See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/283904698

The relationship between Parenting styles and childhood trauma: A study of

street children in Limpopo Province, South Africa.

Article in African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation and Dance · July 2015

CITATION READS

1 1,876

3 authors, including:

Mokoena Maepa Erhabor Sunday Idemudia

Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University North-West University
9 PUBLICATIONS 11 CITATIONS 205 PUBLICATIONS 1,250 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

African Psychology View project

UCLA-Phodiso Project View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Erhabor Sunday Idemudia on 07 February 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance
(AJPHERD) Volume 21(2), June 2015, pp. 552-565.

The relationship between Parenting styles and childhood trauma:

A study of street children in Limpopo Province, South Africa
M.P. MAEPA1, E.S. IDEMUDIA1 AND M.E. OFONEDU2
1
North-West University, Mafikeng, Private Bag X2046, Mmbotho, 2745, South Africa.
E-mail: Mokoena.Maepa@nwu.ac.za or mokoenamaepa@gmail.com
2
Kennedy Krieger Institute, University of Maryland Baltimore, United States

(Received: 05 August 2014; Revision Accepted: 15 March 2015)

Abstract

Childhood adversity increases the risk for psychopathology and psychiatric disorders in
individuals and is one of the reasons for high numbers of street children seen in South African
towns. This study aims to compare parenting styles and history of childhood trauma between
street children and non-street children and to assess the relationship between parenting styles and
childhood trauma among the street children. Using a cross-sectional design involving a snowball
method, the study sampled a total of 300 street children. Concurrently, 300 non-street children
were sampled using simple randomisation. Results obtained from a questionnaire with three
sections was used (section A: demographic information, section B: parenting styles, section C:
childhood trauma) revealed significant differences regarding parental warmth (t(598) = 14.02, p
< .000), parental supervision (t(598) = 20.92, p < .000) and childhood trauma (t(598) = -27.24, p
<.000), for the two groups. The results also revealed significant negative relationship between
parental warmth and childhood trauma (r(300) = -.212, p <.001) but no significant difference was
found between parental supervision and childhood trauma. The study concluded that
understanding the role of parenting style as a predictor of childhood trauma is critical in the
prevention of child abuse.

Keywords: Street children, parenting styles, childhood trauma.

How to cite this article:
Maepa, M.P., Idemudia, E.S. & Ofonedu, M.E. (2015). The relationship between Parenting styles
and childhood trauma: A study of street children in Limpopo Province, South Africa. African
Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 21(2), 552-565.

Introduction

Child adversity is one of the reasons accounting for high numbers of street
children seen in South African towns. Street children are children whose main
living place is the street. They include orphans, runaways and, children who have
no contact with significant adult or caregiver. Dysfunctional family background
and other risk factors such as domestic violence and child abuse have been
proven to contribute to a young person running away from home (Marianne et
al., 2009). Street children are exposed to situations that endanger their lives on a
daily basis. In a study that aimed to understand the connection between
homelessness, personality and criminal behavior in homeless incarcerated
 The relationship between Parenting styles and childhood trauma 553

youths, the author found that homeless youths were more deviant, psychopathic,
and hostile when compared with non-homeless youth population (Idemudia,
2007). Street children regularly engage in violent activities (Harden, 2014) and
in survival sex (Gwadz et al., 2007). According to Ofonedu et al. (2013), youths
who are exposed to negative life events and experiences usually fear being seen
as weak and as a result they adopt an aggressive identity through engaging in
risk taking behaviors. They also tend to hide their inner struggles from others
even at the expense of losing out in life and neglecting self needs.

Although research on the phenomenon of street children has been conducted

globally (e.g., Hoersting & Jenkins, 2011; Ezeokana, Obi-Nwuso & Okoye,
2014; Idemudia et al., 2013; Shiluvane, Khoza, Lebese & Shiluvane, 2012), the
numbers of street children remains high. The small but growing body of research
have focused on exploring pathway to homelessness among street children
Kayiranga & Mukashema, 2014; Whitbeck, Crawford & Hartshorn, 2012). None
of the above mentioned studies explored the relationship between parenting style
and childhood trauma among street children or compare the differences with the
non-street children. This knowledge gap is particularly troublesome given that
parenting practices and childhood trauma may compromises individual
emotional and physical health later in life.

The aim of this study is to compare parenting styles and history of childhood
trauma between street children and non-street children and to assess the
relationship between parenting styles and childhood trauma among the street
children. Understanding the relationship between these factors may inform
researchers, policy makers, and clinicians of intervention strategies for street
children.

Childhood Trauma

Childhood trauma has been found to have a persistent or intermittent

psychological and/or physiological effect on a person. Traumatic events affect
people in a variety of ways across different developmental stage and life span.
Childhood trauma has been defined as any form of abuse that harms or has a
potential to harm the child such as verbal, emotional, psychological or even
sexual abuse and executed by the parent, guardian and/or any individual (Leeb,
Paulozzi, Melanson, Simon & Arias, 2104). An adolescents subjective traumatic
experiences may be accompanied by depression, fear, erratic emotional states,
confusion, helplessness, self-blame, anger, worry , suspicion and feeling unsafe
and without protection where protection is expected (Ofonedu et. al., 2013).
Child abuse and insecure attachment increases the chances of homelessness
among children (Gwadz, Clatts, Leonard & Goldsamt, 2004). Child abuse
constitutes all forms of abuse that have a potential of affecting the child’s health,
survival or development (WHO, 2010). Experiencing child abuse has negative
554 Maepa, Idemudia and Ofonedu

effects on the victim later in life (Jennings, Park, Richards, Tomsich et al., 2014).
Such effects include insecure attachment, delinquency or even engaging in
domestic violence. Child abuse does not only result in psychological and
behavioral problems, there are financial implications involved in treating abused
children. For example, Wada and Igarashi (2014) found that the social costs
associated with child abuse amount to ¥ 1.6 trillion ($16 billion).

Childhood sexual abuse is also associated with homelessness (Rosario,

Schrimshaw & Hunter, 2011), and drug use (Asgeirsdottir, Sigfusdottir,
Gudjonsson & Sigurdsson, 2011). Young boys who have experienced sexual
abuse are at increased risk for drug use (Roy, Boivin & Leclerc, 2011). Huang et
al. (2011) indicated that childhood maltreatment is related to subsequent illicit
drug use and drug-related activities in young adults. Childhood physical abuse is
associated with alcohol use disorder (Swogger, Conner, Walsh & Maisto, 2011).
Lifetime physical or sexual abuse is highly prevalent among drug-dependent
individuals (Oviedo-Joekes et al., 2011). Physical abuse (Ju & Lee, 2010) and
neglect (Fantuzzo et al., 2011) is common in children of parents from low socio-
economic status. Kennedy, Agbényiga, Kasiborski and Gladden (2010) reported
that homeless teenage mothers experienced high levels of cumulative
victimization and adversities including lack of caring and support from family
members. Many children are living on the streets as a result of abuse,
engagement in high risk and/or rejection by families (Cluver et al., 2010;
Rukmana, 2008).

Parenting Styles

Parenting styles are standard behaviours parents engage in as they socialize,

guide, and raise their children. Parenting practices are described as specific ways
parents reward discipline, support, and protect their children (Crockett & Hayes,
2011). For proper parenting to take place there should be an attachment between
the child and the parent or the primary caregiver. This attachment is a continuous
series of interactions between parent and child, and these interactions change
both partners in the parent-child dyad (Baumrind, 1967).

This attachment that leads to parenting styles is explained by Baumrind (1991)

who laid the theoretical foundation for parenting practices. According to
Baumrind (1991), there are three parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative or
democratic and permissive or uninvolved. Authoritative parenting is
characterised by high levels of parental nurturance, involvement, sensitivity,
reasoning, control, and encouragement of autonomy.Authoritarian parenting
consists of high levels of restrictive, punitive, rejecting, and power-assertive
behaviours.Permissive parenting is characterised by high levels of warmth and
acceptance, but low levels of involvement and control (Baumrind, 1967).
 The relationship between Parenting styles and childhood trauma 555

According to Bowlby (1969) dysfunctional family background, characterised by

parental child abuse can be explained by the relationship which is known as
attachment between the child and the caregiver. This relationship develops
gradually and it is very substantial for the child’s development. The gentle
guidance and unobtrusive supervision offered by a sensitive primary caregiver
helps to create the conditions for the child’s subsequent ways to deal with a
potentially dangerous environment; whereas, consistent rejection by a primary
caregiver disrupts this dynamic and results in the child experiencing insecurity
about how best to maintain proximity to the caregiver (Bowlby, 1969; 1973).
This theory describes street children as those who view the home environment as
hostile due to abuse and lack of parental warmth, eventually leading to a decision
to run to the streets.

Literature indicates that there is a positive relationship between permissive

parenting style and adolescent delinquency behaviour which is a prominent
characteristic of street children (Okorodudu, 2010). Permissive parents do not
give adequate supervision to their children or set reasonable boundaries and as
such their children find it easy to engage in unacceptable behaviours, which they
observe and learn from the environment (Bandura, 1977). On the other hand,
authoritarian and permissive parenting increases the risk of the development of
antisocial behaviour (Hart, O’Toole, Price-Sharps & Shaffer, 2007; Jones et. al.,
2008).

Aggression can be a symptom of childhood trauma, as various types of abuse

ranging from verbal, physical, psychological abuse and neglect, have been
reported among street children (Mathur, Rathore & Mathur, 2009). Stressful
home life and experiences including increased family conflicts and criticism,
regardless of hearing positive comments from others, cause feelings of
worthlessness, inadequacy, and emotional stagnations (Ofonedu et. al., 2013).
Parental illicit drug use is significantly associated with internalizing and
externalizing behaviour in children, because positive and warm parenting
provides a supportive context for children to thrive and act as a buffer from
negative and stressful environments (O’Campo, Caughy & Nettles, 2010).
Positive parenting, including parental warmth and emotional sensitivity, is
related to lower levels of aggression and psychological controlling; whereas
uninvolved parenting styles elevate the level of aggression in children
(Kawabata, Alink, Tseng, van Ijzendoornet et al., 2011). When children are
inadequately supported and they find themselves in adverse situations without
parental care, with limited ability to cope appropriately with their challenges,
they react with aggression.

Children with secure attachment tend to report less worry and anxiety than those
with ambivalent or avoidant attachment styles (Brown & Whiteside, 2008). In a
Cameroon study, Matchinda (1999) reported that authoritarian parenting style
556 Maepa, Idemudia and Ofonedu

was found to be associated with children running away from home. Fantuzzo,
Perlman and Dobbins (2011) reported that children with a history of parental
neglect are likely to experience homelessness. This illustrates that poor
attachment with the caregiver leads to children experiencing verbal and
psychological abuse within their families (Mathur, Rathore & Mathur, 2009). As
a result, these children run away from home to the streets and are fearful to
return home due to fear of repeated abuse (Ju & Lee, 2010).

Schroeder, Higgins and Mowen (2012) reported that adolescents who had a low,
stable attachment to their parents were more likely to have the highest offending
tendencies. Positive parenting in childhood as a factor of good parenting has
been found to be associated with positive psychological adjustment in late
adolescence while parental psychopathology is associated with less effective
parenting and poor psychological adjustment in late adolescence (McKinney &
Milone, 2012). Insecure attachment and poor parenting skills play a significant
role for the child’s development of psychopathology after an exposure to a
traumatic incident (De Young, Kenardy & Cobham, 2011). It can be argued that
children who report psychopathology and have been exposed to trauma, had poor
relations with their parents due to poor parenting styles. From the above
literature it was hypothesised that:

x Street children will report poor parenting styles and high history of
childhood trauma compared to non-street children
x There will be a significant positive relationship between childhood
trauma and parenting styles of street children’s parents.

Methodology

Participants
Using a cross-sectional design, a total of 300 (N = 300) street children were
sampled using a snowball sample to form part of the experimental group and a
total of 300 (N = 300) non- street children were sampled using a simple
randomisation to constitute the control group. Children with history of substance
use were excluded from participation. Of the sample, 42% were males and 58%,
females. The participant’s ages ranged from 8-18 years with the mean age of
15.92 (SD = 1.89). The majority of the street children were from South Africa
(62%), followed by those from Zimbabwe (36.3%) and Mozambique (0.7%).
Many of these children (20.7%) came to the streets at the age of 15 years and
have been on the streets for a period of about 2 years (30.7%). Of the street
children sampled, 67.7% reported not having at least one parent and of these,
37.3% reported that both parents had died.

Among the non-street children, 56.7% were females and 43.3% were males with
ages ranging from 8-18 years, and a mean age of 15.46 (SD = 1.87) years
 The relationship between Parenting styles and childhood trauma 557

participated in the study. All participants in this group were South Africans and a
majority of them (76.7%) reported living with both parents.

Measures

Child Abuse and Trauma Scale: In addition to the biographical information,

participants completed The Child Abuse and Trauma Scale developed by
Sanders and Becker-Lausen (1995). This questionnaire was used to assess
history of childhood trauma. The 38-item scale contains three distinct factors
reflecting negative home environment/neglect (14 items), sexual abuse (6 items),
and punishment (6 items) in childhood and adolescence. It ranges from 0 =
never, 1= rarely, 2 = sometimes, 3 = very often and 4 = always contained Likert
response alternatives. A higher score on this scale indicates a history of child
abuse. This instrument also proved to be reliable in this current study with a
Cronbach’s alpha of .93.

Parenting Style Index: This is a self-report, 18-item likert scale, with four
additional questions, which was used to evaluate parenting style. The scale has
two dimensions of parenting; acceptance or warmth and control or supervision..
The first 18 items (MY PARENTS) alternate between involvement and
psychological autonomy-granting scales. All of the psychological autonomy
items are reverse scored, with the exception of item 12. The last eight items (MY
FREE TIME) comprise the strictness/supervision scale. The response style of the
first 18 items range from 1(strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Responses
for parental supervision questions ranged from 1-6 and 1-3 respectively. The
questionnaire yielded Cronbach’s alpha of .72 for parental warmth and .62 for
parental supervision.

Procedure

The researcher visited four towns in Limpopo Province to collect data from
street children. Data for the control group (non-street children) was collected
from one local high school and other children were recruited from the after-care
centre.

Ethical considerations

After the proposal has been presented to the Department of Psychology, Higher
Degrees Committee, and Ethics Committee, North-West University gave the
initial approval for the study. The Limpopo Provincial Department of Education
also approved data collection at a local Senior Secondary School. The principal
of the school, after consultation with the parents, also gave permission for data
collection. Participants also signed assent forms indicating that they agree to
participate in the study willingly. This was because for the street children, no
558 Maepa, Idemudia and Ofonedu

adult figure was responsible for their lives and no parent or guardian could be
found to give consent.

Data analysis

Data were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version
22). Independent sample t-test and Pearson correlation co-efficient were used to
test the study hypothesis.

Results

Hypothesis one, which stated that street children will report poor parenting styles
and high history of childhood trauma compared to non-street children was tested
using the independent sample t-test (Table 1).

Table 1: Results of t-test analysis comparing street children and control group on parenting style
and history of childhood trauma
Street Control
children group
Variable Mean SD Mean SD t P value
PW 23.84 5.969 31.23 7.132 14.023 .001**
PS 2.38 2.077 8.01 4.171 20.927 .001**
CAT 86.01 19.196 42.72 19.719 -27.242 .001**
GA 10.970 3.008 8.216 3.549 -10.249 .001**
PN 45.773 10. 506 18.286 11.198 -31.003 .001**
Pun 15.210 4.046 9.678 4.802 -15.218 .001**
SA 8.823 6.651 3.836 4.308 -10.898 .001**
Notes. PW = Parental warmth; PS = Parental supervision; CAT = Child abuse and trauma; GA = General
abuse; PN = Parental neglect; Pun = Parental punishment; SA = Sexual abuse; * = p < 0.05; ** = p < .01

The findings as shown in Table 1 above revealed significant differences on

parental warmth (t(598) = 14.02, p< .000) and parental supervision (t(598) =
20.92, p< .000) between street children and non-street children. A descriptive
data analysis show that street children scored low on parental warmth ( X =
23.84, SD = 5.70), parental supervision ( X = 2.38, SD = 2.10) than non-street
children’s parental warmth ( X = 31.23, SD = 7.13) and parental supervision ( X
= 8.01, SD = 4.17). The study also revealed significant statistical difference on
childhood trauma (t(598) = -27.24, p<.000). The type of trauma was
characterised by general abuse t(598) = -10.24, p< .000, parental neglect (t(598)
= -31.00, p< .000), parental punishment (t(598) = -15.21, p< .000), and sexual
abuse (t(598) = -10.89, p< .000).

The findings indicated that street children scored high on history of childhood
trauma ( X = 86.01, SD=19.19) as compared to non-street children ( X = 42.72,
SD = 19.72). Among the categories of abuse reported, street children scored high
 The relationship between Parenting styles and childhood trauma 559

on general abuse ( X = 10.97, SD = 3.01), neglect ( X = 45.77, SD = 10.51),

parental punishment ( X = 15.21, SD = 4.10) and sexual abuse ( X = 8.82, SD =
6.20) than non-street children’s general abuse ( X = 8.21, SD3.55), neglect ( X =
18.28, SD = 11.20), parental punishment ( = 9.70, SD = 4.80) and sexual
abuse( X = 3.83, SD = 4.31). This means that hypothesis one is accepted.

The second hypothesis stated that there will be a significant positive relationship
between childhood trauma and parenting styles of street children’s parents. To
test this hypothesis Pearson correlation coefficients were computed.

Table 2 shows the examination of Zero-order correlations among the variables

used in the study. The results of the study revealed significant negative
relationship between parental warmth and childhood trauma (r(300) = -.212, p
<.001) and no significant difference was found between parental supervision and
childhood trauma.

Table 2: Correlation results for street children on parenting style and history of childhood trauma
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 PW 1
2 PS .298** 1
3 SA .048 .071 1
4 NEG -.398** -.240** .231** 1
5 PUN .103 .041 .397** .448** 1
6 GA -.168** .083 .357** .615** .573** 1
7 TRA -.212** -.080 .631** .850** .714** .790** 1
Note. PW= Parental warmth, PS = Parental supervision, SA = Sexual abuse, NEG = Neglect, PUN =
Punishment, GA = General abuse, TRA = Childhood trauma; * = p < 0.05; ** = p < .01

Furthermore, the study results indicated significant negative relationship between

parental warm and neglect (r(300) = -.398, p < .001) and parental warmth and
general abuse (r(300) = -.168, p < .001). The results did not reveal significance
between parental warmth and sexual abuse and parental punitiveness. A
significant negative relationship was found between parental supervision and
parental neglect (r(300) = -.240, p < .001). No significant association was found
between parental supervision and sexual abuse, and parental punitiveness and
general abuse as subscales of childhood trauma. Hypothesis two is thus rejected.

Discussion

The findings of this study revealed that there is a highly positive relationship
between parenting styles and children running away from home compared to
non-street children. Poor parenting was characterised by inadequate parental
warmth and parental supervision. Children who experience authoritarian
parenting would view their home environment as hostile and non-supportive and
as a result will run away from home in other to protect themselves from their
560 Maepa, Idemudia and Ofonedu

abusive parents or caregivers. Although O’Campo et al. (2010) reported that

parenting did not play a key role in children’s behavioural problems, which can
include running away from home, they acknowledged that positive, warm and
supportive parenting helps children to thrive and acts as a buffer in stressful
environments.

The type of abuse reported by street children in this study ranged from general
abuse, sexual abuse, parental punishment and neglect. Street children in the
current study reported inadequate parental warmth and supervision. This is
further supported by Fantuzzo, Perlman and Dobbins (2011) who reported that
children with a history of parental neglect are likely to experience homelessness.
Rukmana (2008) found that homelessness is associated with history of domestic
violence. More street children reported having a history of childhood sexual
abuse than non-street children. The findings are consistent with the work of
Rosario, Schrimshaw and Hunter (2012) who indicated that childhood sexual
abuse was more often found to be associated with homelessness among the
homeless youth than their non-homeless peers. Keeshin and Campell (2011) also
indicate that there is high history of physical abuse among street children. In
addition to sexual and physical abuse reported, the study findings further indicate
that street children in this study compared to non-street children had been
neglected by their parents and guardians. This was reported in other studies
which indicated that street children had experienced neglect as one form of abuse
(Mathur et al., 2009).

There are various factors that can contribute to inadequate parental warmth and
supervision (Crossley & Buckner, 2012). Such factors can include parental
illness, parental history of substance abuse or mental illness, or death of one
parent. South Africa (2011) reported that the number of people living with HIV
in South Africa increased from an estimated 4.21 million in 2001 to 5.38 million
by 2011, with an estimation of 10.6% of the population being HIV positive in
2011. This could lead to child adversities that cause children to run to the street
due to poor parent-child bond and parental supervision as the ill parent or
caregiver may not be able to adequately care for their child.

The results of this study also indicated that childhood trauma is more prevalent
among street children compared to non-street children. Results of this study are
consistent with other studies findings. Cluver et al. (2010) found that street
children report high history of abuse by their parents and guardians, including
childhood sexual abuse, neglect, and parental punishment. This study revealed
that there is a relationship between parenting styles and history of childhood
trauma. Findings show that lack of parental warmth as a result of poor bonding
can cause parents to abuse their children. Children whose parents utilise
authoritarian parenting styles have a negative worldview and have challenges
with emotional adjustments (Gracía & Gracia, 2009). On the other hand, children
 The relationship between Parenting styles and childhood trauma 561

with secure attachment tend to report less worry and anxiety than those with
ambivalent or avoidant attachment (Brown & Whiteside, 2008). The quality of
attachment can explain the reason why parental supervision does not always
predict childhood trauma in the same way that parental warmth does. The
assumption is that as parental warmth decreases, child abuse rate increases. This
is consistent with the work of Malik (2010) who indicated that parental rejection
is the predictor of child abuse.

This and other study findings support the need for proper parenting skill training
to help eradicate child abuse which leads to homelessness. From the ecological
system theory of Bronfenbrenner (1976), the relationship between a child and
his/her multiple social and physical surroundings is key to the child’s
developmental process which contributes to his/her behaviour. This study
findings show that poor parenting can negatively affect a child’s life, leading to
the child engaging in deviant behaviours including running away form home.

Healthy bonding between a child and a parent enables the child to view the
caregiver as a protecting factor. Therefore, promoting positive parent-child
relationship and interaction will help a child to learn appropriate life skills and
adaptive coping strategies. Similarly, good attachment serves as a protective
factor of child maltreatment. A good parent-child relationship is paramount for
the prevention of child adversities which are the major pathway to children’s
emotional and behavioural problems including homelessness.

Limitations

This study is not without limitations. Data were obtained solely from children
without inputs from their parents. Also, the contributing factor for the abuse
experienced by street children was limited to parenting styles.

Recommendations

Future studies should consider other factors such as parental mental health,
economic status, and other parental risk factors when investigating the
phenomenon of street children. Policies related to child abuse issues should be
formulated in such a way that they incorporate parental education and
community awareness of the long term effects of child abuse. The developmental
consequences of living on the street as well as the psychological and physical
health of street children compared to non-street children need to be investigated.
Findings from these studies may inform researchers, policy makers, and
clinicians of the negative and positive consequences of street life as well as
intervention strategies for street children.
562 Maepa, Idemudia and Ofonedu

References

Asgeirsdottir, B.B., Sigfusdottir, I.D., Gudjonsson, G.H. & Sigurdsson, J.F. (2011). Associations
between sexual abuse and family conflict/violence, self-injurious behaviour, and substance use:
The mediating role of depressed mood and anger. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35, 210-219.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press.

Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance
use. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 11(1), 56-95.

Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behaviour.
Genetic Psychology Monographs, 75, 43–88.

Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and Loss. Volume II: Separation: Anxiety and anger. London,
UK: Hogarth Press.

Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss. Volume I: Attachment. London, UK: Hogarth Press.

Brown, A.M. & Whiteside, S.P. (2008). Relations among perceived parental rearing behaviours,
attachment style, and worry in anxious children. Anxiety Disorders, 22, 263-272.

Cluver, L., Bowes, L. & Gardner, F. (2010). Risk and protective factors for bullying
victimization among AIDS-affected and vulnerable children in South Africa. Child Abuse &
Neglect, 34, 793-803.

Crockett, L.J. & Hayes, R. (2011). Parenting practices and styles. Encyclopedia of Adolescence,
2, 241- 248.

Crossley, I.A. & Buckner, J.C. (2012). Maternal-related predictors of self-regulation among low-
income youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21, 217-227.

De Young, A.C., Kenardy, J.A. & Cobham, V.E. (2011). Trauma in early childhood: A neglected
population. Clinical Child Family Psychology Review, 14, 231-250.

Ezeokana, J.O., Obi-Nwuso, H. & Okoye, C.A.F. (2014). Influence of street life and gender on
aggression and self-esteem in a sample of Nigerian children. International Review Management
and Business Research, 3(2), 949-959.

Fantuzzo, J.W., Perlman, S.M. & Dobbins, E.K. (2011). Types and timing of child maltreatment
and early school success: A population-based investigation. Children and Youth Services.
doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.04.010.

Gracía, F. & Gracia, E. (2009). Is always authoritative the optimum parenting style? Evidence
from Spanish families. Adolescence, 44,173, 101-131.

Gwadz, M.V., Clatts, M.C., Leonard, N.R. & Goldsamt, L. (2004). Attachment style, childhood
adversity, and behavioural risk among young men who have sex with men. Journal of Adolescent
Health, 34, 402-414.
 The relationship between Parenting styles and childhood trauma 563

Gwadz, M.V., Nish, D., Leonard, N.R. & Strauss, S.M. (2007).Gender differences in traumatic
events and rates of post-traumatic stress disorder among homeless youth. Journal of Adolescence,
30, 117-129.

Harden, T.D. (2014). Street life-oriented African American males and violence as a public
concern. Journal of Human Behaviour in the Social Environment, 24, 678-693.

Hart, J.L., O’Toole, S.K., Preice-Sharps, J.L. & Shaffer, T.W. (2007). The risk and protective
factors of violent juvenile offending: An examination of gender differences. Youth Violence and
Juvenile Justice, 5, 367-382.

Hoersting, R.C. & Jenkins, S.R. (2011). No place to call home: cultural homelessness, self-
esteem and cross-cultural identities. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35, 17-30.

Huang, S., Trapido, E., Fleming, L., Arheart, K., Crandall, L., French, M., Malcolm, S. & Prado,
G. (2011). The long-term effects of childhood maltreatment experiences on subsequent illicit
drug use and drug-related problems in young adulthood. Addictive Behaviours, 36, 95-102.

Idemudia, E.S. (2007). Personality and criminal outcomes of homeless youth in a Nigerian jail
population: Results of PDS and MAACL-H assessments. Journal of Child and Adolescence
Mental Health, 19(2), 137-145.

Idemudia, E.S. Kgokong, K. & Kolobe, P. (2013). Street children in Mafikeng, North-West
Province: A qualitative study of social experiences. Journal of Social Development in Africa, 28,
1, 161-185.

Jennings, W.G., Park, M., Richards, T.N., Tomsich, E., Gover, A. & Powers, R.A. (2014).
Exploring the relationship between child physical abuse and adult dating violence using a causal
inference approach in an emerging adult population in South Korea. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38,
1902-1913.

Jones, N. (2008). Working ‘the code’: On girls, gender, and inner-city violence. Australian and
New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 41, 63-83.

Ju, S, Lee. Y. (2010). Experiences of family maltreatment by Korean children in Korean National
Protective Services. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34, 18-27.

Kawabata, Y., Alink, L.R.A., Tseng, W., van Ijzendoorn, M.H. & Crick, N.R. (2011). Maternal
and paternal parenting styles associated with aggression in children and adolescents: A concep-
tual analysis and meta-analytic review. Developmental Review (2011),
doi:10.1016/j.dr.2011.08.001.

Kayiranga, G. & Mukashema, I. (2014). Psychosocial factor of being street children in Rwanda.
Procedia- Social and Behavioural Sciences, 140, 522-527.

Keeshin, B.R. & Campbell, K. (2011). Screening homeless for histories of abuse: Prevalence,
enduring effects and interest in treatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35, 401-407.

Kennedy, A.C., Agbényiga, D.L., Kasiborski, N. & Gladden, J. (2010). Risk chains over the life
course among homeless urban adolescent mothers: Altering their trajectories through formal
support. Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 1740-1749.
564 Maepa, Idemudia and Ofonedu

Kerfoot, M., Koshyl, V., Roganov, O., Mikhailichenko, K., Gorbova, I. & Pottage, D. (2007).
The health and well-being of neglected, abused and exploited children: The Kyiv street children
project. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 27-37.

Leeb, R., Paulozzi, L., Melanson, C., Simon, T. & Arias, I. (2008). Child Maltreatment
Surveillance: Uniform Definitions for Public Health and Recommended Data Elements.
Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Control
and Prevention.

Malik, F. (2010). Determinants of child abuse in Pakistani families: Parental acceptance-

rejection and demographic variables. International Journal of Business and Social Science,
1(1), 67-80.

Matchinda, B. (1999). The impact of home background on the decision of children to run away:
The case of Yaounde city street children in Cameroon. Child Abuse and Neglect, 23(3), 245-
255.

Mathur, M., Rathore. P. & Mathur, M. (2009). Incidence, type and intensity of abuse in street
children in India. Child and Adolescent Abuse, 33, 907-913. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.01.003

Marianne, B.M., van den Bree, Shelton, K., Bonner, A., Moss, S., Thomas, H. & Taylor, P.J.
(2009). A longitudinal population-based study of factors in adolescence predicting
homelessness in young adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45, 571-578.

McKinney, C. & Milone, M.C. (2012). Parental and late adolescent psychopathology: Mothers
may provide support when needed most. Child Psychiatry Human Development. DOI:
10.1007/s10578-012-0293-3.

O’Campo, P., Caughy, M.O. & Nettles, S.M. (2010). Partner abuse or violence, parenting and
neighbourhood influences on children’s behavioural problems. Social Science & Medicine, 70,
1404-1415.

Okorodudu, G.N. (2010). Influence of parenting styles on adolescent delinquency in Delta

Central Senatorial District. Edo Journal of Counselling, 3(1), 58-86.

Ofonedu, M. E., Percy, W. H., Harris-Britt, A. & Belcher, H. E. (2013). Depression in inner
city African American youth: A phenomenological study. Journal of Child and Family Studies,
22(1), 96-106. doi:10.1007/s10826-012-9583-3

Oviedo-Joekes, E., Marchand, K., Guh, D., Marsh, D.C., Brissette, S., Krausz, M., Anis, A. &
Schechter, M.T. (2011). History of reported sexual or physical abuse among long-term heroin
users and their response to substitution treatment. Addictive Behaviours, 36, 55-60.

Rosario, M., Schrimshaw, E.W. & Hunter, J. (2012). Risk factors for homelessness among
lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths: A developmental milestone approach, Children and Youth
Services Review, doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.09.16.

Roy, É., Boivin, J. & Leclerc, P. (2011). Initiation to drug injection among street youth:
A gender-based analysis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 114, 49-54.

Rukmana, D. (2008). Where the homeless children and youth come from: A study of the
residential origins of the homeless in Miami-Dade County, Florida. Children Youth Services
Review, 30, 1009- 1021.
 The relationship between Parenting styles and childhood trauma 565

Sanders, B. & Becker-Lausen, E. (1995). The measurement of psychological maltreatment: early

data on the child abuse and trauma scale. Child Abuse & Neglect, 19(3), 315-323.

Schroeder, R.D., Higgins, G.E. & Mowen, T.J. (2012). Maternal attachment trajectories and
criminal offending by race. American Journal of Criminal Justice, DOI 10.1007/s12103-012-
9192-0.

Shiluvane, R.D., Khoza, L.B., Lebese, R.T. & Shiluvane, H.N. (2012). An intervention
programme to improve the quality of life of street children in Mopani district, Limpopo Province,
South Africa. African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation and Dance:
Supplement 3, 174-184.

Statistics South Africa (2011). Midyear population estimates 2011. http://www. statssa. gov.za/
publications/P0302/P03022011.pdf. 14 March 2013. Date accessed.

Swogger, M.T., Conner, K.R., Walsh, Z. & Maisto, S.A. (2011). Childhood abuse and harmful
substance use among criminal offenders. Addictive Behaviours, 36, 1205-1212.

van Laere, I.R., de Wit, M.A. & Klazinga, N.S. (2009). Pathways into homelessness: Recently
homeless adult’s problems and service use before and after becoming homeless in Amsterdam.
BMC Public Health, 9, 3, Doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-93.

Wada, I. & Igarashi, A. (2014). The social costs of child abuse in Japan. Children and Youth
Services Review, 46, 72-77.

Whitbeck, L.B., Crawford, D.M. & Hartshorn, K.J.S. (2012). Correlates of homeless episodes
among indigenous people. American Journal of Community Psychology, 49, 156-167.

World Health Organization (2010). Violence prevention, the evidence.

http://apps.who.int?iris/bitstrea/10665/77936/1/9789241500845_eng.pdf. 18 August 2013. Date
accessed.

View publication stats