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SOILS OF INDIA.
What is soil? The loose rock material together with humus, forming the uppermost layer of the earth’s crust and
serving as a source of food and moisture for plants is known as soil.

How is soil formed? Soil is formed due to weathering of parent rocks under various climatic conditions. Different
agents of erosion like rivers, winds, waves etc. play an important role in soil formation.

Pedogenesis is the process of soil formation. Pedology- science which focuses on understanding, formation,
characterization and distribution of soils. Pedologist – a scientist who studies soil.

Humus is the organic component of soil. It is formed by the decomposition of plant remains, animal waste, and dead
animals. It helps the soil to retain moisture. Humus increases soil fertility & also helps plants to draw the nutrient from
the soil, essential for their growth.

What are the constituents of soil? Besides humus, silica, clay and chalk are the other constituents of soil. Soil also
contains moisture & air.

Soil develops in horizons. Top soil is the upper most layer of the soil made up of very fine particles of rocks (clay,
silt & sand) and humus. Roots of plants are confined to this layer.
Sub soil is below the top soil & is made up of weathered rocks.

Sandy soil contains high percentage of sand while clayey soil contains high percentage of clay. Loam contains a
mixture of sand, silt & clay. It is ideal for crop cultivation.

[Soils have varied properties which can be divided into two broad classes viz .physical properties and chemical
properties. Physical properties of soils include texture, colour, water content, porosity etc. Chemical properties of
soils include mineral solubility, nutrient availability, soil reaction (measurement of acidity or alkalinity) etc.](only
read)

Different parts of India have different types of underlying bedrocks and also experience different types of
climate. Different rocks weather under different climatic conditions form different types of soil. Hence India
has varied soil types.

According to location, soils are categorised as – transported & in situ.

Transported soil – soils which have been carried over long distance or transported by rivers, winds & then deposited.

In situ soil is found in the area where it is formed as a result of weathering of parent rock. Eg. Black, red, laterite.
These soils are also known as residual soil.

Alluvial soil is a transported soil.

How are Alluvial soils formed? Alluvial soils are formed by the sediments or alluvium transported or brought
down by rivers and deposited in the plains. These alluvial soils are also known as riverine soil as they are mainly
found in the river basins

Alluvial soil is of two types – (i) young /new khadar & (ii) old bhangar.

Bhangar is older alluvium, found 30m above sea level in river terraces, light grey/darker in colour & has clayey
composition containing lime nodule or kankar. Bhangar is less fertile than khadar as it contains kankars and its
fertility is not replenished by river floods.

Khadar is newer alluvium, found in the river valleys and in the floodplains, lighter in colour than bhangar. It is loamy
& non porous. It is replenished by flood every year, hence it is very fertile and intensively
cultivated.
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Khadar soil is more fertile than bhangar soil as its fertility is replenished by flood every year.

Alluvial soil in the upper courses of rivers is coarse & porous. The soil particles are large, non uniform & dry. Such
soil is found in the plains near the foot of mountains.

Alluvial soil in the lower course of the river is less coarse & more compact. The soil particles are smaller, more
uniform & more moist. They are found to a depth of 500m in the deltas.

Alluvial soil of the northern plains is porous, loamy and lighter in colour. They are transported riverine alluvium.

Alluvial soil of the Deccan (eastern) coastal strip are non porous, clayey and darker in colour as compared to
alluvial soils of the Upper Ganga Valley as rivers of Deccan Plateau flowing through black soil region, carry the same
to the deltas. These soils are called Deltaic Alluvium. These soils are best suited to rice crop.

Alluvial soil differs (varies) in texture – Alluvial soil is coarse in the upper course of the rivers because large
particles are first deposited & smaller particles are carried downstream by rivers which become finer due to attrition &
deposited in the lower course.

Why is Alluvial soil agriculturally very important? /Why is alluvial soil very fertile?
- Alluvial soil is deep & loamy, responds well to irrigation & manuring;
- it is rich in iron, magnesia, alumina, potash & lime; contains a lot of minerals as it is a transported soil.
– fertility of khadar soil is renewed/ replenished by flood every year.

Crops – Very fertile soil, suitable for both kharif and rabi crops like rice, wheat, pulses /gram (food crops) and
sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, & oilseeds(cash crops). In delta region, alluvial soil is ideal for jute cultivation.

Areas – (i) Entire northern plains of India built by the rivers Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries in the
states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh ,Bihar ,West Bengal, Assam, parts of Rajasthan.
(ii) Along the Eastern coast/ Deccan coastal strip, in the deltas of rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna & kaveri.

Black soil – also known as regur / volcanic/ lava/ black cotton soil (as cotton is extensively grown in this soil).

How is black soil formed? – Black soil is formed due to disintegration /weathering of volcanic /lava / igneous rock
viz Basalt. This soil is formed in-situ.

Why is Black soil black/ dark in colour? Black soil is derived from basalt rocks, which gives them the black or grey
colour.

Areas – Black soil is found in the Deccan trap comprising large parts of Maharashtra & Gujarat; parts of Madhya
Pradesh , southern Uttar Pradesh, western Andhra Pradesh, southern Tamil Nadu & north west Odisha.

(About 50 million years ago, there was intense volcanic activity in the Deccan Plateau. Thick, nearly
horizontal lava sheets covered the north-western part of this plateau in Maharashtra, adjoining Madhya Pradesh
& Gujarat, which is known as the Deccan Trap Region. Later these old, hard, crystalline lava rocks mainly basalt were
weathered to form Black soil.) (only read)

Characteristics of Black soil that make it suitable for crop cultivation –

-Black soil retains moisture because of high clay content.

-it is aerated & self ploughed soil as this soil forms deep cracks when dry. (Black soil shrinks when dry &develops
cracks)
–Black soil is rich in lime, iron, magnesium, alumina, potash.
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Disadvantages of Black soil- Black soil retains moisture because of high clay content and becomes exceedingly
sticky when wet. Thus this soil is difficult to plough when wet.
–Black soil is generally deficient in phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic matter.

Chemical properties of Black Soil - Rich in lime, iron, magnesium.

– Poor in phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter. – non acidic.

Crops – cash crops –cotton, sugarcane, tobacco, oilseeds

Food crops – wheat, pulses, millets, vegetables.

Why large tracts of Maharashtra are covered with black soil ?

The north western part of the Deccan Plateau in Maharashtra was subjected to intense volcanic activity
leading to eruption of lava along the fissures & formation of Deccan Trap Region. The volcanic rocks (basalt) of the
region were weathered to form black soil.

Black soil does not get leached. Why? Black soil is clayey & sticky & moisture retentive and therefore rain cannot
wash out the silicates.

Black soil is suitable for the growth of cotton because it is moisture retentive, has self –ploughing qualities, and is
rich in lime, iron, potash, magnesium.

Black soil is suitable for dry farming as it can retain moisture.

Red soil -in situ soil.

How are red soil formed? Red soils are formed due to weathering of the ancient crystalline igneous and metamorphic
rocks during rainfall.

Red soil is red in colour due to high percentage of iron oxide present in it.
2 reasons for low productivity of red soil – Red soils are porous & hence do not retain moisture.
– These soils are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium & humus & hence they are not fertile.

Characteristics of red soil that make it suitable for crop cultivation / advantages of red soil are as follows -
- Red soil becomes productive when fertilizers & irrigation are added.
–This soil is porous and does not retain moisture. Red soil is good for dry farming as it does not get water logged and
formed in areas of low rainfall.
– Red soil is rich in potash, iron oxide.
–Red soil is porous, loose and aerated.

Areas-Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, parts of Madhya Pradesh, parts of
West Bengal, parts of Maharashtra, all the states of North East India- Manipur, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh etc.

Crops grown on Red Soil – Wheat, rice, millets, cotton, sugarcane, pulses, oil seeds, coffee, tea, tobacco.

Laterite Soil – The word “laterite” is derived from the latin word “later” meaning bricks.
Laterite is both a soil and a rock type rich in iron and aluminium. Laterite rock was cut into brick-like shapes and used
in monument building.
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How is laterite soil formed? State the climatic conditions required for Laterite soil formation?

Laterite soil is formed as a result of leaching of weathered rocks under conditions of high temperature and heavy
rainfall with alternating wet and dry periods (these are residual soils peculiar to tropical countries under monsoonal
conditions).

Leaching- Leaching is the process in which the soluble nutrients (lime and silica) of the top soil get percolated down
to lower layers during heavy rainfall, leaving the top soil infertile. This process is also called desilication.

Characteristics of Laterite Soil-

 Leached soil, formed in-situ.

 Red in colour due to presence of high percentage of iron oxide.
 Coarse textured, friable and porous and hence does not retain moisture.
 Leached soil deficient in silica, lime, nitrogen potash and humus hence infertile soil.
 It is acidic in nature as alkalis are leached.

Mention the disadvantages of Laterite Soil. OR Why is Laterite Soil considered infertile?

Ans: Laterite soil cannot retain moisture, leached soil and acidic in nature.

Physical properties /characteristics of Laterite soil - red in colour; - coarse, porous hence cannot retain moisture;
- hardens when dry.

Areas- Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Karnataka, summits of Western and Eastern Ghats, Malwa
plateau in Madhya Pradesh.

Crops- Cashew nut, tapioca, tea, coffee.

Mention the similarities between red soil & laterite soil.- Both are red in colour because of the presence iron
oxide / both are infertile /both are not moisture retentive / both are poor in organic matter/ both are in-situ soil .

What is Soil Erosion? The removal of the top soil cover by the agents of denudation such as running water, rivers,
wind and human activities is called soil erosion.

Main agents of soil erosion- Running water, rivers, wind, waves, human activities.

Types of soil erosion-

a. Caused by running water: i) Sheet erosion is a slow removal of a thin layer of top soil (devoid of vegetation
cover) by running water over a large area during heavy rainfall.
ii) Gully erosion is the formation of deep gullies /ravines or channels when the top layer of soil is scooped out
by running water gushing down the slope in definite path during heavy rainfall.
b. Wind erosion refers to removal of loose soil particles from the top layer of the soil in the arid and
semi-arid regions (regions of scanty rainfall) on which there is no vegetation cover.
c. Waves are limited to the coastal areas devoid of vegetation cover.
d. Soil erosion due to human activities: i) Unscientific farming techniques, ii) large scale deforestation done
for agriculture, industrialization , urbanization iii) allowing over grazing etc. help the wind, running water
and other agents.
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Why is soil erosion by wind common in arid regions?

In arid and semi-arid regions rainfall is scanty, hence there is little or no vegetation to hold the soil. Wind blows at a
very high speed in desert regions due to absence of any obstacles. Hence wind is the most powerful agent of
denudation in areas of low rainfall, blowing away loose, fine particles of soil and depositing them elsewhere,
rendering these areas unproductive.

Causes of soil erosion:

 Deforestation due to heavy population pressure on land (for crop cultivation, settlement, transport ,industries).
Removal of vegetation cover exposes the soil to running water and wind leading to soil erosion.
 Over grazing makes the land bare of vegetation.
 Unscientific farming techniques.
 India receives 90% of its rainfall in the four months of rainy season followed by draught. This makes the soil
prone to erosion.
 Heavy rainfall on steep slopes of mountain causes soil erosion.

What is soil conservation?

Soil conservation refers to the steps taken to protect the soil from erosion and harmful effects of soil pollution and
exhaustion.

Need for Soil Conservation:

India is primarily an agricultural country. Loss of fertile top soil leads to gradual loss of soil fertility and decrease
in agricultural productivity.

 Over watering, excessive use of chemical fertilizers and insecticide make the soil infertile and unfit for crop
cultivation.
 Eroded soil chokes the river channels and causes flood.
 Soil absorbs water readily. Soil erosion leads to lowering of underground water table and decreasing soil
moisture.
 It takes thousands of years to form a 2-3 cm thick layer of soil and it is a very valuable natural resource as
entire plant life depends upon it.(*important)

Prevention of Soil Erosion by running water:

Sheet erosion can be prevented by:

 Planting trees (afforestation) – The roots of trees hold the soil together.
 Terrace farming
 Contour ploughing
 Preventing deforestation and over grazing- Construction of dams prevents flooding of rivers, and reduces soil
erosion;
Deepening of river beds increases the capacity of the rivers to hold more water which then will not overflow
(flood) to cause soil erosion.

Terrace farming and Contour Ploughing are practised on hill slopes to prevent soil erosion. On hill slopes
terraces act as bunds and prevent the soil from being washed away running water.

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Gully Erosion can be prevented by:

 Plugging gullies
 Planting trees

Wind erosion can be prevented by:

 Planting shelter belt of trees along the edge of the field.

 Practising Strip cropping

State any two farming techniques/ agronomic measures which help in soil conservation:

 -Wise use of soil by maintaining a high level of nutrients and organic matter by cultivating leguminous crops,
adding organic fertilizers, practicing crop rotation.
- Strip cropping’
- Terrace farming
- contour ploughing
- Legally banning shifting cultivation

Difference between Khadar and Bhangar Soil:

khadar Bhangar
- New alluvium - Old alluvium
- Found in river valleys & floodplains. - found high up in river terraces, about 30m above sea
level.
- Lighter in colour - Darker in colour
- Very fertile & intensively cultivated as its -less fertile than khadar as it contains lime nodules or
fertility is replenished by river floods. kankars.

Difference between Alluvial Soil and Black Soil:

Alluvial soil Black soil

- Formed ex-situ; transported soil, formed due to -Formed in-situ; residual soil, formed due to weathering
transportation & deposition of sediments by of volcanic rocks basalt, schist, gneiss.
rivers.
- Lighter in colour than black soil. - Deep black to chestnut brown in colour.

Difference between Alluvial Soil and Red Soil:

Alluvial soil Red soil

-Formed ex-situ; transported soil, formed due -Formed in-situ; residual soil, formed due to weathering
transportation & deposition of sediments (alluvium) by of crystalline igneous & metamorphic rocks.
rivers.
-colour varies -red in colour due to presence of high percentage of iron
oxide.
-fertile soil as this soil is rich in potash & lime & retains -infertile soil, as this soil is deficient in nitrogen,
moisture. phosphorous, potassium lime, humus & cannot retain
moisture.
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Difference between Red Soil and Black Soil:

Red soil Black soil

- Red in colour -deep black to chestnut brown.
- Porous & hence does not retain moisture -clayey & hence retains moisture.
- infertile soil as this soil is deficient in nitrogen -very fertile soil as this soil is rich in iron, magnesium,
phosphorus, potassium, humus . lime.

Difference between Sheet and Gully Erosion:

Sheet erosion Gully erosion

- Slow removal of thin & even layer of top soil -
When rain water flows down in a definite path,
during heavy rainfall on level lands. forming rills which deepens to form gullies or
ravines, common on steep slope.
- It is not noticed easily - Creates bad land topography as the agricultural
lands are fragmented.
- Common in the flood plains of river - Prevalent in the plateau region specially the
Brahmaputra, Kosi, Damodar, Ganga, Chambal river Valley.
 Sheet, Rill, Gully erosion have taken place on the slopes of the Shiwalik Himalayas and slopes of
Western and Eastern Ghats which receive heavy rainfall and are subjected to deforestation.

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