ss , olume an, —=_* A Sy ry A+B A Fig.2.2 Triangle of vector h, 4 subtraction Vectors ‘Thesubtraction of two vectors A and B can be treated as the addition of negative vector. (a-B)=4A+(-B). the vector [4 + (~B)] is then determined by using parallelogram vectoror Triangle vector just mentioned above ‘ig 3.3 Subtraction Parallelogramof vectors P-Q 3.4 Subtraction of Triangle of Vectors Types of Vectors ‘The vectors are of the following types: Equal Eectors ‘Two vectors having the same magnitude and same direction are called to be equal vectors, For example3.1. Two vectors P and Qare equal Because, magnitude of P = magnitude of Qand direction of P = direction of Q Example 3.2 ‘Two vectors A and B are not equal Because, magnitude of A # magnitude of Band direction of A # direction of B Negative Vectors Avvector having the same magnitude but directed in opposite sense to a given vector is called the negative of the given vector and represented with a minus sign, Nullvector or Zero Vectors if the magnitude or moduilus ofa vector is zero it called a null vector or zero vector i.e.|A| = 0 Proper Vector Avector whose modulus is not zero ie. which is nota null vector is called a proper vector, Thus a proper vector A: |A| + 0. Unit Vector Avector whose magnitude is unit is called a uni vector. A unit vector in the direction of vector A(say ) is written as is read as A ~cap or A-hat Hence. . SSesnseesqed “ial ‘Avector produced when agive? vector (A) is divided by its length or magnitudell- Example 3:3 ita = Bi-+ Aj and find the unit weetor Solution ay we 34 ee ee a a+ 25 Example34 Find the unit vector in directi sit 3/ andq= 7-8) 1 2). oJ Bast Sa By oe ast +Z/ Dsl + Solution Resultant = Si+ 39+ 7 — gf = 121-5) IETS = VETS 165 = 13 ctor in the direction of 124 — 5/ Magnitude (length) = Magnitude of resultant = For unit ve 2 121-5) Unit vector= yy ‘The correct option is B Collinear Vector ‘two or more vectors parallel Or antiparallel to each other called collinear vectors. Co-initial Vectors Vectors drawn fro called co - initial vectors. 1m the same initial point are Coplanar Vectors Vectors whose line of action lies in the same plane ie. if they lie in the same plane are called coplanar vectors and the plane are called the plane of vectors. Resultant and Equilibrant Resultant This is a single force that can represent a number of forces acting on a body. It occurs for any number of forces. Equilibrant Thisis force exerted 0 thal (resultant force) acting om dso that the e sucl 1 the net force ‘abody is 2670. ICis forces acting Oa hog, fnastriangle, 150, Equilibrant con, agnitude BUt Oppo ‘This is why R =

For three or more forces present. The resultant force can be determined by analytical method called resolution principle. This involves the reduction of the given number of force into two perpendiculars planes before finding final resultant. For Example 3.7 an oN 10N SN Resolving horizontally due east (R.) = (10-6)N = 4 Resolving vertically due north (Ri) = (B- 5) = 3N. Ry 3N Zen 4NGalad’s Year One University Ry = V3? +4? = VO4F16 = V25 =5N 3 tang == a 3 = tan (3 ao (3) 9 =53° Example 38 _ . . 40° en <2 SN 2N Find the resultant force. Solution Resolving horizontally Ry = (5 + 6 cos 30° — 2cos 60° ~ 8)NV Ry i [5 + (6 x 0.8660) ~ (2 x 0.5) ~ 81. Ry © (5 + 5.196 — R, = 1.196N. Resolving vertically hy = (6sin30° + 4 — 2sin 60° ~ 2)N Ry = (6X05) +4- 2% 0.8660) - 2]. Ry=(B+4— 1.732 - 2). Ry = 3.268. Ry 3.268N d L.196N Usi NA CALADIMA, Volume 1 Ry = |RE+ RE = (1.196)? + (3.268)? Ry = VIAB04 + 10.6798 = VTZIT 3.4799 + 3.268 tang =—— 1196 @ = tan" (2.7344) = 69.9° Triangle Law of Force ‘Triangle law of forces statedthat'f three forces acting ata point are in equilibrium, the can be represented by the sidesof.a triangle drawn parallel to forces’As a corollary of this definition ‘we can also state that triangle law of force as ‘if two forces acting upon a particle simultaneously are represented, both in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle, taken in order the resultant wil be represented, both in magnitude and direction by the third side of the triangle taken in opposite order’. This law is very useful engineering problems especially when we know one force and we have to find the magnitude of the remaining two forces.This i illustrated by the following example, the three forces, tension7,, In the first rope, weight w = mg and the tension, in the second rope as shown will from a close triangle, since the forces are in static equilibrium. Lin 1) Tr mg mg. Page 29Galad’s Year One University Volume 1 —— Equilibrium A body is said to be in equilibrium when itis completely at rest. Equilibrant ‘The equilibrant ofa number ofa number of forces js that force which must be added to the forces in order to produce equilibrium, The equilibrantis always equal in magnitude to the resultant but opposite in direction. Lami's theorem itis state that ifa body isin equilibrium under the action fthree planar and concurrentforces, each of the force is proportional tothe sine of the angle between the other two. AAA Sina ~ Sing’ ~ Siny Relative Vector Vector with respect to another vector. In vectors A and B, Velocity of A relative to B means from B to Ale Yon =V4—Vp Vectors in three Dimension Gik a vectrs ‘Athree dimensional vector A cS Dereon, asthe sum of three mutually Devs axes as sh, vectors along the three coordin " in figure below Zz Fig:3.2 dinate axis system ined withthe tail ofthe vector A, Ax Ayand be the vector intercepts along the axis of X,Y an respectively, we have Let the origin of the co-oF' A=AytAy+Az If Ay»Ay and Az, are the scalar magnitudes of these component vectors, we have 4, Ari Ay = Ayjand A,k or ARAgit Ay) + Ay From figure above, we have geometrically ie + AR + AR.Galad’s cosa =——4z Az + AR + AR. and Ar Thus ifthe components of a vector are given, the scalar magnitude A of the vector A, and its direction (cos, cos B , cos y) can be obtained by the above relation. These are called direction cosines and have the property. costa + cos*B + cos?y = 1 Note: The unit vectors obey: k= 1 ki=0 ot], We also note the following cyclic order in cross product like © ixjak 2 jxk= © kxi oxy « jxts-k ° ixk=-j © ixisjxjakxk=0 Addition and Subtraction of Vector Components Example 3.9 ifvector a = 31 + 5/+2kandb = 2i+4j+k Find the : Latb Wa-b Solution Given that, a = 3i + 5j + 2k and b=2i+4jtk Latb=@42i+G44+@+Dk Year One University Volume 1 a+b=S5i4+9j 43k = G-2Di+ G4 +2-Nk a-b=itj+k Example 3.10 Find the resultant of the vectors 3i,b = -2i-jande=i+4j AAA] B43; C6i+S) — D.-4i-4j Solution Rp=atb+e Ry = 31-241 -f +4) Ry = 21 +3f The correct option is B Scalar Product or Dot (©) Product ‘The scalar productof two vectors is defined as the product of the magnitude of the two vectors and the cosine of the smaller angle between them. tis represented by a dot between the vectors so itis also called as dot product. b From figure we can write 4.5 = [al|b| cose ‘The following points are to be noted about scalar products: «Ifthe two vectors are per] to each other ie. @ = 90° &.5 = [al[B| cos 90° = 0 + Ifthe two vectors are parallel the maximum value of the product is obtained ie.8 = 0°, . 5 = |al[b| cos = tallGalad’s Year One UNIVE! oo Iculate the 3! ile between 3 AAS°B0°C, ab =al\bl «© Theangle between two vectors IS @.This can be determine by 3 1 cos eis used to determined, distance, area ork done is the done, Where W' and distance parallel (0 toe \ work product of force the force cei +9) + 20" from AtoB, we ity t20-6-4) Example 3.11 Find the scalar product of Veco" —2i + 3jand Les) 23 Be7C-7DA solution (2+ Ot D= scalar product = 7 ‘The correct option is B Example 312 revo vectors a@bare such that 0 = 4and b= 10 snd the angle beeweem therm 5 60" Find their dot product Alounit B, 20unit ¢.30unit .40 unit Solution using, (cos 60° = 40(0:5) Ob = [allb|cos 8 = 4 10 dob = 20untt. The correct option is B Example 3.13 Find the angle between i + 5 and Si—/ Ago" 8.45" C60" “D.90" Solution dob = 1(5) +5(-1) = 5- Asd@b = 0, ‘The vectors are perpendicular or at 90°. ‘Thus, The correct option is D apart. NA GALADIMA Example 3.14Cal quay andb=i~ p.315*Solution ‘The! correct option | isc Bxample 3.15 e rind the angle betwee” hevectors (] and ($ 4,165.77 B.1205° 305° D143" Solution 3 5 (jana (@3) can be written a5 (23,4) and (5,12) or 3 + 4jand -Si— 12 dob = -3(-8) + 4-12). dob = 15-48 = -33. lal = Spe = OF 16 = 25 =5 Ibl= VSD = VIET = VIO = 13 cos = 33-33 pag = 705077 falfe] 5x13 @ = cos~!(-0,5077) = 120.5°. ‘The correct option is B vee Product or Cross Product vector products is definedas a vector having Page 3Galad’s Year One University Volume 1 TT magnitude equal to the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and sin of the angle between them and is in direction perpendicular to planecontaining the two vectors, ‘Thusif @ and Bare two vectors then their vector product (cross product), written as &x 5 =(allb|sine WG = xit yj t akand b = xpi + yof + 29k ik 1 a4] kz Ya Za 1 be al-vhe Y2 22 A ma Va akan] IXz 22 M2 Ye = tah ~ yar) — Juze — ¥22) + kGaY2 — Yea) For vector product the following points should be noted, © The magni ctor product of (Gwovectors mutually perpendicular i8* equal to the product of the magnitudes of * The product of two parallel atin zero or null vector. When two vectors having @ = 0 (ie. parallel) we have ax b= [al[b| sino axb=0 + The vector product of a vector by itself is anull vector (zero) .ie, AX A =0 As the angle @ is zero in this case also, sin@ =0 Henced x A will also be zero, Fuumple3.16 Wa=itj, b=-it2j,findaxb Solution axb= hol ax b= i(0-0)~ j0-0) + k(2 +-1) altel al axbb3k j Example 3.17 \ ifp = -1-3j and q = 21-3) + 4k, find the pxq Solution jk pxq=|-1 -3 0 2 -3 4 IE /Tagl + #aNS (-12 - 0) - j(-4- 0) + k@ +6). pxq Pyg= Example 3.18A particle at a position r = i + 2j 3k is acted upon bya force F = 4i + 5j + 6k. Evaluate the torque experience by the particle. Solution 12i + 4) + 9k. Torque = Force x displacemnet 4. 6 45 Dsl tel al P xr =i(15 ~ 12) - (12 8) + k(8 -5). TS=FKxr= i- 6] +3k. Hence, magnitude of torque is Be + (6)? + 3? = V54 = 7.35Nm Multiple Choice Questions rlVolume 1 . Galad’: Year One University ae : 1. Which of the following is a vector quantity? A.time B. mass C.current D. current density Solution —Time and mass are scalar quantities Charges (Q) and current (1) are scalars —Current density (4) isa vector. ‘The correctoptionis D 2. Which of the following is a scalar quantity? A. momentum B, torque Celectrical potential D. electrical field intensity Solution — Momentum is a vector | = Torque (moment of a couple) is a | vector i _-Field intensity (electric, magnetic, gravitational) isa vector. Electric potential (v) isa scalar ‘The correct optionis C 3, Two vectors A and Bare given as follows A= 3.01 4.5j and B=-2.5i + 5.0jFind the magnitude of their vector sum and the angle it makes with the +ve x-axis ( A.0.715N,90° B.0.71NAS* a €.120.5N,60° D.120.5N,35.4° Solution Let R=A+B=vector sum. R=(3.01-45)) + (-2.5i + 5.0)) R =051+05) In| =V0s* +05" IR| =VOZSFOZS IR] =V05=0.71 NA GALADIMA Multiple Choice Questions 9=45° ‘The correct OP! From question vector produc tionis B 3 above, find the of vectors A anda Aark 8-75) = 22.5) Cosi +05) 0.751 + 225) Solution Given that, ; azgoi- 45jand B.-2.5i +59) ij AaxB=| 3 45 0) -2.5 5.0 ol Ax B=0-0+K(15- 11.25) - AxB=3.75k ‘The correct optionis A 5, The resultant to twoyectors A andt is vector C which is given by C= 22 + 3.4j.lf vector A is 1.5) 2.0}.Findt magnitude of B and the angle it mat with the +ve axis A.29.70unit,82.60° B.29.70unit,7.4° C.2.45unit,82.6° D.5.45unit,82.6° Solution C=A4B 221+ 3.4) =15i-2.0)+B By collect the like term 221-151 +34 +2.0)=BGalad’s Year One University Volume 1 1B [Bl = V049F 29.16 [Bl= V29.65 =5.45unit an“*(7.714) 0 =826" The correct option is D 6. Given two vectors A= 2i + 3) +4k and B= i- 2j + 3k.What is the magnitude of each vector? AVI6N7 B.6.4,40 54,37 D.29,14 Solution A=2i+3)+4k \al=V2F4 374 4 =VEFOF TE [A] = V29 = 5.4 B=i-2j+3k [Bl= V+ Cae [Bl=vIF449 [B| = VI4 =3.7 i ‘The Correct Optionis C 7. What is the magnitude of the vector suum in question 6 above? A90 B.49.5 C.7.7 D.6.78 Solution +B 2143) tak +1- 2) 43K c =314j+7k Icj=ve e+ N.AGALADIM: Ic] =vOFT +49 Ic] = V59=7.7 The correct option is C 8. Given thata vector A of magnitude 8 units, lying in the x -y plane makes ‘an angle of 30° with the x- axis.calculate its components along the xy and z axes (Ax, Ay, Az) A4N3,4,0 BO, 4,4V3 C.4,0,4V3 D.3V4,2,0 Solution An=0 cos30= © Ax = 8c0s 30 ou ax Ax=4v3 ‘The Correct Optionis A. 9, Find the angle between two vectors A=2i+3)44k,B=i-2)+3k ‘A. 46.6°B, 56.0° C.cos39.7" 0.66.6" Solution Aqait sit 4k weve ala vaFoF I = VO Page 35Galad’ -24+3) [l= P+ C2? + 3 Bl=vi4 Using, a,b =[AI|B| cos® (2x 1)x — 2) + (4x 3 = V29 x VIF cos 8 2-6 + 12=VA06cos 8 8= 406 cos 8 cos 9 =cos-1 or) 0 = 6661" The correct optionis D 10. Abody moves ina x-y plane such that its velocity has the components Vi = ‘Sms'tand V,= 7ms+. What is the ‘magnitude and direction of the velocity? A.49 ms", 545° B74 mst, 54.50 C.8.6 mst, $4.59 D.9.6 mst, 20° Solution Magnitude, v= (PEE VER V = V25 449 = V74 = 8.6ms"* = tang =~ Sh. as 2 @=tan-(2) = sas° tan (2) = 545 The correct option is C 11. A single force which produces the same effect as a set of forces acting together at a point in known as the Year One University 12. 13, 14. Volumei1 °* A.Equilibrant B. Resistant C.Resultant —D. Component Solution Resultant is the representation vector for multiple forces ‘The correct option B ‘The resultant of two forces acting an object is maximum when the 2m, between them is : ‘A180? B.90° C.45° D.0° Solution 180° indicates two parallel and opposite force, the resultant of wig, will be determine by subtraction, 0° indicates two parallel forces produce the same direction, the xresultant while subtraction produg, the least. ‘The correct option is D ‘Two forces whose resultant is 100N are at right angles to each other. If one of them makes an angle of 30° with the resultant, determine its ‘magnitude A86.60N B.56.60N C.46.60N D.76.60N 100N x cos 30° = 100 (000s 307, x= 100 x 0.8660 86.60N ‘Two forces of magnitude 7N and 3N actat right angles to each other. The angle 8 between the resultant and t IN forces given by Acoso A GALADIMAGalad’s Year One University Volume 1 D.coté Solution Resolution for horizontal component is cos@. Ry = 18 cos 60°. Ry = 18X05. Ry= 9mst ‘The correct option is D Given that, (x, y)= (7,3) tno =5 7 ‘The correct option is C 15. The resultant of two forces 12N and 5N is 13N. what is the angle between the two forces A. 0° B. 45° C.90° D. 180° Solution 12N From Pythagoras theorem, which is used for two forces that perpendicular with each other |e 90° 24 12= 25 +144 =149 Ro Vit = 13" ‘The correct option is C 16, A ball moving at 18ms*in a directon snclined at 60° to the horizontal The horizontal component of ts velocity is A.ams B. ovams™* C.6ms? —D.9mst Solutione CHAPTHER 4 MECHANICS(KINEMATICS) ction ; eas defined as a branch of physics thatdeals whe body or particles that has the tendency to move Clasification of Mechanics ‘The mechanics can be classifies into two parts as shown in the igure below Mechanics nets Staties | a Dynamic Equilibrium of forces jotion Newton's laws of motion, Kinetics, {ts the branch of mechanics that deals with a body in motion. itis subdivided into two namely * Kinematics * Dynamics a Celeration(a) and Dynamics This is the branch of mechanics ¢ b Year One University Volume 1 body at rest. This branch deals with Equilbyy, forces. aa ange in postion oF loca, Motion involves a chang abody with time. es of Motion ; peer between six types of motion * Translational Motion Rotational Motion Random Motion * Periodic or Vibratory Motion © ¥Rolling Motion ‘Translational or Linear motion (Rectinea) This is the motion of a body along a straight pay, That fs, motion of bjectin one direction cay classified into three: * Horizontal linear motion Vertical linear motion Motion along inclined plane, Rotational Motion Point: Motion of rigid bod! Examples such motions are: * Rotation of theearth about its axi Rotation of an el ‘The wheel ofa lectric fan blade; Moving car, Brownian motion, NON of gas molecules of gases. Fen StOLY oF Vibratory motion toand fro Movement of an object. In the path, of moving body is repeated al intervals of time, ExamplesGalad’s ‘© Wave motion, ‘Simple harmonic motion. Rolling ‘This is a type of motion that combines both translational (linear) and circular (rotational) motions. An example is the movement of drum of oil along inclined plane. Circular Motion ‘This is motion in a curved or circular pathilt takes place about a fixed point, from the center of the circle. Parameters of Motion The following parameters are required to describe motion in straight line: displacement, speed or velocity, acceleration and ‘+ Particle: Any object or body whose dimensions can be neglected is called a particle, It is usually represented by a point. ‘* Displacement(s) is the distance travelled ina specified direction.For example, if one travels a distance of 10m eastwards, it is a displacement. Displacement is therefore a vector quantity since it has both magnitude and direction. * Speed (v) is the distance with time. The si unit of speed is ms" and itis scalar quantity. distance(s) speed = Te) (4.1) ‘+ Uniform speed:The speed of a body is said to be uniform (constant) if the body travels equal distance in equal interval of time, no matter how small te time may be, this implies that the rate of change of distance is constant, Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. Or velocity is speed measured ina given direction. It is therefore a vector quantity. Year ont University Volume 1 displacement(s) velocity = (4.2) * Uniform Velocity: This is when the rate of change of displacement is constant, no matter how small the time may be. ‘+ Instantaneous velocity:The velocity of the body at a particular point in time is called the instantaneous velocity. pats a ‘+ Acceleration: This is the rate of change of velocity increase. The s. unit of acceleration is ms? and is a vector quantity. changevelocit accleration = STIEPEICtY (43) time * Uniform acceleration ifthe rate of change of velocity with time is constant, the acceleration is said to be uniform. This implies that ‘onstant. Ifthe velocity of a body is increasing with time it is said to be accelerating but ifthe velocity of a body is decreasing with time the body is said to be experiencing retardation or deceleration. In this case, the acceleration is negative. * Instantaneous acceleration The acceleration of the body at a particular point in time is called the instantaneous acceleration, Graphical Analysis of Motion ‘The graphical methods can be used to analyse the motion of a body,if the motion of the body cannot be described algebraically. Distance- Time Graph ; plotted against time, the gradient Tn ane IO. A GALADIMA Page 39Galad’s Year One University Volume 1 ofthe tangent at a point on the resultant curve gives the velocity of the particle under motion. | Time(s) Uniform speed graph Distane: ds at Time (5) Non-uniform speed graph jlacement-Time Graph, .n displacement is plotted against time, the \dient ofthe tangent at a point on the resultant ves the velocity of the particle. Displacement Non-uniform velocity graph Velocity-Time Graph When velocity against time, the gradient of the tangent at a point on the resultant curve gives the acceleration of the particle under motion. The area of the curve gives the displacement of the particleunder motion. a Velocity Time (s) Uniform acceleration graph Velocity't ime Uniform deceleration graph 4 Velocity] a= 0 Timets) Constant velocity graph Velocity, Time(s) ‘The first three graphs of velocity-time graph above can be combined together to have the gt? below: B Ate Dey Et, Fes Three quantities ean be deducted rom the gr! above * Acceleration: This can be determine by: ee 4 N.A GALADIMA PageGalad’s veloctity AV Acceleration = a time AD + Deceleration: This can be determine by velocity _ AV deceleration = = time EF + Total distance cover: This can be determining by calculates the area of the graph. The graph above is trapezium: ‘Area of trapezium = + (BC + AP)AV Example 4.1 ‘A motor car accelerates uniformly from rest at ‘Sms~?, Ittravels at this speed for 4s. the brakes are then applied and the car comes to rest, with uniform retardation in a further 8s. (i). Drawa speed-time graph for this motion: (ii). Use your graph to determine (a). Acceleration (b). Retardation (c)-Total distance travelled Solution 0 4E 8F 16C (@)."To determine acceleration oS 2 a= = sms (b). To determine retardation pe 2 sms? “6-8 8 (©). To determine total distance travelled Year One University Volume 1° 1 Ae l(\aBl + Joc) $= 5X 20(16 + 4) = 10x 20 = 200m s = 200m, ‘Translational Motion This is the motion ofa body alonga straight path. That is, motion of object in one direction, It can be classified into three: + Horizontal linear motion + Vertical linear motion + Motion along inclined plane, Horizontal Linear Motion This Is the motion of an object along a straight horizontal line. This is motion of an object in one direction. Equation of Motion along a Straight Line Here we want to obtain (derive) the equation of motion for a body travelling along a straight line with uniform acceleration. Consider a moving body with an initial velocity (u) which acquires a final velocity (v) after a time (0), which is represented, by the equation, below; From, @ veutat » (4.5). If'sis used to denote the distance moved by the particle in time t, 5 = average velocity Xt pte average velocity =—— (SF). ; Substituting for v in equation 2 sitet tH) tate), se(FG (4.6) Page 41 N.A GALADIMAt+tatt sauttzat?.. From equation (1), v = u+at, Substituting for tin equation (2) IES u? + 2as, (48) ‘Summary of Equation of Linear Motion + veutat. a +-(2) ~@) 4) Example4.2 A particle starts from rest, and moves with Uniform acceleration 1.25", What its velocity after 20s and how far has it moved in this time? Solution : , a = 12ms-2,¢ 0s. To find velocity v, we make use of the equation utat v=0+(1.2)20 NA GALADIMA Pag ‘To determine distance (s), by use the equati, 1 sat? uty = (020 +F0.2,20)% = 0 +.0.6(400) 240m Example 4.3 ‘The speed of.a car increased from 36kmh~ tox, Jemh™ in 6:81" How long did this take and what was the acceleration? Solution u=36kmh™, v= 9kmh"*,s = 0.6km To find acceleration by using v? =u? +2as (6)? = (36)? + 2a(0.6) (96)? — (36)? = 1.20 (96 = 36)(96 + 36) = 1.20 60 x 132 = 12a 60 x 132 “4 a= = 50 x 132 = 6600kmh 12 To fine acceleration by using: veutat 96 = 36 + 6600 xt 96 - 36 = 6600¢ 60 = 6600¢ 60 == = 0.0091h. 3609 = 00091"Galad’s Example 4.4 ‘Amotor car travelling at 54kmh“ is brought to rest with uniform retardation in Ss Find its reygrdation and the distance travelled in this time. Solution 5 u=Sékmirt t= Ss=5h =O To find acceleration by apply vsutat 5 O=S44 axa = 720(-54) = -38880kmA7? To find distance by apply: t+ tat? wet sa ‘ 2 (—) +5 (-38880) = 54 500) “3 = 0.0375km Example 4.5 ‘The position of a particle moving along x-axis is given by x(t) = (2t? — 6¢ + 5)m, where x isin meters and t is in seconds. Find the acceleration of the particle at t = 2.0s. Is the velocity ae oF changing with time? Solution x(t) = (2? —6¢ + 5)m Velocity: (6t? - 6)ms™* Acceleration: Year One University Volume 1 a= = 2tyms" = [= d20ms Ate = 20s a= 122) = 24ms~? The velocity is changing since the velocity is a function of time. Example 4.6 ‘The acceleration of particle is given by a(e) = (8ms~?)¢?, Ifthe particle is at rest at ¢ = 0, find the velocity of the particle after Solution =2s. a(t) = (ms~*)e?, Note that, integral of acceleration produces velocity and integral of velocity produce distance or position v= faced = f 3etae 30 vQatk vQ=t+k Ifthe particle is at rest vp Oate =Otk ok Hence, v=t+o v(t) Att = 2s, v(t) = 23 = 8ms"! | samele 47 The | thee of acaris given asa function of time as a(t) = (2.0 ~ 0.2t)ms*, Ifthe position ge NA GALADIMA, Page 43iversi Volume 1 Galad’s Year One University and velocity at time t = O is xp = Oand v) = 10ms™* respectively, what is the velocity of the | carafter t = 2.05? | Solution \ a | Note that, integral of acceleration produces (2.0 = 0.2t)ms? velocity and integral of velocity produce distance | or position. vs J a(tyat = Jeeo-o2nae y= 2h oat \ "OOF Tat +k 20! 0.207 17 v(t) = 2-040 +e \ \ |, Whe position and velocity at time ¢ = Dis x5 and v, Oms“* respectively. 10= 2(0)- 01 +4 10=0-04k k= 10 MO) = 2-010 4 © = 22) ~ 0.12% +19 20 = 13.6ms~*, | T= (0+ 208 30-5 4 asin sere, fferentiate distance or posiy, ifyou dif Note that yo ty and derivative of Velocity is” you will get velocity an acceleration. Velocity: dr a 3t2 + 2)i+ 6e7*f + 10 cosSe ‘Acceleration: 2, a = 6ti— 12e-'j — S0sinstk t 6ti - 12e- 50sinStk Hence, at t= 0 a= 6(0)i~ 12e-#j ~ 50 sin (0) k ~12ej—9 Recall that e) 0-120j-0 12 Vertical Linear Motion (Motion Under Gravity) Motion under gravity is defin ied as the movement ‘against the influen ice of the earth’s gravitational N.A GALADIMA Page #4Galad’s + gis positive (+ve) ifthe motion is downward and negative(—ve) ifthe motion is upward, + Initial velocity (u)is zero ifa body is dropped from a height. + Final velocity (v) is zero when the object is moved upward. + Theheight (s) is zero when the object falls to the ground, Freely Falling Bodies A body falling under the influence of Earth’s gravitational attraction is an example of motion with constant acceleration in a straight line, this time along the y axis. According to experiments performed by scientists, all bodies at a particular location fall with the same downward acceleration, regardless of their size or weight-This kind of motion is known as free fall and the acceleration with which the bodies fall is called acceleration due to gravity (g) and it has an approximate magnitude of g =9.8ms~*, Example 4.9 A stone is dropped from the top ofa building andreaches the ground after 2s. How high is the building? (9.8ms~2), Solution u=0 s=h t=2s a=9ms~? To find the height by using: 1 s=ut+ at? 2 1 h=045(9.8)(2)? h=19.9m Example 4.10 A stones thrown vertically upwards andreturns to the ground after Ss, Find the initial velocity and greatest height reached. (9.8ms~). Solution Year One University Volume 1 g = —9,8ms~!,¢ = Ss s = 0 (When it returns to the ground), By wsings = ut +00? O=uxs +5 (9.8005)? 0=5u-4.96) Su = 4.9x 25 4.8 x25 ues 4.5ms~ ‘To determine the greatest height (h) reached 24.5ms™1, g =~9.8ms-*v (at greatest height). Using, v? = u? + 2gs 0 = (24,5)? - 2(9.8)s 2(9.8)s = (24.5)? _ 245 x 24. rrry = 30.63m Example4.11 ‘Aman on top of a tower of height 35m throws a stone vertically upwards with a speed of 4ms™!.Find (i. The height above the ground, reaches by the stone. (ii)-The speed of the stone, when it reached) the ground, Solution let the height, above the ground reached by the stone = Hm, ws 14ms'g .8ms~2v = 0s = (H — 35)m Using, v? = u? + 2gs 0 = (4)? - 2x 9.84 = 35) 19,6(H ~ 35) = 196Year One University 196 -35)=——=10 G39) =a55 H-35=10 H=10435 = 45m oH = 45m | To determine the speed of the stone when it reaches the ground be v. | v? = 196 + 686 | v= V882 v= 28.7ms fotion along an Inclined Plane the friction between an object and the inclined ane in which itisin contact with is neglected, the object would tend to slip down the inclined surface faster because of the component effect of acceleration due to gravity. Consider a body of mass (m) on a smooth plane inclined at an angle (6) to the horizontal. * The force on thebody due to gravity (weight) acts vertically downward and is mg. The force which acts perpendicularly to inclined plane is cos @. N.A GALADIMA Volume 1 ‘The reaction of the inclined surface , a 7 Ny body is Rand is equal in magnitude, cos 0. ‘The force which tends to move the bg, down the plane is mg sin 8. ‘The force which tends t0 move the ho, y up the plane is F. fF > mg sind the body will move yp plane with a net force of ~mg sin 6 = ‘The equation of motion is: F=mgsin@ = Ry ...(1a) Where Ry = ma F —mgsin9 = ma ....(1b) + Ihowever, F < mg sind then the body will move down the plane with a net fore of mgsin@ ~ F = ma, The equation of motion is: mg sin 8 — F = Ry ww (2a)~ mgsin@ — F = ma.......(2b) Where a = acceleration of the body in an inclined plane. IF the force (F) acting on the body up the plane's 2er0.i.e.F = 0 mgsin@-0=ma mgsind = ma gsind =aGalad’s (il). It moves with an initial velocity of Sms~. [g = 10ms~?] Solution ‘The force acting on the body down the plane is, ‘mg sin 30°, ‘The force (F) acting on the body up the plane is zero. (To determine acceleration of moving object down the plane. ‘The net force acting on the body down the plane is Ry = mgsin@ -F Where F = 0 Ry = mg sind a= gsin@ = 10sin30 = Sms~? (b). To determine velocity, if the body starts from rest, u = 0 from equation utat 0+(@x5) v= 15ms~ fthe body moves with an initial velocity of Sms“, then tat N.A GALADIMA Year One University Volume 1 v=S43x5 5+15 v=20ms"! Projectile Motion This can be defined as an object thrown into the air or launched into space and moves freely under the influence of gravity and air resistance. Examples are found in sports warfare. For sports: * Kicked football in air; © Thrown javelin; * Thrown shot put; © High jumper etc. For warfare: * Thrown bomb; © Fired bullet; * Thrown stone; ‘© Shot arrow ete, Another example is a stone shot out froma catapult. uy using) Uy — mrose— Time taken (t) This is the time used by a projectile body to reach a maximum height. It is denoted by’t’ and can be obtained as follows; v=uy—gt O=uy-gt 0 =wsind gt Page 47gt=usind usin@ (4.9) g Time of Might (T) This is defined as the total time used by object in air. Itis the time taken by the body to return to the Plane of projection from the instant of inception of being projected. It is denoted by T and it can be obtained as follow: T=2 Where using g 7a tusing 9 Maximum Height (H) ‘This is the maximum vertical di 3 Projected body. Itis den obtained as follow; a1) Range (R) This is defined as the ho: Point of projection to the point where the Projectile hits the projection plane again. itis denoted by Rand it can be obtained as follow: ntal distance from the ewer = ut +sat naa? Here,s = R, Ux = ucos 8, the horizontal component of the velocity, N.A GALADIMA b = O,asthere is no horizontal acceleration Substituting for each value in equation above 2usindy 1 R= cose 5 ) +3 ?2 sin @ cos @ ne 2) Using trigonometry, it can be shown that 2sin8 cos@ = sin20 Hence, from equation above, we have: 2 w sin 20 Rat Sn20 g (4.13) Maximum range (Rings) ‘Atmaximum range @ 45° 2 . sin2(45») Trajectory of a Projectile Trajectory can be Page#Galad’s 1 y=utsind—5 90. From (4.15):t = weosd Substituting the expression for ¢ in equation (4.16) Recall, tan @ tang 292782070 xtan@ ->=—— 2 Ww 2 2 D = xtano ~Fsec*8.. wee (4.18) Ifwe put tand = band £5 sec? We have y = bx — ax? We identify this as second degree equation in x. Hence the path or trajectory of a projectile is a parabola. Example ‘A bead is thrown upward at angle of 50° to the horizontal and lands on the top edge of a building that is 15 m away. The top edge is 4m above the throwing point. How fast was the bead thrown? Solution Year One University Volume 1 In this case, the trajectory equation is engaged in solving the problem, ie, C a y = xtané —-—— sec? sec? 0°, g = 9 e ‘ 9.815)? ‘ 2 Tai s6C5 y= 4m,x = 15m,8 4 = 15tan50°— 2205 0.826u? 17.85 - 13.85 x 0.826u2 2205 1.44u? = 2205 2208 = 192.74 1440 Multiple ChotceQuestions 1. The position of fresh student during registration of courses is given by x =5—3¢? + ¢?Where x is in meters and tin seconds, Calculate the position of this student at t=3s and the average velocity for the time interval t= 2s to Ss. A.-4m,8ms™ B, 10m, 10ms" C.8m,4ms D.Sm, 18ms“ Solution Given that, x= 5-3 +0 Att=3s X=5-3(3)? + (3) X=5-3(9) +27 X=5-27425 X=5m {otal displacement ‘Average velocity = x)=30) Average velocity At t= 5s Page 49 N.AGALADIMAGalad’s Year One University Volume 1 ee X=5-3(5)? + (5)* X=5-3(25) + (125) X=5-754125 55 At X=5-3(2)? + (2)? X=5-3(4) +8 X=5-12+8 X=1 Average velocity = ‘The correct option is D 2, The position of an object traveling in two dimensional space is given by x= 2t? + 4t +32 andy = 3t?- St + 20.Calculate the ‘magnitude of the object displacement and the average velocity between time interval t = 2s and t= 4s, A.58.0m ,29ms B.41.23m, 20.62ms™* C.58.0m, 10.31ms* D.29.0m, 19.31ms™ Solution Displacement along x = xy - xp Given that x= 2t? + 4t +32 At t=4X,= 2(4)? + 4(4) +32 X4 = 2(16) + 16 +32 =32+16+32 X= 80 At t=2 Xz = 2(2)? + 4(2) +32 x = 2(4) +8 +32 x) =8+8+432 x2 = 48 splacement along x = xy - x2 = 80 ~ 48 = 32m Displacement along y =Ys Ya Given that, y = 3t*- St + 20 At t=4 ya = 3(4)?-5(4) + 20 4 ya = 3(12)- 20 +20 Y= 36-20 +20 ya=36 At t=2 ya = 3(2)?-5(2) +20 y2 = 3(4)- 10+ 20 Y2=12-10+20=22 Displacement along y = ys - y2 = 36 ~ 22 = 14m Object displacement, rae ty =(@y tay Magnitude of r= y1700 = 41.23m To determine average velocity along x Average velocity = 16ms" To determine average velocity along y Average velocity = Magnitude of average velocity =/16? + 13? v=V425 v= 20.62mst ‘The correct option is B 3. The velocity of an object thrown from the Bround was 10ms” at an altitude of 15™Galad’s above the ground.Calculate the velocity at the point of throw and the maximum, height reached. A.15ms?, 7.1m B.19.85ms", 20.1m €.25.0ms",10.0m D. 15 ms", 15.0m Solution Given parameters: $=15m, V=10 ms", B= 9.8 ms?, U=? Using V2= U? + 2gS 10?= U2-2x9.8x 15. Uz= 100 + 294 U=V394 = 19.85ms™* Atmaximum height, V=0 V2= UP & 2g8 Q2= 19,85?- 2x9.8xH 0=394-19.6xH 19.6H = 394 H=20.1m ‘The correct option is B 4. Amissile was to be launched at an angle 30° to the horizontal atan initial velocity Voto hita target Skm away. Calculate Vo and maximum height H A7S2ms?_B.237.86ms" €.443.72 ms? D.14.0 ms? Solution v§sin2@ rd) Given that, R= 5Km = 5000m, 5000 Year One University Volume 1 5000 x9 Vorsin60® 50098 Sin6o Vo? = 56580 Vo = V56580 = 237.86ms~* Maximum height (H) = 22 7 y= e780 int30 2x98 H=721.7m ‘The correct option is B 5, The position of an object moving along x- axis is given by x= 6t- 4 + 8, where x is in meters and tis in seconds, What is the objects displacement and average velocity for the time interval from t= 3s to t= 5s A.46.0m, 5.75ms* B. 46.0m, 23.0 mst C. 2.0m, 1.0 ms* D. 2.0m, 0.25 ms Solution Att=3, Xs = 6(3) - 4(3)? + 3)" Xs = 18-36 + 27 X3= 9m Att=5, Xs=6(5)- 465)? + 6)? Xs= 30 ~ 4(25) +125 Xs= 55m Displacement = Xs~ Xs= 55-9 = 460m eiplacentont _ 3322 Average velocity = SSSR = 55-9 “average velocity = — = = 73.0"5 ‘The correct option is B 4G. The position ofa particle moving 12n6 axis isgiven by x= 5:0~ 608+ 2.0% aipere xis in mevers amd C18 in $000scence muss che Serce ac Stang: fe ies geet eseGalad’s 60 =(U+ 15)3 U+15 = 20 U=20-15 U=5ms? Using V=U +at 18=5+6a 15- 10=6a a= 1.67 ms? 6a ‘The correct option is A 10. An objectis projected horizontally with an initial speed of 15ms-, ifthe level of projection is 75m above seen level, calculate the time taken by the object in the air A1S31s B.2.675 C.7.13s 0.3918 Solution Height, H= foe? 75=3x9.80 v= 15.306 VI5306 =3.91s ‘The correct option is D 11. An object of mass 25g is projected at angle 30° to the horizontal with a speed of 120 ms*. Calculate the horizontal range and the time takes to reach the maximum height. A1272.5m, 6.12s B,734.7m, 21.28 C.1272.5m, 12.245 D.734.7m, 10.6s ial Year One University 12, 13. Volume 1 Solution Using, v2sinza _ s2025in(2 x: a = Hsoae _ sts ana =1272,5m_ Using _120Sin30 _ 6, oR ‘The correct option is A . A hoodlum throws a stone vertically download with an initial speed of 12 ms? from the roof of a building 30m above the ground, How long does it takes the stone toreach the ground and what is the speed ofthe stone just before it hits the ground. A.2.47s, 27.06 ms? B.1.54s, 27.06 ms? C.2.47s, 24.27 ms* D. 1.545, 24. 25 ms Solution U=12ms1,$ 0m, a= 9.8 ms? Using V2= U2-+ 2aS Ve= 128+ 2x98 x30 ve=144 +588 V732ms* 27.06 ms Using V =U +at 27.06 ms = 12.0 + 9.8t 54s ‘The correct option is B ‘Aman throws a ball vertically upward with an initial speed of 20 ms". What is the maximum height reached by the ball and how long does it take to return to the point it was thrown? ‘A4.04m, 2.05 B,20.4m, 2.05 ¢.4.04m, 4.08. D.20.4m, 4.05 Solution ‘At maximum height, V= 0.8 Using V?=U? + 28H 9.8 ms?Galad’s Year One University O=20?+2x(-9.8)H 0=400-19.6H Using V=U-gt 0=20-9.8t Os ‘The correct option is B 14, A projectile is launched with speed Vo at anangle G, drive an expression for the height. vesinde (sina Yesin®e p Cosine 2 Yesinas Solution (WpSinoy? 2g ‘The correct option is B " 15. A body on which a constant net force of 80N acts, starts from rest and moves 72m in 6s. What is the mass of the body? Al2kg B.10kg C.20kg D.36kg Solution U=0, 72m, t= 6s S=uts tar 72=0x6x2 nax or 72 = 18a F=ma B0=mx4 Volume 1 me 2 = 20kg m= 20Kg. ‘The correct option is C 16. Afootballer lobs a football at an ang, to the horizontal with an initial spec, 20ms", What are the greatest height attained and the time of light? ‘A.20m, 1.85 B.20m,4s C.8.4m,4s D. 8.4m, 2.6s Solution Maximum height U?Sin?@ _ 202Sin?40 7 ~~ 2x9 ~ 843%n e of flight 2Usind _ 2x 20x Sin4o qe 26s The correct option is D 17. Abody of mass m is projected at an ang: 8 to the horizontal, Obtain the expressions for its potential and kinetic energies at maximum height, What isthe Fatio of potential to kin etic energy? A.tan?9 Bsinzo c.visinte 2am Solution Haag = USi2O 29° PLE = malting, = mo ¥25into Bhmas = mg Hses, PE =P musing... N.A GALADIMA PageGalad’s Year One University a 1 KE =2mu?Cos?0. 2) ‘The ratio of P.E to KE 1 au? pmursin?o 7 = tan? Emu?Cos?o ‘The correct option is A 18, What single velocity is equivalent to the velocities 20ms"! along the positive x-axis and 30ms* along the positive y-axis? 4.50 ms, 30° B.36.1 ms", 40° ¢.36.1 mst, 56.3° D.26.1 ms?, 56.3" Solution From resolution of velocity V,=Vcos @ = 20 vy=Vsin 6 = 30 [EEG = VOT 30 v: v= 36.1ms™ 12%) = 9 = tan“ (3) = 563° ‘The correct option is A al ball is dropped from the roof of . Neglecting air fhe velocity of the ball 19. Amet building 150m high resistance, what istl just before it touches the ground A.24.2ms?— B.10 ms" cs42ms? —-D.36ms" Solution ye=U? + 2aS, y=0,a=9.8ms% S= 150m y2=0+2x9.8x 150 ye = V2940 = 54.2ms~ isC ‘The correct option 20. The position of an object movi straight line is given by x= 3t~4t +0 where x is in meter and tin seconds. Determine the object's displacement between t=0 and t=4s, and the average velocity for the time interval t=2 to t=4s A.12m, 7ms* B.24m, 14 ms" C.6m, 12 mst D.4m,8 ms? Solution xa3t-ar ee At 1X0 = 3(0)- 4(0)? + (0)* x0o=0 aeta4, 2304) 402+ GO m= 12 64+ 64 Xq = 12 Displacement between =0 and t=4 xy-xp= 12-0 = 12m ‘To determine the average velocity Atte X2=3(2) - 4(2) + (2)? Xp= 6-16 + 4X2=-2m “Average velocity between ty =Zand t2=4 ‘The correct option is A