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A Buyer's Guide: Systems
A Buyer's Guide: Systems
A Buyer's Guide: Systems
Stand-Alone
Wind Energy
systems
A Buyer’s Guide
Important Note
The aim of this publication is to provide guidance to readers who wish to assess the benefits and
risks of buying and installing a small-scale wind energy system. Because the subject is complex, and
the decision to purchase or install a system depends on many variables, this guide alone does not
provide sufficient information to evaluate fully all the aspects of a potential system. The guide is
also not intended to serve as a “how to” manual for the installation, operation and maintenance
of a system. In all cases, qualified advice and assistance to supplement the information provided
here should be sought.
Prospective buyers should consult local utility and government agencies to ensure that proposed
installations will meet all relevant electrical codes, building and site regulations.
Natural Resources Canada assumes no liability for injury, property damage, or loss from using
information contained in this publication. This guide is distributed for informational purposes
only and does not reflect the views of the Government of Canada nor constitute an endorsement
of any commercial product or person.
Aussi disponible en français sous le titre de: Les systèmes éoliens autonomes : Guide de l’acheteur.
6126 NRCan Wind-Energy Bklet 3/14/00 9:30 AM Page 1
Table of Contents
About This Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
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Appendices
Appendix A, Typical Power Ratings of Appliances and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Appendix B, Worksheet #1. Annual Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Appendix C, Worksheet #2. Selecting BOS Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Appendix D, Worksheet #3. Costing Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Appendix E, Worksheet #4. Dealer Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Appendix F, Using Net Present Value (NPV) to Evaluate a Project and
Comparing Unit Costs of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
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• You need different Mechanical systems are relatively system may also be an option if
types of systems to simple. They can be used to the cost of storage (i.e. batteries)
fill different needs aerate ponds, pump water for is high due to large loads.
livestock, irrigation or drainage,
• Systems range from very Wind energy systems all have a
and to supply water to remote
small to grid-connected power rating known as the rated
households, farms and small output. This is the maximum
This guide deals mainly with non communities. You can think of a power output of the system in a
grid-connected systems. That is, water tank as storage in a mechan- strong wind under ideal conditions.
the wind energy system does not ical system. More than a million
connect to the main electrical grid mechanical systems are said to For purposes of this guide,
(such as a municipal electrical be in use today, mostly on farms. we will group systems into
system). Changes in the way the following categories:
Hybrid systems are used in
electrical utilities operate, however,
locations where the wind may Micro Systems:
are leading to some innovations
fluctuate or where users might 100 watts or less
which we will touch on briefly
not want to be totally dependent They are useful for:
at the end of this section.
on the wind. Hybrid systems can
• portable systems for lighting
include solar energy or diesel
Terminology Issues and communications radios
generation. These systems can
at hunting and fishing camps
provide a reliable supply of energy
Wind energy systems that generate
electricity are often referred to as regardless of wind conditions, but • small appliances on yachts,
wind turbine generators (WTGs). can also be costly and complex. recreational vehicles, in
For the purposes of this guide, all cabins and cottages
systems that recover and convert
wind energy will be referred to
Hybrid Systems for • electric fences
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3. System Components
• The components you need the tower either has to come light-weight, strong and durable
depend on the job you down, or the service technician to withstand the elements. They
are doing has to go up. are usually constructed of com-
posites of fibreglass, reinforced
• Help in reading technical The generating equipment in
plastic or wood. The turbine
specifications a VAWT is at ground level, but
should also be designed to prevent
VAWTs require a lot more space
the rotor from turning too fast
to be cleared for guy wires.
Wind Turbines during strong winds.
The wind turbine rotor is one of Because any wind turbine may be
The diameter of the rotor blades
the most visible parts of a wind exposed to high winds, rain, snow,
determines how much power is
energy system, but there’s more sun, ice, and even salty air, its parts
generated by the system. There
to the turbine than just the rotor. should be made of tough, durable
are usually two or three blades.
and corrosion-resistant materials.
The most familiar turbine is the Three blades reduces the mechan-
A well-built and well-maintained
horizontal axis wind turbine, ical stresses on the system, but
turbine should have a life
known as a HAWT. The main increases the cost of the rotor.
expectancy of 20 years or more.
propeller-like rotor has an axis
that is parallel to the ground, Turbines consist of several Generator/Alternator
and therefore horizontal to the sub-components (Figure 5): Generators and alternators pro-
wind. A vertical axis wind turbine, duce electricity from the rotation
VAWT, has an axis perpendicular Rotor of the turbine motor. A generator
to the flow of the wind. The rotor consists of blades with produces Direct Current (DC)
specially shaped, aerodynamic sur- power or, as an alternator, it
HAWTs are most common in small faces. When the wind blows over produces Alternating Current
applications, and can be placed the blades, the rotor turns, causing (AC) power. Most small wind tur-
on a tower which does not require the rotation of the drive train and bines used for battery charging
a large area. If servicing has to generator. The blades should be systems use alternators generating
be done to a HAWT, however,
AC power which is converted to
DC for the batteries.
Rotor
Diameter
(D)
Rotor
Gear
AC/DC?
box
Rotor Direct Current (DC) is a flow of elec-
Diameter
(D) tricity in one direction. Alternating
Rotor Rotor Current (AC) flows first in one direc-
Generator height
(H) tion, then in the other. Alternating
Current is used in household electrici-
Hub
height Tower Tower Hub ty because of AC’s ability to be trans-
height
mitted over long distances with mini-
Guy Wire mum loss. DC, however, loses energy
the greater the distance transmitted.
Gear box
Generator You do not need to know the physics,
(HAWT) (VAWT) suffice it to say that the current com-
ing from a battery is DC, while the
current coming from a wall outlet is
▼ AC. Typically, DC-powered appliances
Figure 5. HAWT’s and VAWT’s: Horizontal and Vertical Axis Wind Turbines.
run at lower voltages than AC.
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Gearbox
Rotor with
Blades
Generator/Alternator
Optional BOS
Tailvane
(Balance of System)
(Yaw Mechanism)
Equipment
DC to AC Inverter
Nacelle
Battery
Disconnect
Gasoline/Diesel
Lead/Acid Batteries
Generator
Wind Turbine
Disconnect
Tower
▼
Figure 6. Wind energy system components.
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Mechanical
Water Pumping Wind-Electric
Windmills Water Pumping
Traditional water pumping wind- Systems
mills use a crank mounted on the Unlike a mechanical system, a
rotor shaft. They typically have wind-electric system does not have
many blades on a relatively slow to be located near the source of
turning rotor. The equipment the water. A wind energy system
changes the crank’s rotary motion powers an electric pump, which
to an up-and-down motion which moves water from its source (a
drives a piston pump mounted in well or pond) to where it is needed
a well or pond at the base of the (a livestock watering trough, pond
windmill. This series of actions or irrigation system). The power
lifts the water. consumed by the electric pump
can be matched to the power
Mechanical water pumping wind-
output of the turbine so the
mills have their advantages and
wind energy is used efficiently.
disadvantages. They tend to be
reliable, easy to maintain (they Electric water pumping systems
require no BOS components) and do not require elaborate BOS ▼
reasonably priced. But they may components, mainly because Mechanical water pumping
be limited in their applications batteries are not required. system.
because they must be located A reservoir tank for the water
directly above the well or pond, serves as the energy storage
even if the water may be required device.
some distance away.
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10
10
10 15
20
25
30
15 20
30
20
25
20
10 25
15
30
5 20 2025
25 20
10
20
15
15
20 10
20 10 15
20
25
The analysis is not valid at higher
elevations in mountainous areas 15
▼
Figure 10. Annual average wind speed map of Canada. Courtesy of Environment Canada.
Wind Energy Once you have a tentative site, Wind monitoring is worth the
Resource Maps monitor wind speed for several effort. It will help you determine
for Canada months. This is especially im- the size of turbine and the
portant if your preliminary infor- amount of battery storage
Copies of the Environment Canada
report Wind Energy Resource Maps
mation shows annual average capacity you’ll need for your
for Canada (ARD-92-003-E) are wind speeds near the minimum energy requirements.
available from: 15 km/h. On-site monitoring
will provide information about
Gary Beaney
periods of calm and low wind.
Climate Service Specialist
Canadian Climate Centre
Monthly or even spot readings
4905 Dufferin Avenue can be compared with the
Downsview, Ontario monthly data from AES.
M3H 5T4
Telephone (416) 739-4328
Fax (416) 739-4446
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10 m
100 m
▼
Figure 11. Siting a wind energy system.
To review, answer these questions: Step 2: Lighting, on the other hand, does
not require that much power,
1. What is the annual average
wind speed for your site at a
How much and the draw is fairly consistent.
set height above the ground? Energy do Even so, it is best to look for the
most efficient lamps and fixtures.
2. How does the average wind You Require? Remember that fluorescent lamps
speed vary with height? When you determine how much
use far electricity than incandes-
energy you require, you are really
3. What is the frequency and cents, last ten times longer, and
asking two questions. First, how
duration of wind speeds, give the same amount of light.
much total energy do you require
particularly those periods Screw-in compact flourescent are
over a year to operate all the
below cut-in speed and widely available. DC flourescent
appliances and equipment your
above cut-out speed? are also available.
system will run? Second, what
4. Is it worth proceeding? is the peak power requirement? Remember always that saving
a kW of energy is more cost-
What is it you want to run?
Note: effective than producing one.
This step is a “go” – “no-go” You have to determine what it is
If you plan to use wind energy
decision point. you expect to run with the elec-
to run systems on a farm,
tricity generated by your small-
remember to distinguish between
scale wind energy system. Some
equipment required to operate
household appliances such as
the farm, and the energy require-
water heaters, clothes dryers,
ments of the home. Power needs
stoves and electric heaters can
for farming equipment vary
draw a large amount of power,
widely, especially when it comes
but do so only intermittently.
to livestock watering, and should
Other appliances, such as refriger-
be accounted for separately.
ators and freezers draw a large
amount of electricity, and the
supply must be reliable.
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Check Appendix A, Typical Power The type of tower you need will
Ratings of Appliances and Equip- depend on your site. Is there
ment, at the end of this guide room for the tower guy wire
to note the most power hungry anchors? Is a stand-alone tower
appliances which may be operat- a more viable option? Does the
ing simultaneously. Add up the tower height allow the turbine
wattage to obtain the peak load. to operate 10 metres above
nearby obstructions?
Step 3:
Step 4: Select
▼
Portable Remote Power system,
Canada Olympic Park, Alberta.
Size a Wind
While not all systems are this Turbine Balance of
portable, you can take your
system with you when you and Tower System (BOS)
move. (Photo courtesy of
Nor’wester Energy Systems Ltd.)
You should now have an estimate Equipment
of the wind energy available at BOS equipment depends entirely
your site, and an estimate of how on the answer to the earlier
much energy you need. Sizing question, “What is it you want to
Estimating Peak
the turbine is a matter of trying run?” Will it require power every
Power Requirements
to match the two. day, on demand? Will it require
To ensure you have the right size
AC power? Is the power absolutely
of wind energy system, you need
required 24 hours per day, every
to know more than just annual Helpful Hints day, all year? Let us look at each
electrical energy consumption.
To obtain smooth airflow, the of these questions in turn:
Many appliances, such as refriger-
tower should position the turbine
ators, do not run constantly, Do you need power
of a mini or a small system at 100
but cycle on and off. Similarly, every day on demand?
metres horizontally from the nearest
lighting is not in constant use, obstacle at turbine height (such If “yes,” you will require batter-
nor is an electric iron, electric as larger trees or buildings), and ies. You will need to know what
space heater or many other 10 metres above any obstructions size of battery best fits your sys-
pieces of equipment. which are closer. tem. You should have an experi-
enced wind equipment dealer
To properly size your system, Look at the manufacturer’s specifica-
tions for turbines to get an idea of help you calculate the amount
you must estimate peak power
approximately how much energy of battery storage you need
consumption. Even though it
will be available given your site’s because the estimate is based
is unlikely all your equipment
average annual wind speed. A on several factors.
and appliances will be turned on
more precise estimate will depend
at once, a peak power estimate For example, what is the longest
on the variability of the wind
should be an extreme example. period you can expect to be with-
speed over time.
out adequate wind? You will need
Consider, for example, that you
enough battery capacity to run
might be watching television This is also the time to think your appliances during this period.
with the lights on while you do about towers. A higher tower An example of this calculation is
a few minutes of ironing and will be more expensive, but could shown in the box on the next page.
that your water pump and high give your turbine access to greater
efficiency refrigerator also turn wind energy. A shorter tower Remember also that when the
on automatically. This could be will require a larger turbine to wind is blowing, your wind ener-
your peak load. An example of generate the same amount of gy system must not only run your
this scenario is given in the table energy as a higher tower with a appliance and equipment, it must
on the previous page. smaller, less expensive turbine. generate enough excess power
to recharge your batteries.
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• Hybrid systems provide a ment (such as at a remote home- stand-alone systems. Hybrid sys-
reliable source of electricity stead or for telecommunications tems should be designed for techni-
sites), to small applications (such cal reliability and cost effectiveness.
• Some pointers to help you
as for remote community grids).
assess whether a hybrid sys- If the generator is to start itself
tem might be your answer It is likely not possible to buy an when wind energy production
off-the-shelf hybrid system that drops below a certain point, for
If the preliminary assessment in
is right for your application, and, example, sophisticated control
the last chapter shows that you
just as with stand-alone systems, systems will have to be installed.
need reliable power 24 hours a
a careful assessment of require- Even with these controls, the
day every day, a hybrid system
ments should be made before generator may not start the
should be considered. Hybrid sys-
you start shopping. instant it is needed. If the genera-
tems draw on more than a single
tor is running below its design
source of energy, resulting in a The rules for assessment of a
capacity, it may not be very effi-
reliable supply of electricity. A hybrid system are similar to
cient, driving up operating costs.
number of power sources can be those for stand-alone systems,
used in combination with wind but consider the cost and avail- Batteries may still be desired
energy: solar, gas or diesel genera- ability of the other source of to accommodate excess power
tors, and even hydro power. energy that makes up the hybrid: during periods of high wind,
but if the system is providing a
• you still have to know the
large amount of power, the cost
availability of wind energy at
of battery storage will be high.
your site, just as with a stand-
alone system. For a hybrid, To recap, some of the difficulties
you should also look at the in planning a hybrid system are:
availability of other renewable • The variable nature of the
resources, such as solar. wind and the load make it
• consider the cost of fossil fuel difficult to predict how to
to power the generator; how match these reliably.
dependable is the supply of • Large generator sets used for
▼ fossil fuel, and how difficult back-up do not always start
This remote radio repeater in
Kananaskis, Alberta uses solar is it to get the fuel to the site? the instant they are needed.
energy to produce electricity in • you still have to know what
addition to wind. (Photo courtesy • Running a generator set
of Nor’wester Energy Systems Ltd.) your power requirements are. below its design capacity
Use the same guidelines as is very inefficient.
were set out in the stand-alone
assessment in the last chapter – • Battery storage can be used
Hybrid systems are far more com-
look at occurrence of peak to provide continuous power
plex than stand-alone systems
loads, daily demand, the in the face of wind variations
and entail more elaborate design
requirement for dependable and the stop-start operation
features. But, depending on your
power. Keep in mind as well of generator sets, but batteries
situation, a hybrid system can be an
the quality of power required. are expensive, especially for
attractive option. They are depend-
Sophisticated equipment, such large loads.
able, more environmentally friendly
than fossil-fuelled generators and, as computers or telecommuni- To ensure that your hybrid system
often, are more economical. cations equipment, requires provides dependable power and
high quality electricity which is cost effective, you should seek
Hybrid systems are as varied as does not fluctuate. professional help to assist with
the needs of wind users, from
Here is where the assessment the required analysis and to
micro and mini applications,
becomes more difficult than for consider the design options.
where dependability is a require-
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7. Economics
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approximate cost of a wind energy costs of running a diesel generator wind turbine), and, of course,
system over 15 or 20 years. Now, with the same power capacity the cost of fuel needed to run
we must compare that to the cost over 15 or 20 years. This will the generator.
of alternate methods of generating include the cost of the generator, The table below gives an example
electricity. For example, if the the cost of replacing or over- of life cycle costing comparisons.
alternative is a diesel generator, hauling the generator (since it is
you will have to determine the not likely to last as long as the
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• You may have your own Environment. Wind energy is non polluting, reduces the demand on the grid,
reasons for choosing and reduces the use of fossil fuels, the construction of hydroelectric dams or
renewable wind energy, nuclear generators. Buyers of wind energy equipment need to decide whether
and these are just as impor- and how to put a price on the environmental advantages of wind power use,
tant to consider as cost and what role the environment should play in the decision-making process.
Chances are you had several Safety. In cold regions, ice can accumulate on wind turbine blades. This can
good reasons to consider wind cause severe vibrations; the ice may be thrown great distances. Hydrogen venting
energy that had nothing to from batteries is another potential safety issue. Climbing of towers by the owner
do with economics. There are or maintenance persons is a potential liability. Special safety precautions are
also other considerations to required if children have access to the system.
think about that have nothing Extreme weather. In some parts of the country, the environment is very hard
to do with technical issues. on equipment and can cause operational and durability problems for the wind
Most of these are difficult to energy system and batteries.
quantify, but this does not Neighbours. The proximity of a wind turbine to a neighbour's property should
mean that they do not be discussed with the neighbour before proceeding with a wind energy system
have technical or economic purchase. Neighbours could be concerned about the size of the system and the
implications, or that they are noise a system’s generator might make.
less important than those Aesthetics. The wind energy system can affect a view, or that of your
which can be costed out. neighbours’, and it might block or change an historic landscape.
There are also other issues Noise. With a hybrid system, generator noise may be a problem. It would
which cannot be quantified, be a good idea to listen to the generator to see how much noise it makes
but which might impact when operating. The turbines themselves are relatively quiet.
your wind energy system. Corrosion. Corrosion of system parts at locations close to the ocean can be
The chart below lists a number a problem.
of issues to consider when Zoning restrictions and other potential legal obstacles. Local municipal
deciding if wind energy is offices should have information about restrictions on elements such as noise
right for your situation. and permissible tower height.
Local bird life. Birds can be injured or killed if they collide with the blades or
the tower; and their breeding, nesting and feeding habits could be disturbed.
To minimize these potential problems, avoid siting a wind energy system on
a migration route or where many birds nest and feed. The system should be
designed to reduce perching and nesting opportunities. This is typically not
a problem with smaller systems.
Electromagnetic interference. Systems sometimes produce electromagnetic
interference that can affect television or radio reception. The interference can
usually be traced to the generator, alternator, or metal blades. This problem
can be avoided if the parts are shielded, filtered or made of wood, plastic or
fibreglass.
Technical know-how. Some small wind energy system can be maintained
by the owner. This may require basic technical skills. It will save money, but
will require time and the inclination to do what is necessary.
Access. The existence of an access road for remote systems will simplify
construction, maintenance and fuel delivery, and will likely bring with it
associated cost benefits.
Insurance, construction standards, private property deed restrictions
should also be considered.
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• This chapter provide you System design: They will help you
with a guide to shopping determine the optimal capacity Dealers vs.
for wind energy system of the wind energy system, and
Manufacturers
the size and configuration of the Local dealers may be more familiar
system components, based on with local conditions, and are in a
Experts the results of the assessments. better position to provide service
Can Help Expert assistance becomes more than a more “remote” manufacturer.
important as a system becomes Also, dealers may have access to
more complex. a choice of systems from a variety
Finding an expert of manufacturers.
Equipment selection and costing:
To find an expert, contact one of Based on their experience, they
the organizations or associations catalogues offer useful informa-
can find the best equipment for
identified in Chapter 11 Need tion about system design.
your system design.
More Information?
Do not hesitate about asking
Cost estimates and financing
suppliers to see equipment manu-
arrangements: The economic
als for BOS or wind turbines
Even if you have diligently fol- assessment and the cost of the
you are especially interested in.
lowed every step in this guide, it final design will lead to accurate
Manufacturer’s typically charge
is very important to consult an cost estimates – then you will
for the manual, but the price
independent expert or a supplier know if you need financing
can usually be applied toward
or manufacturer to ensure that and if so, how much.
the purchase price of the unit
any system you buy and install is Installation, servicing, routine should a purchase be made.
as efficient, cost effective and safe maintenance: For larger and
as possible. Before approaching The manual should describe,
more complex systems, outside
an expert, you should have the in clearly understood terms,
expertise in these areas becomes
details of your preliminary assess- the assembly and installation
more important.
ment, and some ideas about procedure for the unit and
your basic design. Even if you the subsequent operation and
are a do-it-yourselfer, you should Selecting maintenance requirements.
discuss your project with an a supplier Do not buy from a manufacturer
expert before committing to Manufacturers or dealers in wind who does not provide the
a particular system. energy systems can be a valuable required product literature.
Some areas where experts can resource for information. Read all the manuals carefully
be of assistance: Different suppliers specialize and look for details that will
Preliminary assessment: They can in different types of systems. answer these questions:
review your preliminary assess- A supplier should have proven • What type of equipment
ment and confirm the accuracy experience in design and instal- is the inverter capable of
of the energy and wind resource lation of the type of system operating?
estimates, and give you some you require. Suppliers differ
in terms of the level of service • What quality of AC power
advice on your preliminary design.
they provide. Some offer turnkey does the inverter produce?
Detailed assessment: They can (i.e. ready-to-operate) installation. • Does the generator have
visit the site, identify appropriate Others offer the option of direct remote start capability?
applications and do a more purchase from the factory for
detailed resource assessment, and • What is included in the
self-installation.
an in-depth economic assessment. BOS package?
Request and review equipment
• Are the wiring and smaller
catalogues and price lists. Many
parts supplied?
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Appendix A
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12 VDC Loads
Appliance/Equipment Power Rating (watts) Annual kWh
Air Compressor 60 5
Auto Stereo 6 7
Clock, digital 5 44
Drill 144 5
25 watt incandescent bulb 25 46
25 watt equivalent fluorescent 25 46
Circular saw 200 – 1000 5
Television:
b&w (2 hr/day) 20 15
colour (2 hr/day) 60 45
Toaster 1100 40
Ventilation Fan (15 cm blade) 24 5
Water Pump:
13 l/min automatic demand 90 70
11.6 l/min 36 26
7.5 l/min 18 13
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Appendix B
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Appendix C
DC to AC Inverter with:
Remote Start Signal
“true sine wave”
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Appendix D
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Appendix E
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Appendix F
Using Net Present Value Most computer spreadsheet grid, as compared to a 500 W
(NPV) to Evaluate a programs have a function to find wind energy system.
Project and Comparing Net Present Value, if you want
In the wind energy system, design
Unit Costs of Energy to try the calculation yourself.
considerations do not permit an
This section on Net Present Value
By comparing the costs of increase in the amount of energy
and the one following on Unit
different energy options the system can provide. The grid,
Costs of Energy are not intended
in today’s dollars, the true on the other hand, can accommo-
to serve as a “how-to,” they are
economic value of any one date an almost unlimited growth
intended only to give you an
option can easily be seen. in demand. To compare them
indication of what a professional
Table 2 shows how Net Present fairly, we have to look at the unit
will consider when doing a full
Value has been applied to four cost of energy generated by the
economic analysis.
possible energy alternatives: a wind wind energy system over its life-
energy system with batteries; a time with the unit cost of the
Using Net photo-voltaic system with batteries; energy generated by the grid.
It is also best to compare the
Present Value an extension to the grid; and, a
net present value of the cost
diesel generator set with batteries.
(NPV) to The calculation shows that despite of a kilowatt hour of energy.
Evaluate the fact the wind energy system We set out the sample
a Project does not have the lowest initial calculations on page 44.
Larger, more costly projects cost, over time, its cost is the
In this case, the wind energy
require a very accurate analysis to lowest of the four options.
option is not the preferred choice.
see it they make economic sense. It makes a number of assump- Extending a line to the grid
This is done using a calculation tions which are detailed in the will cost $1.71 per kilowatt
known as Net Present Value. table caption. hour while wind generation
Net Present Value determines how will cost $1.82 per kilowatt hour,
in today’s dollars.
much money you would have to
put aside today to pay for the
Comparing Unit
start up and operating costs of the Costs of Energy
project over its lifetime – keeping When alternate approaches pro-
in mind that if you put money duce different amounts of energy,
aside today, it would earn interest often the best way to make a
over the course of the project. comparison is by calculating the
For example, a Net Present Value unit cost of the energy, usually
calculation can tell you how expressed in dollars per kilowatt
much money you would have to hour ($/kWh). In these situations,
put in the bank today in order it is important to compare pro-
to have $1,000 in the bank five jects based on the present value
years from now at an interest of their unit costs of energy, to
rate of 5 percent. make sure they are being evaluat-
ed based on a common variable.
For purposes of the Net Present
Value calculation, the rate of Let us consider the example
interest is referred to as the of a wind energy system as an
“discount rate.” Today’s dollars alternative to extending a line
will also be worth more in the to the grid. In our example,
future because of inflation. we will consider establishing
a 2 kilometre line from the
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Assumptions for Table 2 costs include the cost of replacing charge to connect to the grid;
• For systems with batteries: The the genset every three years. and a cost of $0.08/kWh charged
equipment and material costs by the utility for electricity.
• For the grid extension project: The
include the initial hardware cost for the extension to the grid is • For all systems: The annual infla-
costs plus the cost of replacing $5,000 per kilometre; O&M costs tion rate for maintenance, battery
batteries every five years. are $0; the annual costs assume costs, and hydro connect fee is 3%;
• For the diesel genset system: a 6% annual increase in the grid the discount rate for the calcula-
The equipment and material kWh charge; a $16/month service tion of NPV is 6%.
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Glossary
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