
 She enjoys being sent to fetch water or wood for the home.
 She enjoys going to fishing in the company of elderly women.
 She never enjoys leaving the village before dawn for the farm.
4. State Sento’s designated work on the farm.
Point to Note:
 She carries with her a little stick to strike the bushes in front of her in order to get rid of
some of the water from the leaves.
 She scares the birds by shouting and striking empty tins.
5. Give a brief description of the Alie Kanu family.
Point/s to Note:
 The Kanu family was a peasant family who lived in Maramu.
 They lived a moderate life and they are content with their status.
 Their house was made of mud walls and roofed with thatch.
 The Kanu family does not care much about buying clothes, except for an important
occasion- ‘Pray Day’
 Alie Kanu strictly complies with Islamic practices during the month of Ramandan.

6. Critically examine the reasons why Alie Kanu is respected by all in and around
Maramu.
Point/s to Note:
 He has a simple character
 He hardly quarrels or make palava
 He hates taking his offenders to court and he himself has never been taken top any court.
 He is always ready to tender apologies for offenses committed by those in his care.
7. What is the contrast between Alie Kanu and his wife, Yabome?
Point to Note:
 On the contrary, Yabome is temperamental and saucy
 She makes palava with neighbors
8. Who amongst Yabome’s children aptly resembles her and what are your evidences?
Point to Note:
 Her Second son, Karimu is very emotional and quick to fight like his mother. Hardly
would any month go by when he would not be taken to the village headman, Pa Sembu,
for one reason or the other for crime such as fornication, adultery, debt, or fighting.
9. Discuss Mr. Jones’s job at the Railway station.
Point/s to Note:
 Mr. Jones is the station manager at the railway station.
 His main duties are to control the train traffic by being in constant touch with other
station masters through telephone or cable.
 He also tickets to travelling passengers.
 He changes staff with arriving train drivers
 He issues receipts and labels to those going to do bookings for goods.
10. Examine the reason why Mr. Jones is well-known in the surrounding villages and in
Bradford.
Point/s to Note:
 This is because the villagers know him as a hunter, his second job.
 Mr. Jones would share his slaughtered animal or meat to the villagers.
 He is a simple man and a good mixer.

11. Explain the significance of the first encounter with Mr. Jones and Sento Kanu.
Points to Note:
 Mr. Jones’s encounter with Sento Kanu coincides with a big ceremony at Marambu
village whereby fifteen teenage boys were undergoing circumcision. While in the
company of two men drinking palm wine, he sees a pretty young lady, Sento Kanu,
crossing the road with a small strip of cloth tied around her chest. Her appearance (her
intelligence) is apparently attractive to Mr. Jones who believes that she is promising and
if taken care would do well. So he needed to adopt her if given the chance to do so.
12. Explain the immediate action by Mr. Alie Kanu when Mr. Jones approaches him
with his intention of adopting Sento.
Point/s to Note:
 Mr. Alie Kanu tells him to give the family some time to think about the matter.
Afterwards, he convenes a meeting with family members, the Chief Imam, and the
section chief, Santigie Kanu, where he informs them about Mr. Jones’ proposal to adopt
Sento. After a long deliberation, it is a unanimously agreed that Sento must be allowed to
be adopted by Mr. Jones.
 Also, they consult the ancestors about Sento’s fate in Bradford, and it turns out to be
positive.
13. What are the perspectives of the villagers about the Creoles?
Point/s to Note:
 Amadu believes that the children of the Creoles are not allowed to go astray in Sierra
Leone. “No sooner he/she begins to go astray than the parents send him or her to the UK.
 They believe that the Creoles always want to know about others while they keep their
own business.
 The Creoles are always secretive and they do their things secretly
 When a Creole girl get pregnant, she is kept indoors until she delivers. While the mother
takes care of the baby, the mother goes back to continue her schooling.
14. Sento’s domestic jobs, dress code, diet, playmates, and behavior change when she
goes to Bradford. Explain with vivid examples about changes that she encounters.
Point to Note:
 Sento doesn’t have to walk long distance to fetch water from a nearby stream.
 She doesn’t have to walk long distance to fetch firewood.
 She does not have to do thorough household cleaning unlike in Maramu where she had to
weep under the bed and in the tight corner of the house.
15. Outline Sento’s activities in her new home in Bradford.
Point to Note:
 Ironing of clothes
 Laundering her clothes
16. How would you describe the relationship between Mrs. Jones and Sento?
Point/s to Note:
 Mrs Jones loves Sento so much.
 She treats Sento the same way as s her own child. Evidence= strangers visiting Mrs.
Jones’s home for the first time usually thought that Sento was their firstborn, especially
with the kind of intimacy that existed between Sento and her foster mother.
 Sento is like Mrs. Jones’ walking stick-to the market, to meetings, and to whatever
function she attends.
 They sometime wear matching outfit.
 They eat together in the same dish and do some of the domestic things in common.
17. Why do you think the story is entitled ‘Who is to blame?
Point to Note:
 It may be implied that there is no apparent and specific character in the play that is
attributed for the tragic end of Sento. One may infer, upon close examination, that one
ought to be responsible for one’s action. Judging from the inaction of Sento to flee her
 marital home as a result of a trivial circumstance, does not in any way make sense.
However, one may also infer that she is probably not given the needed advice by her
friend, who took her to the journey of no return.
18. Identify various themes explored by the writer.
Point to Note:
 The theme of adoption
 The theme of tradition and custom
 The theme of contrast
 The theme of hard work and diligence
 The theme of juvenile delinquency
 The theme of betrayal of trust
 The theme of conflict of interest
 The theme of abandonment of marital home
 The theme of rivalry in polygamy
19. What is so unique about Maramu unlike other surrounding areas?
Point to Note:
 They have a unique communal system whereby they consider themselves as one big
family that discuss about the good of the other.
20. Assess the decisions taken by the elders before Sento’s adoption by the Jones family.
Point to Note:
 After a peaceful deliberation, it was unanimously agreed that Sento should be allowed to
cease the opportunity which would serve as prospect to succeed in life, especially, in
education and in morality.
21. Critically examine Yabome persistence weeping at the departure of Sento to
Freetown.
Point to Note:
 One may imply that her instinct tells her that Sento’s journey to Freetown could be faced
with fatality or the fear of the unknown.
22. Why do you think Alhaji Kasim decide to take another wife?
Point to Note:
 Alhaji Kasim main reason is as a result of Sento’s deviant refusal to bear a child for him
as against her interest to complete her university education.

23. Assess the reason/s for Sento’s refusal to invite her friends to her first marriage.
Point to Note:
 Sento refuses to invite her friends because she does not want them to know about her
engagement with Alhaji Kasim. It is apparent that she was compelled or hypnotized to
accept the marriage proposal.

24. List down three narrative techniques that the author used to portray his message to
the reader.
Point to Note:
The writer uses a blend of narrative techniques to portray his message. Foremost among
them are as follows:
 Dialogue
 Flashback
 Biographical narrative technique
 Omniscient Narrative technique