Group Dynamics Prelim Reviewer Merged Pages Deleted Compressed

GROUP DYNAMICS (PRELIM REVIEWER) 3. COLLECTIVES (Audiences, Crowds, Mobs etc.
)
● Collectives is a form of group where they come into
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO GROUP DYNAMIC existence when people are drawn together by an event,
activity, or even danger.
● They dissolves when the occurrence of experience
ends.
● Less intricately interconnected association among
people.
4. CATEGORIES (Baby Boomers, Generation X,
Millenials)
● Categories or a social category is a perceptual
grouping of people who are assumed to be similar to
1. WHAT ARE GROUP? one another in some ways but different in one or more
ways. (Women, Elderly, College Students, Citizen)
A. DEFINING GROUPS
○ Two or more individuals who are connected by and Social Identity - is that part of an individual’s self-
within social relationships concept which derives from his knowledge of his/her
○ Dyads (2 members), and triads (3 members) to huge membership if a social group together.
crowds. ■ Aspects of the self that are assumed to be
○ According to John James, a Sociologist who defined common to most or all of the members of the same
a group to be - two or more people in “face-to-face group or social category.
interaction as evidenced by the criteria of Social Category creates division which can result in a
gesticulation, laughter, smiles, talk, play or work” sense of we and us vs. they and them
By and Within Social Relationships
■ Relations that connects members of the C. CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS
groups are based on task-related interdependencies. 1. Composition: Who Belong to the Group?
■ Members are linked by common interests or ■ Qualities of the individuals who are member of the
experiences. group.
■ Relationships are tenacious - developed ● Talents/strengths, weaknesses, attitudes,
overtime a mutual influence and exchange values, and personality traits.
B. VARIETIES OF GROUPS ● A group whose members differ from each
other in terms of race, sex, economic background, and
1. PRIMARY GROUPS (Family, Friends, Squad) country vs. a group with far less diversity.
According to a Sociologist, Charles Horton Cooley 2. Boundaries: Who Does NOT Belong?
(1909), Primary groups are the small, intimate clusters ■ It is the relationship that link members to one
of close associate another define who is in the group and who is not.
● They profoundly influence the behavior, ● Psychological sense
feelings, and judgements ● Publicly acknowledged (ex. Known society,
A small, long-term group characterized rock band, sports team, etc.)
● Frequent interaction ● Indistinct or known only to the group
● Solidarity members themselves.
● High levels of interdependence among ■ Relatively Permeable (Open groups vs. closed groups)
members 3. Size: How Large Is the Group?
○ Substantially influences the attitudes, values, ■ A group’s size also determines how many
and social outcomes of its members. social ties-links, relationships, connections, edge-are
2. SECONDARY GROUPS (Co-workers, Crews, Teams) needed to join members to each other and to the
group.
● Social (Secondary) groups are more larger and more ■ Equation in determining the maximum
formally organized than primary groups. number of ties n (n-1)/2, n is the number of in the
● Membership tend to be shorter in duration and less group.
emotionally involving.
● Barriers are permeable
● Does not demand the level of commitment
○ A group people with a shared purpose and
common interest
○ No intimate bonds, Goal Focused
○ Highly structured with formal rules and
supervised by a designated authority figure
○ Less influence on identity
Downloaded by bellpo lu (bellpo@goprems.fun)

4. Interaction: What Do Members Do? ■ Negotiating: Groups resolve differences of opinion
■ Discussion ■ Planning ■ Decision Making among members regarding their goals or decisions
● According to Robert Freed Bales, a (Type 5: cognitive conflict tasks) or settle competitive
Sociologist, 2 types of Interaction: disputes among members (Type 6: mixed-motive tasks)
○ Focused on the task the group was dealing ■ Executing: Groups do things, including taking part in
○ Sustained, strengthened, or weakened competitions (Type 7: contests/battles/ competitive
interpersonal relationships. tasks) or creating some product or carrying out
■ Task Interaction - Groups behavior that is focused collective actions (Type 8: performances/psychomotor
principally on the group’s work, projects, plans, and tasks)
goals. ■ McGrath Task Circumplex Model
● Group members coordinate their various ● Conceptual Task (Type 2-5) - Exhibit high
skills, resources, and motivations levels of information exchange, social influence, and
■ Relationship Interaction - “Socioemotional process oriented activity
interaction” ● Behavioral Task (Type 1, 6, 7, 8) - Produce
things and perform services. Performs series of motor
5. Interdependence: Do the Members Depend on Each
tasks.
Other? ■ Interdependence - mutual dependence, as
● Conflict Task (Type 4-7) - Individuals and
when one’s outcomes, actions, thoughts, feelings, and
groups against each other
experiences are influenced, to some degree, by others
● Cooperative collaborative task (Type 1-3,
and 8)
8. Origin: Founded or Formed?
■ Planned Groups - Deliberately formed by its member
or an external authority.
● Arbitration boards, civil rights groups,
6. Structure: How Is the Group Organized? commissions committees, expeditions, juries,
legislative bodies, military units, musical groups,
■ Group Structure - Complex of roles, norms, and
research teams, self-help groups, social agencies,
intermember relations that organizes the group. sports teams, study groups, task forces, therapy
● Roles - Specify the general behaviors groups, trade associations, veterans organizations,
expected of people who occupy different positions work groups, and the Adventure Expedition
within a group. ■ Emergent Groups - Come into existence
● Norms - Describes what behavior should and spontaneously when individuals join together in the
should not be performed in a given context. same physical location or gradually over time as
7. Goals: What is the Group’s Purpose? individuals find themselves repeatedly interacting with
■ Intellectual and judgemental tasks (Laughlin, 1980). the same subset of individuals.
■ Production, discussion, and problem-solving goals ● Audiences at events, bystanders at a crime
(Hackman & Morris, 1975) scene, crowds, customers at a club, gangs, families,
■ proposed by social psychologist Joseph E. McGrath friendship networks in work settings, mobs, people
(1984), distinguishes among four basic group goals: waiting to board an airplane, and all manner of queues
generating ideas or plans, choosing a solution, and lines, arise over time and through repeated
negotiating a solution to a conflict, or executing association of the eventual members.
(performing) a task. ■ According to Social Sociologists Allow, H., McGrath,
J., & Berdahl J (2000) fourfold taxonomy of groups:
● Concocted groups are planned by individuals or
authorities outside of the group.
○ A team of laborers digging a trench, a flight
crew of an airplane, and a military squad
○ Those who created them are not actually
members of the group.
● Founded groups are planned by one or more
individuals who remain within the group.
○ A small Internet start-up company, a study
group, a expeditionary team.
■ Generating: Groups concoct the strategies they will
● Circumstantial groups are emergent, unplanned
use to accomplish their goals (Type 1: planning tasks)
groups that arise when external, situational forces set
or create altogether new ideas and approaches to their
the stage for people to join together, often
problems (Type 2: creativity tasks)
temporarily, in a unified group.
■ Choosing: Groups make decisions about issues that
○ Group of travelers stranded together
have correct solutions (Type 3: intellective tasks) or
● Self-organizing groups emerge when interacting
questions that can be answered in many ways (Type 4:
individuals gradually align their activities in a
decision-making tasks)
cooperative system of interdependence.

○ Parties, drivers leaving a crowded parking lot Performance Processes - Combined skills and energy of
through a single exit, and a half dozen adolescents who a group. Groups get things done.
hang out together. ■ Performance ■ Teams ■ Decision Making
Conflict Processes - Tensions tend to undermine the
cohesiveness of the group and cause specific
relationships within the group to weaken or break
altogether
■ Conflict in Groups ■ Intergroup relations
Contextual Process - Considers how the physical
9. Entitativity: Does the Group Look Like a Group? environment affects a group’s dynamics.
■ According to a Social psychologist, Donald Campbell ■ Group in Context ■ Groups and Change ■ Crowds and
(1985) coined the term entitativity - which a group Collective Behavior
seems to be a single, unified entity—a real group.
● is the “groupiness” of a group, perceived An Educational Psychologist,
rather than actual group unity or cohesion. Bruce Tuckman (1965)
■ Entitativity - The apparent cohesiveness or unity of identified five process stages
an assemblage of individuals; the quality of being a in his theory of group
single entity rather than a set of independent, development
unrelated individuals
● Similarity ● Proximity ● Common Fate 3. WHY STUDY GROUPS?
■ Social psychologist Brian Lickel and his colleagues Understanding groups
(2000) Primary groups received the highest entitativity facilitates:
ratings, followed by Social Groups, Categories, lastly, ● Understanding People
Collectives. ● Understanding the
The Thomas Theorem social world
• “If men define situations as real, they are ● Application to practical problems
real in their consequences.” ● Understanding yourself
• Our behavior depends not on the objective ● Due to the fundamental attribution error, the
reality of a situation but on our subjective influence of groups on individuals is often
interpretation of reality. underestimated, particularly by individuals raised in
• When individuals construe a group to be more individualistic, Western cultures.
“real,” the group influences their thoughts, emotions, FAE - is the tendency people have to attribute
and actions. others’ actions to their character, ignoring the impact
Essentialism: The belief that all things, that situational factors might have on that behavior.
including individuals and groups, have a basic nature. Understanding the Social
● To understand the social world — its politics,
2. WHAT ARE GROUP DYNAMICS? institutions, cultures, and conflicts—one must
Group - Two or more individuals who are connected by understand its groups.
and within social relationships
Dynamic - comes from the Greek word “dynamikos”,
which means to be strong, powerful, and energetic.
■ Implies the influence of forces that combine,
sometimes smoothly but sometimes in opposition, to
create continual motion and change.
○ Are the influential interpersonal processes that occur
in and between groups over time
■ Groups become more cohesive over time.
■ Larger groups often break down into smaller
subgroups.
■ Groups encounters disagreements that leads
to prolonged conflicts
Overview of Processes:
Formative Processes - Giving actionable feedback
■ Inclusion & Identity ■ Formation ■ Cohesion &
Development
Influence Processes - Finding your place in the group, The Value of Groups
comply and accept’s guidance from the leader, learn ● Despite all the problems caused by groups
how to best influence one another. (competition, conflict, poor decisions), humans could
■ Structure ■ Influence ■ Power ■ Leadership not survive without groups

CHAPTER 2: STUDYING GROUPS 2. MEASUREMENT
A. OBSERVATION
1. SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF GROUPS
● Overt Observation - No attempt to hide what they are
A. THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE GROUP doing from the people they are studying.
● Paradigm ○ Openly watching and recording information
■ Scientists’ shared assumptions about the with no attempt to conceal one’s research purposes.
phenomena they study ● Covert Observation - They record the group’s
■ Set of research procedures (question & activities without the group’s knowledge.
methods) ● Participant Observation - Watching and recording
■ Sociologists discovered groups influence a group activities as a member of the group or
society’s religious, political, economic, and educational participant in the social process
social systems.
● Researchers immerse themselves in group settings
● Anthropologists’ investigations of the cultures noted
gathered detailed and compelling information such as
similarities and differences
○ Discussions/Conversations ○ Nonverbal expressions
● Political scientists’ studies of voting, public
○ Appearance ○ Relationship
engagement, and political parties
● Levels of Analysis
○ Group-Level Analysis - recognized that
humans are the constitutive elements of groups and
that groups and their processes have a profound impact
on their members. (Conducted by Sociologist)
○ Individual-Level Analysis - Focused on the
person in the group. (Psychological Researcher)
● Group Fallacy - Explaining social phenomena in terms
of the group as a whole instead of basing the
explanation on individual-level processes within group ● Reactivity and the Hawthorne Effect
○ Ascribing psychological qualities, such as ○ A change in behavior that occurs when
will, intentionality, and mind, to a group rather than to individuals know they are being observed or studied.
the individuals within the group
STRUCTURED OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
● Group Mind (Collective Consciousness)
○ A hypothetical unifying mental force linking Structured Observational Methods - Offer researchers a
group members together way to increase the objectivity of their observations.
○ Brought the group- and individual-level ■ Decide which behaviors to track
perspectives into clear opposition ■ Develop unambiguous descriptions of each
○ Members share the same views, attitudes, type of behavior they will code
intentions, and so on. ■ Note the occurrence and frequency of these
● The Reality of Groups targeted behaviors as they watch the group
○ Norm - Standard that describes what ○ Interaction Process Analysis (IPA) - Classify
behaviors should & should not be performed in a group each behavior performed by a group member into 1 of
■ Not just individual members’ personal the 12 categories
standards, for they are shared among group members
● Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups
● Lewin and Interactionism (“Law of interactionism”) -
(SYMLOG)
According to his field theory, on the principle of
○ Coders use 26 different categories
interactionism
○ Categories signaling members’
■ Actions, processes, and responses of people
■ Dominance – Submissiveness
in groups (BEHAVIOR) are determined by the interaction
■ Friendliness – Unfriendliness
of the (PERSON) and the (ENVIRONMENT)
■ Accepting – Opposing the task orientation of
■ B = f(P,E), (B) group member’s reaction. (f)
established authority
function. (P) interaction of their personal
characteristics. (E) nvironmental factors ● Reliability and Validity of Observations
■ “The whole is greater than the sum of the parts,” Reliability: A measure’s consistency across time,
B. THE MULTILEVEL PERSPECTIVE components, and raters.
Example: If a rater, when she hears the
■ Micro-Levels Factors statement, “This group is a boring waste of time,”
○ Qualities ○ Characteristics ○ Actions of individual always classifies it as a Category 12 behavior, then the
members rating is reliable.
■ Meso-Levels Factors Inter-rater Reliability: Consistency across raters.
○ Cohesiveness ○ Size ○ Composition ○ Structure Example: If different raters, working
■ Macro-Levels Factors independently, all code the statement similarly, the
○ Communities ○ Organizations ○ Society rating has interrater reliability.

Validity: The extent to which the technique measures ● Motivations are psychological mechanisms that give
what it is supposed to measure. purpose and direction to behavior. inner mechanisms
Example: IPA, for example, is valid only if can be called
observers’ ratings actually measure the amount of ■ Habits, Beliefs, Feelings, Wants, Instincts,
relationship and task interaction in the group. Scores Compulsions, Drives
are not valid. ● Emotions - feelings of happiness, sadness,
satisfaction, and sorrow are just a few of the emotions
B. SELF REPORT MEASURES
that can influence how people act in group situations.
■ Sociometry - Assessment methods, such as ● Motivation and emotion both come from the Latin
questionnaires, tests, or interviews, that ask word movere, meaning “to move.”
respondents to describe their feelings, attitudes, or
beliefs. B. BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVES
■ Sociogram - Graphic representation of the patterns of ● Behaviorism was based on two key assumptions
intermember relations created through sociometry. ■ Psychological processes, such as motives and
Sociogram - is a diagram of the relationships drives, may shape people’s reactions in groups
among group members ■ Behavior was consistent with the law of
■ Social Network Analysis (SNA) - Set of procedures for effect — that is, behaviors that are followed
studying the relational structure of groups and ○ Positive Consequences, such as
networks graphically and mathematically rewards, will occur more frequently,
○ Negative Consequences, behavior
3. RESEARCH METHODS IN GROUP DYNAMICS will become rarer
A. Case Study - An in-depth examination of one or more ● Social Exchange Theory - An economic model of
groups. Case studies that are carried out with care and interpersonal relationships that assumes individuals
objectivity are now widely recognized as indispensable seek out relationships that offer them many rewards
tools for understanding group processes while exacting few costs
■ Search-and-rescue squads ■ (a) the rewards are valued ones and any costs
■ Support Groups ■ Sororities created by the group are minimized
○ Case studies also tend to focus on bona fide groups - ■ (b) the members trust each other to fulfill
Naturally occurring groups, such as audiences, boards their obligations over the long term
of directors, clubs, or teams ■ (c) the exchange is judged to be a fair one
B. Correlational Studies - The relationships among the with fairness defined primarily by mutual adherence to
variables are measured by calculating correlation the norm of reciprocity
coefficients, abbreviated as r, can range from -1 to +1, ■ (d) members develop a commitment to the
0 neutral point, indicating the strength of relationship. group as indicated by increased affective attachment, a
■ Sign of correlation (- or +) indicates the sense of loyalty, and an authentic concern for the other
direction of relationship members’ and the group’s well-being.
■ +.68 correlation between variable, positive
C. SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVES
correlation
■ -.57 correlation between variable, negative System Theory Approach - Assumes groups are complex,
correlation, inversely related adaptive, dynamic systems of interacting individuals
C. Experimental Studies - A research design in which ■ Groups are open systems that maintain
the investigator (1) manipulates at least one variable dynamic equilibrium among members through a
by randomly assigning participants to two or more complex series of interrelated adjustments and
different conditions, (2) measures at least one other processes.
variable, and (3) controls the influence of other Input–Process–Output (I–P–O) Model of Group Dynamics -
variables on the outcome A systems theory approach assumes that individual and
D. Studying Groups: Issues and Implications interpersonal processes mediate the relationship
○ Selecting a Method between input factors and outputs.
○ Ethics of Group Research ● Inputs that feed into the group setting (qualities)
■ Institutional Review Board (IRB) ● Processes that take place within the group as it
■ Researchers are expected to give participants works on the task
a brief but accurate description of their duties in the ● Outputs generated by the system (products,
research before gaining their agreement to take part. decisions, errors)
■ Researchers also use methods that minimize D. COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES
any possibility of harm, and they treat participants
respectfully and fairly. Cognitive Processes - Mental processes that acquire,
organize, and integrate information including memory
4. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES systems that store data and the psychological
mechanisms that process this information.
A. MOTIVATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

■ People have better memories for actions and events ■ Ostracism voted to punish members of the
that they are personally connected to community with banishment. inscribing their names on
● Self-Reference Effect - The tendency for potshards called ostraca
people to have better memories for actions and events ■ Deliberately ignored and excluded by other
that they are personally connected to in some way
● Group-Reference Effect - The tendency for
group members to have better memories for actions
and events that are related, in some way, to their
group
E. BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Biological Perspective - Responses are often shaped by
physiological, genetic, and neurological characteristics.
○ Example: A group member is experiencing
distress, other group members experience changes in The Temporal Need-Threat Model of Ostracism
heart rate and blood pressure as they respond
sympathetically to their fellow member’s distress
○ Biopsychosocial (BPS) threat/challenge
model of James Blascovich’s (2014) - Traces
differences in group members’ performance back to
their physiological reactions to evaluation.
F. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
Selecting a Theoretical Perspective
● Researchers test hypotheses derived from Reflexive Stage - Characterized by a flood of negative
only one theory. feelings — pain, disappointment, and distress
● Others draw on several perspectives to ● Signal that something is wrong.
describe, predict, control, and explain groups and their
members. Reflective Stage - Reviewed the experience, searching
● No one solution answers the question “What for an explanation for the way he/she was treated
theory explains group behavior? ● Adopted a specific behavioral strategy to
minimize the negative effects of exclusion
CHAPTER 3: INCLUSION AND IDENTITY Resignation Stage - Alienation, helplessness, loss of
1. FROM ISOLATION TO INCLUSION self-worth, and depression.
A. THE NEED TO BELONG Fight Response - Some people, facing exclusion, fight
● Social psychologists Roy Baumeister and Mark Leary their way back into the group (a fight response)
(1995, p. 497) argued that humans have a need to Example: Confront group members directly or
belong: “a pervasive drive to form and maintain at derogate those who have excluded them.
least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and
impactful interpersonal relationships.” Flight Response - They avoid further rejection by
● Spending time alone, away from others, can be seeking membership elsewhere (a flight response).
pleasant, even rejuvenating (philosophers, writer, Example: Attempt to withdraw physically or
inventors). psychologically from the situation. Seek acceptance by
● Prolonged social isolation has been identified as a risk some other group
factor for the onset of a number of psychological ● Withdrawal and freezing
disorder. ● Aggressive, combative orientation
Social and Emotional Loneliness Tend-and-Befriend Response - A physiological,
Loneliness - is an aversive psychological reaction to a psychological, and interpersonal response to stressful
perceived lack of personal or social relations. events characterized by
Emotional Loneliness - Occurs when the ■ Increased nurturing, protective and
problem is a lack of a long-term, meaningful, intimate supportive behaviors (tending)
relationship with another person ■ Initiating and strengthening relationships with
Social Loneliness - Occurs when people feel cut other people (befriending).
off from their network of friends, acquaintances, and • Attention to social cues
group members. • Increased motivation • Prosocial orientation
B. INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION
Exclusion and Aggression
Ostracism - Excluding one or more individuals from a ■ Research indicates an aggressive response to
group by reducing or eliminating contact with the exclusion is more likely when the group is the source of
person, usually by ignoring, shunning, or explicitly the rejection and the group has high entitativity.
banishing them.

■ Exclusion, by itself, is not associated with Individualism - Free to act and think in ways that they
behavioral problems in adolescents, but those who are prefer rather than submit to the demands of the group.
isolated and report “problematic peer encounters” • The individual is primary, first.
are at risk for a variety of negative outcomes • His or her rights must be recognized and put
■ Common Thread: rejection, were the targets above the right of the group as a whole
of malicious teasing, ridicule, and bullying.
Collectivism - Members who must constantly adjust to
■ Key Factors: Loners, psychological problems,
the actions and reactions of others around them.
preoccupied with violence and death, interested in
• The group is primary, first.
guns and weapons
• Its rights must be recognized and put above
the right of the individual.
C. INCLUSION AND HUMAN NATURE
• The individual belongs to the group.
The Herd Instinct - The idea that humans are
A. Social Relations - The relationships linking members
instinctively drawn together with other humans
to one another and their group are not only stronger
● William McDougall (1908) argued that humans
and more valued by collectivists but they are also more
are inexorably drawn to “the vast human herd,” which
likely to be communal rather than exchange-based.
“exerts a baneful attraction on those outside it”
● Exchange Relationships
● Living in groups yielded both costs & benefits
● Communal Relationships
Sociometer Theory - “self-esteem is a psychological
Exchange Relationships
gauge that monitors the degree to which people
○ Monitor their inputs into the group
perceive that they are relationally valued by other
○ Strive to maximize the rewards they
people”
personally receive through membership
■ Indicator of acceptance into groups.
○ Dissatisfied if their group becomes too costly
■ If the gauge drops, then exclusion is likely.
for them.
The Biology of Ostracism and Inclusion ○ Expect to receive rewards in exchange for
■ Inclusion triggers a different set of physiological their investment of time, energy, and other personal
events: resources.
● Lowered heart rate and blood pressure ○ Norm of Reciprocity - Requires members to
● Increase in levels of the neuropeptide and pay back in kind what others give to them
hormone oxytocin, which is associated with positive
Communal Relationships
forms of social behavior > trust and social support
○ Concerned with what their group receives
■ People often claim that exclusion is a painful
than with their own personal outcomes.
experience—that their feelings are hurt or they feel
○ They help fellow members more, prefer to
wounded when someone slights them—because the pain
think of their work as a joint effort, and feel
of exclusion is neurologically similar to pain caused by
disappointed if other members insist on reciprocating
physical injury
any help given.
■ According to (fMRI) to track neural responses to
○ Consider the consequences of their actions for others
exclusion, these areas of the brain are associated with
○ Diligent in making sure that others’ needs are met
the experience of physical pain sensations and other
negative social experiences Exchange relationship a reciprocal interdependency
that emphasizes the trading of gratifying experiences
2. FROM INDIVIDUALISM TO COLLECTIVISM and rewards among members.
Communal relationship a reciprocal interdependency
that emphasizes meeting the needs and interests of
others rather than maximizing one’s own personal
outcomes
B. Social Obligations
Edgar Schein, a psychologist, explains, “any
definable group with a shared history can have a
culture” and “once a group has learned to hold
common assumptions, the resulting automatic patterns
of perceiving, thinking, feeling, and behaving provide
meaning, stability, and comfort”
Individualism
• Exchange relations • Equity ● Group Culture - The distinct ways that members of a
• Person-oriented • Autonomy and uniqueness group represent their experiences, including
• Egocentric, person-centered group culture consensually accepted knowledge, beliefs, rituals,
customs, rules, language, norms, and practices.
Collectivism
• Communal relations • Equality or need C. Social Goals
• Ingroup-oriented • Conformity and duty ■ A collectivist orientation requires a
• Sociocentric, group-centered group culture willingness to cooperate with others, and a degree of

optimism that these others are also committed more to that assumes groups influence their members’ self-
the common good than to their own personal outcomes. concepts and self-esteem, particularly when individuals
categorize themselves as group members and identify
Equity Norms - Recommends that group members
with the group.
should receive outcomes in proportion to their inputs.
○ If an individual has invested a good deal of Two cognitive processes:
time, energy, money, or other types of inputs in the
1. Social Categorization - The perceptual classification
group, then he or she could expect to receive a good
of people, including the self, into categories
deal of the group payoff
○ Individualism - Each member are recognized ■ Based on age, race, nationality
and rewarded or punished Stereotypes (or prototypes) - A socially shared
set of cognitive generalizations (e.g., beliefs and
Equality Norms - Recommends that all group members,
expectations) about the qualities and characteristics of
irrespective of their inputs, should be given an equal
the typical member of a particular group or social
share of the payoff.
category ○ Metacontrast Principle
○ Collectivists - Members would likely favor
Self-Stereotyping (or Autostereotyping) -
allocating the winnings on an equal-share basis
Accepting socially shared generalizations about the
B. THE SOCIAL SELF prototypical characteristics attributed to members of
one’s group as accurate descriptions of oneself
● Social roles and
relationships (Spouse, 2. Social Identification - Accepting the group as an
Lover, Parent, extension of the self and therefore basing one’s self-
Stepparent, definition on the group’s qualities and characteristics
Caregiver, and
■ Individuals come to think that their membership in
Worker)
the group is personally significant.
● Memberships in
● Feel Connected
social group (Clubs, or
● Interdependent with other members
Church)
● Self-descriptions also become increasingly
● Larger social
depersonalized
categories (Ethnicity,
Age, Religion) Motivation and Social Identity
Self Collective Self-Esteem - Individuals’ overall assessment
■ Personal identity encompasses all those of that portion of their self-concept that is based on
unique qualities, traits, beliefs, skills, and so on that their relationships with others and membership in
differentiate one person from another. ○“ME” social groups.
■ Social identity includes all those qualities ■ Instead of asking people if they felt good or
that derive from connections with and similarity to bad about themselves, they asked individuals to
other people and groups. ○“WE” evaluate the groups to which they belonged.
■ Individualists, independents, or idiocentrics —
Protecting the Collective Self - People protect their
Speak of their independence, their personal goals, and
collective self-esteem just as they protect their
their uniqueness.
personal self-esteem.
■ Collectivists — also called interdependents or
Ingroup–Outgroup Bias - The tendency to view
allocentrics — Stress their connections to others
the ingroup, its members, and its products more
Maintaining Optimal Distinctiveness positively than other groups, their members, and their
products.
Optimal Distinctiveness Theory, proposed by social
■ The tendency to look more favorably on the
psychologist Marilynn Brewer (2012), argues that most
ingroup
people have at least three fundamental needs:
Social Creativity - Group members compare the
○ Need to be assimilated by the group
ingroup to the outgroup on some new dimension.
○ Need to be connected to friends & loved one
○ Need for autonomy and differentiation
Stereotype Verification and Threat
Optimal Distinctiveness: Unique personal qualities are
noted and appreciated, they are emotionally bonded Stereotype Threat - when individuals know that others
with intimates, and they feel similar to other group they are interacting with may be relying on group
members in many respect stereotypes to judge them.
○ Individuals are most satisfied if they achieve ■ A college professor may not wish to be
optimal distinctiveness labeled absentminded and a blonde-haired woman may
prefer to be recognized for her scientific acumen
3. FROM PERSONAL IDENTITY TO SOCIAL IDENTITY
rather than her sense of fashion.
A. Social Identity Theory: The Basics
Protecting the Personal Self - People will also turn
Social Identity Theory: The Basics - A theoretical away from a group that continues to threaten their
analysis of group processes and intergroup relations personal self-esteem.

■ Individual Mobility - Reducing one’s Anxiety and Attachment
connection to a group in order to minimize the threat
Shyness - Tendency to feel uneasy, uncomfortable, and
to individual self-esteem (Resigning, Dropping Out,
awkward in response to actual or anticipated social
Quitting, Breaking Up, Escaping, Bailing, and Ditching)
interaction
Children begin to display fear or inhibition
CHAPTER 4: FORMATION
when they encounter a person they do not recognize.
1. JOINING GROUPS
Social Anxiety - People want to make a good
Not everyone who joins a group is a “joiner,” and impression, but they do not think that their attempts to
people who prefer independence over association are establish relationships will succeed.
not necessarily “loners.” ■ They may also engage in “innocuous
sociability”
A. PERSONALITY TRAITS
■ They merge into the group’s background by
Personality - is a pattern of relatively permanent traits indicating general interest in the group
and unique characteristics that give both consistency
Disaffiliate - People to reduce their social contact with
and individuality to a person’s behavior.
others
THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL (FFM) Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) - is an excessive and
unreasonable fear of social situations, qualifying as a
phobia rather than distress and discomfort when facing
a social challenge
■ A persistent and pervasive pattern of
overwhelming anxiety and self-consciousness
experienced when anticipating or actually interacting
with other people
Attachment Style — One’s basic cognitive, emotional,
and behavioral orientation when in a relationship with
other
■ From an early age, children differ in the
way they relate to others, with some children
developing very secure and comfortable relationships
with their caregivers but others exhibiting
dependence and uncertainty.
● Social psychologist Eliot Smith and his colleagues
theorized that people also have group-level attachment
styles.
● Group attachment styles. four basic styles (secure,
preoccupied, fearful, and dismissing)
Joiners and Loners ● Two dimensions: Level of anxiety and degree of
avoidance
Extraversion - One trait is a particularly influential
determinant of one’s groupishness B. SOCIAL MOTIVATION
● Is the tendency to move toward people rather
than away from people. ■ Need for Affiliation -
● Are sociable, outgoing, and active; they are express a stronger desire
likely to prefer the company of others, particularly in to be with other people,
pleasant and enjoyable situations they seem happier when
they are with people,
Introverts - Tend to be withdrawn, quiet, and reclusive. and they are more
Personality–Group Fit disturbed by unpleasant
interactions with others.
Extraverts are particularly attracted to organizations ■ Need for Intimacy -
that are team oriented. individuals seek close, warm relations and are more
Emphasize Cooperation likely to express caring and concern for other people.
● Agreeable would just as soon avoid groups ● Focused on friendship, camaraderie,
that are aggressive and competitive reciprocity, and mutual help.
● Conscientious individuals, in contrast, are ■ Need for Power - exhibit an elevated desire to
more attracted to groups and organizations that are maintain and enhance their capacity to influence other
detail-and task-oriented. people
● Openness to experience join group that ■ Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation
emphasizes creativity, originality, and aesthetic (FIRO)

● Psychologist William Schutz (1958, 1992) with other people to gain the information they need to
integrated the three basic needs for affiliation, allay their anxiety.
intimacy, and power ○ Ambiguous, and Possibly Dangerous, Situation
● People join groups, and remain in them,
Misery Loves Miserable Company - Schachter, by
because they meet one or more of these basic needs.
suggesting that people love “miserable company,”
C. MEN, WOMEN, AND GROUPS meant they seek out those who face the same threat
and so are knowledgeable.
● Women are in general higher in relationality - that is,
their values, attitudes, and outlooks emphasize and Embarrassed Misery Avoids Company
facilitate establishing and maintaining connections to ■ When alone, people might feel foolish if they
others do something silly, but when they are in a group,
● Women tend to be somewhat more extraverted and foolishness turns into embarrassment.
agreeable than men ■ Fear of embarrassment can be stronger than
● Women remember more details about their the need to understand what is happening, resulting in
relationships than do men social inhibition instead of affiliation
● Expect more reciprocity and loyalty in their one-to-
B. STRESS AND AFFILIATION
one friendship relationships as well as intimacy,
solidarity, and companionship Safety in Numbers - Humans are group-seeking animals,
● Men, seeking power and influence, join but their gregariousness becomes particularly robust
competitive, goal-oriented groups where they can under conditions of stress
vie for status. ● Illness, divorce, catastrophe, natural
disaster, or personal loss, people seek out friends and
D. ATTITUDES, EXPERIENCES, AND EXPECTATIONS relatives
Beliefs about Groups (BAG) scale - Measure people’s ● Individuals experiencing work-related stress,
preferences for taking part in groups, expectations such as the threat of layoffs, time pressures, or
about how hard people work in groups, and predictions inadequate supervision, cope by joining with coworkers
of the positive and negative effects groups will have on Affiliation and Social Support
performance Social Support: A sense of belonging, emotional
○ Positive beliefs about a group’s capacity to support, advice, guidance, tangible assistance, and
enhance performance and effort expressed a stronger perspective provided by groups when members
preference to join in groups ○negative expectations experience stress, daily hassles, and more significant
about groups were disinclined to take part in them life crises.
Experiences in Groups - One’s previous experience in Forms of Social Support
groups, whether good or bad, influences one’s interest Belonging: Let members know that they are
in joining groups in the future. valued members and reassure them they are not alone
○ One’s previous experience in groups, whether Emotional Support: express their caring,
good or bad, influences one’s interest in joining groups concern, and affection for one another
in the future are more likely to join such groups when Informational Support: Groups provide
they themselves reach adulthood members with useful information for solving problems,
Taking Collective Action making decisions, and setting their goals
● Influence people’s decisions to join a social Instrumental Support: Groups offer tangible
movement (○ Sense of Injustice ○ Strong Emotions) assistance to their members, as when they help each
● Anger has been identified as a key factor in other with assigned tasks, loan money and materials to
distinguishing between who will join a movement and one another, or work collaboratively on shared tasks.
who will not. Meaning: Groups provide members with
existential, or spiritual support, by allaying existential
2. AFFILIATION anxiety, reconfirming members’ world views, and
■ Generally speaking, is the gathering together of sharing faith and perspectives.
conspecifics in one location. Affiliation and Health
○ The gathering together of individuals ● A safe haven from the storm of stress
(typically members of the same species) in one ● Enjoy strong social bonds tend to experience
location; also, a formalized relationship, as when an less stress in their lives
individual is said to be affiliated with a group or ● Groups can serve as protective buffers
organization. against these negative consequences. ○buffering effect
■ Social psychologist Leon Festinger (1950, 1954) ● Health crises, personal tragedies, terrorist
maintained that people often rely on others for attacks, and intergroup conflict
information about themselves and the environment.
Misery Loves Company - Social psychologist Stanley C. SOCIAL COMPARISON AND THE SELF
Schachter (1959) believed that most people, finding Upward and Downward Social Comparison
themselves in such a predicament, would choose to join

Downward Social Comparison - Selecting people who us, or declare their admiration for us—we usually
are less well off as targets for social comparison (rather respond by liking them in return
than individuals who are similar or superior to oneself ■ When Person A expresses liking for Person B,
or one’s outcomes). it implies that Person A will treat Person B with
● Self-esteem is on the line respect, compassion, and benevolence on future
● Selecting targets who are worse off than they are occasions, so Person B usually responds favorably by
expressing liking for Person A
Upward Social Comparison - Selecting people who are
superior to oneself or whose outcomes surpass one’s The Minimax Principle - People will join groups and
own as targets for social comparison. remain in groups that provide them with the maximum
● Provoke darker, more negative, emotions, number of valued rewards while incurring the minimum
such as resentment, envy, and shame rather than pride number of possible cost
and admiration. ■ Social and personal rewards as meeting
people, making new friends, developing new interests,
Self-Evaluation Maintenance
or enhancing their self-esteem
Self-Evaluation Maintenance (SEM) Model - Abraham ■ Learning new skills, increased opportunities
Tesser’s suggests, we will graciously celebrate others’ for networking, and fun.
accomplishments, provided they perform very well on ■ Lose time and money, social pressures,
tasks that are not central to our sense of self-worth possible injury or illness, and excessive demands
3. ATTRACTION B. THE ECONOMICS OF MEMBERSHIP
A. PRINCIPLES OF ATTRACTION Decision to join is based on two factors:
○ Social psychologist Theodore Newcomb’s classic study Comparison Level (CL) - Individual evaluates the
of the acquaintance process anticipated the methods quality of any social relationship.
used in many contemporary reality television programs. ■ Prior group memberships yielded very
○ People are more likely to associate with certain positive rewards with very few costs, his CL should
people—those who are nearby be higher than that of someone who has experienced
○ Express similar attitudes and values fewer rewards and more costs through group
○ Who respond positively to them membership.
The Proximity Principle - The tendency for individuals Comparison Level for Alternatives (CLalt) - the standard
to form interpersonal relations with those who are by which individuals evaluate the quality of other
close by ■ Also known as the “principle of propinquity.” groups that they may join
The Elaboration Principle - The tendency for groups to
expand in size as non-members become linked to a
group member and thus become part of the group itself
The Similarity Principle - The tendency for individuals
to seek out, affiliate with, or be attracted to an
individual who is similar to them in some way
■ Homophily - “Love of the same” similarity of
the members in attitudes, values, demographic
characteristics, and so on—is common in groups.
The Complementarity Principle - Suggests that people
are attracted to those who possess characteristics that
complement their own personal characteristics
■ Alarm and friendly seek out others who are
sociable and positive
■ Interchange compatibility - Compatibility
between group members based on their similar needs
for inclusion, control, and affection
■ Originator compatibility - Exists when people
have dissimilar, but complementary, needs with regard
to expressing and receiving control, inclusion, and
affection.
● OC is high if a person with a high need to
control the group joined a group whose members
wanted a strong leader.
The Reciprocity Principle - Liking tends to be mutual.
When we discover that someone else accepts and
approves of us—they give friendly advice, compliment

GROUP DYNAMICS 311
REVIEWER|BS PSYCH|PRELIMS
provide the maximum number of valued rewards forces that keep an is here deemed as the
and incur the fewest number of possible costs. individual from leaving a result of all the forces
group acting on the members to
remain in the group.
These forces may depend
Cohesion and Development on the attractiveness or
• Why do some groups disintegrate in the face of unattractiveness of either
adversity, whereas others grow even stronger? the prestige of the group,
• When do members put the needs of their group members in the group, or
above their own personal interests? the activities in which the
group engages
• How does a group, with only meager resources,
Tendency to stick Social cohesion should
manage to best another group that is superior in
together (cohere) also be understood as a
terms of both experience and talent? state of affairs concerning
how well people in a
society "cohere” or “stick”
to each other
Cohesion is now generally

described as group
members’ inclinations to
forge social bonds,
resulting in members
sticking together and
remaining united
Trust and teamwork The essence of strong
primary group cohesion,
which I believe to be
generally agreed on, is
trust among group
members (e.g., to watch
each other’s back)
Core Concept Definition and Source together with the capacity
Attraction among the The cohesiveness of for teamwork (e.g., pulling
members of a group small groups is defined in together to get the task or
terms of intermember job done)
attraction. That group
property which is inferred
from the number and
strength of mutual
positive attitudes among
the members of a group
Attraction of the members Cohesiveness refers to
to the group as a whole attraction of members to
a group as a whole. A kind
of synthetic or
aggregative property of
the sum of the feelings of
attraction to the group of
each individual group
members
Relational cohesion [is]

the sense of coming
together, of something
larger that unifies actors
and actions
Belonging and morale Perceived cohesion
encompasses as
individual’s sense of
belonging to a particular
group and his or her
feelings of morale
associated with
membership in the group
Strength of the social Cohesiveness of a group
GROUP DYNAMICS 311
TASK COHESION
• Stress the quality of their teamwork.

• A group whose cohesiveness is generated by
a shared task focus tends to be high in
collective efficacy.
PERCEIVED COHESION
• Members express a sense of belonging to the

group by stressing their commitment to the
group; they are loyal to the group, identify with
the group, and readily classify themselves as
members.
EMOTIONAL COHESION
• Intense emotional experiences.

GROUP DYNAMICS 311
• Esprit de corps - A feeling of unity, commitment,
confidence, and enthusiasm for the group shared
by most or all of the members.
Stages of Group Development
Prepared and arranged by:
Nario, Jaycel Gwyneth
Psychological Society QC - Educational Committee
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Chapter 6 / Group Dynamics / (Forsyth, 2020)
★ In groups, structure creates the social actions that should be avoided

order, including the regulatory if at all possible (Sorrels &
standards that define how members are Kelley, 1984).
supposed to behave (norms) given their ○ Descriptive norms describe
position in the group (roles) and the what most people usually do,
connections among members feel, or think in a particular
(intermember relations). situation.
○
★
Social psychologist Robert
A structural analysis assumes that
Cialdini’s (2009) calls the
group interactions follow a predictable,
tendency for people to use
organized pattern because they are
other people’s responses as
regulated by influential interpersonal
useful information about how
structures.
they should themselves
respond the principle of social
NORMS proof: People assume that a
behavior is the correct one
when they see others
THE NATURE OF SOCIAL NORMS
performing it.
★ Norms are a fundamental element of
○ Injunctive norms are more
social structure; the group’s rules of
evaluative—they describe the
order (Fine, 2012). As group standards,
sorts of behaviors that people
they provide direction and motivation,
ought to perform—or else
organize social interactions, and make
(Gibbs, 1965).
other people’s responses predictable
○ As sociologist Gary Alan Fine
and meaningful.
(2012) explains, “norms are
★ Each group member is restrained to a not merely behavioral
degree by norms, but each member regularities but involve a
also benefits from the order that norms collective embrace of the
provide. propriety of this regularity” (p.
★ These group-specific norms combine to 69).
form the group’s consensually ★ Internalization of Norms
accepted knowledge, beliefs, rituals, ○ Members comply with their
customs, rules, language, norms, and group’s norms not because
practices: the group’s culture (Schein, they have to but because they
1990). want to: The group’s norms
★ Types of Norms are their own, personal norms.
○ Prescriptive norms define the ○ Acting in ways that run
socially appropriate way to counter to norms is personally
respond in a situation. upsetting—as social
○ Proscriptive norms, in psychologist Stanley Milgram
contrast, are prohibitions; discovered when he asked his
they define the types of
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students to violate a norm become more similar to the actions and

deliberately. assumed evaluations of those around
them.
★ Social psychologist Muzafer Sherif
(1936) studied this social tuning
process by taking advantage of the
autokinetic (self-motion) effect.
THE TRANSMISSION OF NORMS

★ Sherif discovered that, even though the
other group members were no longer
present, the individuals’ judgments
were still consistent with the group’s
norms (Sherif, 1966). They had
internalized the norm.
★ Norms, because they are both
consensual (accepted by many group
members) and internalized (personally
accepted by each individual member),
are social facts—taken-for-granted
elements of the group’s stable
structure.
APPLICATION: NORMS AND HEALTH

★ Pluralistic ignorance happens when
members of a group privately vary in
outlook and expectations, but publicly
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS they all act similarly because they
★
believe that they are the only ones
Some norms are deliberately put in
whose personal views are different
place when a group is established; the
from the rest of the group.
founders of a group may make explicit
the dos and don’ts for a group and make ★ Many students, when asked about the
acceptance of these standards a drinking norms endorsed by the groups
condition for members. to which they belong, such as their
★
primary friendship groups, campus
A group that weathers a difficult issue
clubs, and sororities and fraternities,
or experience may endorse new
reported that these groups often
standards that will provide guidance in
approve of “drinking alcohol every
the future.
weekend” and “drinking enough to pass
★ Social tuning is the tendency for
out” (LaBrie et al., 2010, p. 345)—and
individuals’ actions and evaluations to
the stronger the group’s endorsement
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of drinking, the more heavily students occupied by a member who

who belong to such groups drank. performs behaviors that
★ Eating disorders, too, have been linked improve the nature and
to normative processes. quality of interpersonal
relations among members,
such as showing concern for
ROLES
the feelings of others,
reducing conflict, and
★ Roles are coherent sets of behaviors enhancing feelings of
expected of people in specific positions satisfaction and trust in the
(or statuses) within a group or social group.
setting. ★ Why Differentiation?
○ One answer, proposed by
THE NATURE OF SOCIAL ROLES Robert Bales (1950, 1955,
★ Roles define responsibilities and 1958), suggests that very few
expectations and facilitate individuals can
coordination by specifying who can be simultaneously fulfill both the
counted on to do what within the group. task and the relationship
★
needs of the group.
Role Differentiation
○ Bales used his interaction
○ Role differentiation refers to
process analysis (IPA) system
an increase in the number of
to identify certain specific
roles in a group, accompanied
types of behavior within the
by a gradual decrease in the
groups.
scope of these roles as each
○ Bales found that individuals
one becomes more narrowly
rarely performed both task
defined and specialized.
and relationship behaviors:
○ People who fulfill a task role
Most people gravitated toward
focus on the group’s goals and
either a task role or a
on the members’ attempts to
relationship role.
support one another as they
work.
ROLE THEORIES
○ Task role is defined as any
position in a group occupied ★ Functional Role Theories
by a member who performs ○ A number of theorists, in
behaviors that center on tasks seeking to explain why roles
and activities, such as develop in groups, stress their
initiating structure, providing functional utility.
task-related feedback, and ○ Roles exist in groups to fulfill,
setting goals. at least in part, these personal
○ Relationship role is defined as and interpersonal needs
any position in a group
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(Belbin, 2010; Blumberg et al., recognize the current

2012). requirements of the group and
○ Education theorists and then enact the role-specific
practitioners Kenneth Benne behaviors most appropriate in
and Paul Sheats (1948) the given context.
developed their well-known ★ Interactionist Theories
functional theory of roles by ○ Interactionist approaches
observing the interactions of recognize that group roles are
groups at the National analogous to theatrical roles,
Training Laboratories (NTL), but the group setting is more
an organization devoted to the like improv than a well-
improvement of groups. They rehearsed stage play. Roles
noted that while much work are negotiated by all group
had been done to train people members through a reciprocal
to lead groups, little had been process of role enactment—
done to train people to work in displaying certain behaviors
groups—even though the as part of one’s role in the
“setting of goals and the group—and role sending—the
marshaling of resources to transmission of one’s
move toward these goals is a expectations about what kinds
group responsibility in which of behaviors are expected of
all members of a mature group people who occupy particular
come variously to share” (pp. roles (Stryker & Vryan, 2006).
41–42). ○ This view is consistent with
○ Benne and Sheats suggested the sociologist Erving
that a group, to survive, must Goffman’s (1959)
meet two basic demands: The dramaturgical approach to
group must accomplish its social interaction. He
tasks, and the relationships maintained that individuals
among members must be engage in self-presentation
maintained. (also termed impression
○ Benne and Sheats theorize management) in order to steer
that individuals, given others’ impressions and
previous experiences in expectations.
groups and differences in ○ Roles, then, are negotiated
personality, naturally among members through a
gravitate to a particular type process that requires
of role across all the groups motivation, experience, and
they join. the ability to step out of one’s
○ The most skilled group own role and mentally
member is one with role imagining how others in the
flexibility: the capacity to
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groups are seeing you. This this member analytic and

process is termed role-taking. task-oriented or emotional,
★ Dynamic Role Theories nontraditional, and (in some
○ Sigmund Freud believed, for cases) resentful? (acceptance
example, that groups of the task-orientation of
psychologically replace our established authority is
first, and most basic, group: Forward, nonacceptance is
our family. This replacement Backward.)
hypothesis suggests that in ★ SYMLOG, by taking into account role,
highly cohesive groups, the status, and attraction, yields an
other group members come to integrative and in-depth picture of the
take the place of our siblings, organization of groups (Hare et al.,
so the emotional ties that bind 2005).
us to our groups are like the
ties that bind children to GROUP SOCIALIZATION
families. ★ Group Socialization Theory
○ Richard Moreland and John
BALE’S SYMLOG MODEL Levine (1982) developed their
★ Sociologist Robert Bales’s (1970, 1980, theory of group socialization
1999) SYMLOG model provides a final to explain how individuals
example of a comprehensive negotiate their role
explanation for the types of roles assignments in groups.
commonly observed in groups. ○ Group socialization is defined
★ The model—Systematic Multiple Level as a pattern of change in the
Observation of Groups (SYMLOG)— is relationship between an
based on the following three individual and a group that
dimensions: begins when an individual first
○ Dominance or considers joining the group
submissiveness: Is this and ends when he or she
member active, outgoing, and leaves it.
talkative or passive, quiet, and ○ Group socialization is a mutual
introverted? (dominance is process: Through assimilation,
Up, submissive is Down.) the individual accepts the
○ Friendliness or unfriendliness: group’s norms, values, and
Is this member warm, open, perspectives, and through
and positive or negative and accommodation, the group
irritable? (friendliness is adapts to fit the newcomer’s
Positive, unfriendliness is needs.
Negative.)
○ Acceptance or nonacceptance
of task-oriented authority: Is
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○ Moreland and Levine’s theory

distinguishes between five ○ To the full members, the
classes of roles—prospective newcomers are inexperienced
member, new member, full and cannot be completely
member, marginal member, trusted until they accept the
and ex-member.
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group’s norms and role ○ The group and the individual,

allocations. through accommodation and
assimilation, can resolve their
★ The Newcomer Role differences. In this instance,
○ The role of newcomer can be a convergence occurs, and the
stressful one (Moreland & individual once more becomes
Levine, 2002). New to the a full member of the group.
group and its procedures, ○ As a result, the divergence
newcomers lack basic between the group and the
information about their place individual becomes so great
in the group and their that a final role transition is
responsibilities. reached: exit.
★ Role Transition
○ Even seasoned group ROLE STRESS
members must adjust as the ★ Role Ambiguity
group adds new members, ○ The responsibilities and
adopts new goals in place of activities that are required of a
its old objectives, or modifies person who occupies a role are
status and role relationships. not always clear either to the
★ Resocialization occupant of the role (the role
○ When the divergence point is enactor or the role taker) or to
reached, the socialization the rest of the group (the role
process enters a new phase— senders).
resocialization. During ○ Role takers will likely
resocialization, the former full experience role ambiguity—
member takes on the role of a they wonder if they are acting
marginal member, whose appropriately, they perform
future in the group is behaviors that others in the
uncertain. group should be carrying out,
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and they question their ability negative psychological and

to fulfill their responsibilities. interpersonal outcomes.
★ Role Conflict ○ One solution involves making
○ Role conflict is a state of role requirements explicit.
tension, distress, or
uncertainty caused by INTERMEMBER RELATIONS
inconsistent or discordant
expectations associated with
one’s role in the group. STATUS RELATIONS
○ Interrole conflict develops ★ Status Differentiation
when role takers discover that ○ These stable variations in
the behaviors associated with members’ relative status have
one of their roles are many names—authority,
incompatible with those power, status network,
associated with another of pecking orders, chain of
their roles. command, or prestige
○ Intrarole conflict results from ranking—but whatever their
contradictory demands within label they result in elevated
a single role. authority for some and less for
★ Person-Role Conflict others.
○ Role fit is defined as the ○ In status differentiation,
degree of congruence certain individuals are
between the demands of a granted, or they acquire, more
specific role and the attitudes, authority than others.
values, skills, and other ○ Status differentiation is the
characteristics of the gradual rise of some group
individual who occupies the members to positions of
role. greater authority,
○ When role fit is low, people do accompanied by decreases in
not feel that they can “be the authority exercised by
themselves” in their roles; other members.
they also question their ★ Status Rank
capacity to enact the role’s ○ Predictions of status must
demands competently (Talley take into account the degree
et al., 2012). to which individuals’
★ Roles and Well-Being attributes match the qualities
○ In study after study, increases valued by the groups to which
in role ambiguity, role conflict, they belong: the person-group
and person–role conflict are fit.
associated with a host of
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ATTRACTION RELATIONS group. Conversely, groups are

★ Sociometric Differentiation unbalanced if they contain an
○ Sociometric differentiation odd number of negative
results in a stable ordering of relations (Newcomb, 1963,
members from least liked to 1981).
most liked.
○ Sociometric differentiation is COMMUNICATION RELATIONS
the development of stronger ★ The regular patterns of information
and more positive exchange among members of a group
interpersonal ties between are called communication networks.
some members of the group, ★ A communication network consists of
accompanied by decreases in patterns of information transmission
the quality of relations and exchange that describe who
between other members of the communicates most frequently and to
group. what extent with whom.
○ Most groups’ attraction ★ In a wheel network, for example, most
relations showed signs of group members communicate with just
reciprocity, transitivity, and one person.
★
homophily.
In a comcon, all members can and do
○ Clusters, or cliques, also
communicate with all other members.
existed in groups.
★ In a chain, communication flows from
○ Homophily happens when
one person to the next in a line.
members of cliques tend to be
more similar to one another ★ A circle is a closed chain.
than they are to the members ★ A pinwheel is a circle where
of the total group. information flows in only one direction
★ Balance Theory (Shaw, 1964).
○ According to Fritz Heider’s
(1958) balance theory, some
patterns of relationships in
groups are more structurally
sound, or balanced, than
others, so groups naturally
tend to gravitate toward these
rather than toward
unbalanced states.
○ In general, a group is balanced
if (1) all the relationships are
positive, or (2) an even
number of negative
relationships occurs in the
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performance, abilities, and

★ Network Centralization and skills (Sias, 2009).
Performance
○ Early studies of
APPLICATION: SOCIAL
communication networks
NETWORK ANALYSIS
suggested that groups with
centralized networks
outperformed decentralized MAPPING SOCIAL NETWORKS
networks (Bavelas, 1948, ★ Social network analysis is a set of
1950; Bavelas & Barrett, 1951; procedures defined by (a) a focus on
Leavitt, 1951). the structures of social groups and on
○ These results led social linkages among group members in
psychologist Marvin E. Shaw particular; (b) the systematic
to propose that network measurement of these structures; (c)
efficiency is related to the use of graphics to represent these
information saturation. When structures; and (d) the application of
a group is working on a statistical and mathematic procedures
problem, exchanging to quantify these structures (Freeman,
information, and making a 2004).
decision, the central position ★ Individuals in Networks
in the network can best ○ SNA is a multilevel method. It
manage the inputs and yields information about each
interactions of the group. member of the network—the
○ In hierarchical communication egocentric network——as well
networks, information can as insights into the group as a
pass either horizontally whole— the sociocentric
between members on the network.
same rung of the ○ Degree centrality is the
communication ladder or number of connections or ties
vertically up and down from to a node.
followers to leaders and back ○ Outdegree is the number of
(Jablin, 1979). links directed out from the
○ In larger organizations, the node, whereas indegree is the
upward flow of information number of links directed in.
may be much impeded by the ○ Betweenness takes into
mechanics of the transfer account ties to more distant
process and by the low-status actors in the network
members’ reluctance to send (Freeman, 1979).
information that might reflect ○ Closeness is determined by
unfavorably on their the distance to all other
members of the group.
10 (STRUCTURE)

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STRUCTURE
★ Groups as Networks
○ Density is determined by how
many people are linked to one
another out of the total
possible number of links.
○ Cliques, or clusters, of
subgroups often form in larger
networks.
○ Holes are “disconnections
between nonredundant
contacts in a network” (Burt,
1997, p. 339) or the gaps in a
network that separate
clusters or cliques.
APPLYING SOCIAL NETWORKS

★ A group’s dynamics cannot be
understood if the relationships linking
each member to one another and to the
group are not understood.
★ When working in a group, its best to
remain mindful of——and possibly
openly discuss and clarify——the norms
that guide members’ actions, the roles
needed within the group, and the way
the members are connected one to
another.
11 (STRUCTURE)

lOMoARcPSD|22638159
INFLUENCE
★ The integration of individuals into a some lines and decide which

coordinated whole is made possible by ones were of the same lengths.
social influence—interpersonal Asch then showed them two
processes that change people’s cards. One card showed the
thoughts, feelings, or actions. “standard” line. The other
★ Whereas majority influence increases displayed three lines of
the consensus within the group, varying length. The students
minority influence sustains then picked the one line from
individuality and innovation. the second card that was of
the same length as the
standard line on the first card.
MAJORITY INFLUENCE: This comparison process was
THE POWER OF THE MANY repeated 18 times, or 18 trials,
and on each occasion, the
★
students announced their
Groups offer their members many
answers aloud.
advantages over a solitary existence,
○ When the students worked
but these advantages come at a cost.
★
alone, they rarely made an
Majority influence is the social pressure
error. But in the group with the
exerted by the larger portion of a group
erroneous confederates,
(the majority), directed toward
about one-third of the
individual members and smaller
subjects conformed by also
factions within the group (the
giving that answer.
minority).
○ Three out of every four
★ Minority influence is the social subjects made at least one
pressure exerted by a lone individual or error during the experiment.
smaller faction of a group (the Some conformed even more
minority), directed toward members of than that —about 5%
the majority.
conformed every time the
★ Conformity is a change in one’s actions, majority made a mistake—but
emotions, opinions, judgments, and so the average conformity rate
on that reduces their discrepancy with across the sessions was
these same types of responses 36.8%.
displayed by others. ○ Asch’s summary: “The
majority deflected
CONFORMITY AND INDEPENDENCE considerably the estimates of
★ The Asch Situation the minority in its direction.
○ The groups in the Asch Whereas the judgmentswere
situation were given a simple virtually free of error under
task. Asch told the young men control conditions, one-third
who volunteered for his study of the minority estimates were
that he wanted them to look at
1 (INFLUENCE)

lOMoARcPSD|22638159
INFLUENCE
distorted toward the majority” ■ Members disagree by

(Asch, 1956, p. 69). publicly expressing
★ Types of Conformity ideas, beliefs, and
○ Compliance (or acquiescence) judgments that are
■ When compliance consistent with their
occurs, members personal standards.
privately disagree ○ Anticonformity
with the group but (counterconformity)
they publicly express ■ Members who display
an opinion that anticonformity
matches the opinion express ideas or take
expressed by the actions that are the
majority of the group. opposite of whatever
○ Conversion (or private the group favors.
acceptance) ○ Strategic anticonformity
■ Members change (devil’s advocate)
their position on the ■ Members take a
issue because they position that opposes
think the group is that endorsed by the
correct; they majority of the
personally accept the members publically,
group’s position as even though
their own. privately they agree
○ Congruence (or uniformity) with the majority.
■ Members agree with
the group from the CONFORMITY OR INDEPENDENCE
outset, so they are ★ Asch’s study is often used to suggest
not responding to the that people are, by nature, conformists
group’s influence who tend to go along unthinkingly with
when they express whatever the majority favors.
their position ★ The data, however, suggest otherwise.
publicly. They do not Participants did not comply on all the
need to shift their trials; instead, their more frequent
opinion in the social response was to remain
direction advocated independent. They spoke their minds
by the group because even when confronted with a
it was already their unanimous majority and agreed with
position. the others only occasionally ——when
★ Types of Nonconformity their error was a slight one or by
○ Independence (dissent) choosing an answer that was
intermediate between the correct
2 (INFLUENCE)

lOMoARcPSD|22638159
INFLUENCE
answer and the majority’s mistaken one ○ The difference between the
(Hodges & Geyer, 2006). Asch situation and the so-
called Crutchfield situation.
CONFORMITY ACROSS CONTEXTS ○ The Crutchfield situation is an
★ Unanimity experimental procedure
○ Why is a unanimous majority developed by Richard
so influential? First, Crutchfield to study
individuals who face the conformity. Participants who
majority alone, without a signaled their responses using
single ally, bear 100% of the an electronic response
group’s pressure. console believed they were
○ The larger the size of the making judgments as part of a
minority, the smaller the group, but the responses of
majority; each time a member the other members that
of the majority shifts to the appeared on their console’s
minority, the minority grows display were simulated.
stronger and the majority ○ Because group members’
weaker (Clark, 1990). responses were private,
○ A partner makes a very however, fewer people
embarrassing situation less conformed in the Crutchfield
so. situation relative to the Asch
★ Strong and Weak Situations situation (Bond & Smith,
○ Weak situations do not 1996).
pressure people to act as ★ Strength in Numbers (Up to a Point)
everyone else does, and so ○ Larger majorities are more
their actions in such settings influential——but only up to a
tend to be shaped more by point. People in two-person
their personal proclivities groups conformed very little;
rather than by social most were unsettled by the
constraints. erroneous choices of their
○ Strong situations, in contrast, partner, but they did not go
leave very little opportunity along with him or her (3.6%
for people to act in unusual or error rate). But the error rate
idiosyncratic ways (Mischel, climbed to 13.6% when
1977). participants faced two
○ People conform more in opponents, and when a single
strong situations that individual was pitted against
undercut their capacity to three others, conformity
resist the group. jumped to 31.8%.
★ Social Impact
3 (INFLUENCE)

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INFLUENCE
○ Social psychologist Bibb ○ People who rely on situational

Latané’s (1981) social impact cues when making perceptual
theory provides a general judgments, self-conscious
framework for organizing individuals, and those who are
what researchers have continually checking to see
learned about conformity how well they are fitting into
pressures in groups. the group or situation (high
○ Drawing on studies of self-monitors), are more likely
psychophysics, Latané to make certain that their
suggests that the magnitude actions match the group’s
of social influence pressures standards.
depends on the number of ○ Conformists have a higher
sources, their strength, and need for social approval, are
their psychological more interpersonally oriented,
immediacy. and are more fearful of social
○ Social impact theory is an rejection.
analysis of social influence, ○ Factors that undermine self-
which proposes that the confidence—low self-esteem,
impact of any source of incompetence, low
influence depends upon the intelligence— also increase
strength, the immediacy, and conformity.
the number of people ★ Conformity across the Sexes
(sources) present (developed ○ Women were more likely to
by Bibb Latané). conform than men.
○ In sum, social impact is a ○ Women may use agreement to
function of the strength (S), create consensus and
the immediacy (I), and the cohesion in their groups.
number (N) of sources ○ Men, in contrast, may disagree
present, or Social Impact = with others to gain status or
fSIN distance themselves from the
group.
WHO WILL CONFORM? ○ Despite changes in
★ Conformity across people stereotypes about women and
○ Conformists tend to be more men, groups traditionally
rigid in their thinking; their reward men for acting in
conventionality, conservative dominant, nonconforming
values, and unwillingness to ways and women for acting in
confront authority increase cooperative, communal ways.
their willingness to accept the ○ If women feel that they should
majority’s opinion. behave in a traditional way,
they may conform more than
4 (INFLUENCE)

lOMoARcPSD|22638159
INFLUENCE
men (Eagly, Wood, & ○ Conversion theory proposes

Fishbaugh, 1981). that minorities influence in a
★ Conformity across Cultures and Eras different way than majorities
○ People tend to conform more do. Minorities, Moscovici
in collectivistic cultures, theorized influence through
especially when the source of the validation process.
influence is family members or ○ When people discover where
friends (Frager, 1970). most of the group stands on a
○ Bond and Smith discovered position, through a
that conformity rates have comparison process, they
dropped since the 1950s, but check to see if they can join
they found no support for the the majority.
idea that conformity is a “child
of its time.” Conformity is PREDICTING MINORITY INFLUENCE
decreasing, but this decline ★ Consistency and Influence
was not sharper in the 1960s ○ A consistent minority is an
or more gradual in the influential one.
relatively placid 1970s and ○ Subsequent studies have
1980s. confirmed the importance of
behavioral consistency on the
part of the minority, but they
also suggest that minorities
MINORITY INFLUENCE:
must walk the line between
THE POWER OF THE FEW
appearing self-assured and
unreasonable.
CONVERSION THEORY OF MINORITY ○ An influential minority also
INFLUENCE avoids threatening the
★ Moscovici’s conversion theory integrity of the group itself.
maintains that disagreement within the ○ In such cases, an individual
group results in conflict and that the who is not even a member of
group members—motivated to reduce the group may be more
that conflict—change others and also influential than an ingroup
change themselves (Moscovici, 1976, member (Phillips, 2003).
1980, 1985, 1994). ★ Idiosyncrasy Credits
★ Conversion theory is a conceptual ○ Social psychologist Edwin
analysis of the cognitive and Hollander (1971) developed
interpersonal processes that mediate the concept of idiosyncrasy
the direct and indirect impact of a credits to explain the group’s
consistent minority on the majority positive reaction to a minority
(developed by Serge Moscovici). who prefaces dissent with
★ Comparison or Validation? conformity.
5 (INFLUENCE)

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INFLUENCE
○ According to Hollander, argumentation. Those who

idiosyncrasy credits know that they are members
accumulate as the member of the majority position on an
contributes to the progress of issue feel less pressure to
the group toward desired articulate their points clearly,
goals. Because high-status for they expect that, with
members have usually numbers on their side, they
contributed more in the past are likely to carry the day.
and possess more valued
personal characteristics, they DYNAMIC SOCIAL IMPACT THEORY
have more idiosyncrasy ★ The majority assumes change takes
credits. place when members recognize the
○ The idiosyncrasy model wisdom of the collective and conform
suggests that influence levels to its choices. The minority, in contrast,
in a group are increased by thinks change occurs when the
careful conformity to group majority reexamines and revises its
norms during the early phases position.
of group formation, followed ★ Dynamic social impact theory, as
by dissent when a sufficient proposed by Latané (1997) and his
balance of idiosyncrasy credit colleagues, describes the processes
has been established underlying this give-and-take between
(Hollander, 2014). the majority and the minority.
○
★
Idiosyncrasy credit is an
Dynamic social impact theory is an
explanation for the leniency
extension of Latané’s social impact
groups sometimes display
theory, which assumes that influence is
toward high-status members
a function of the strength, the
who violate group norms; the
immediacy, and the number of sources
hypothetical interpersonal
present and that this influence results
credit or bonus that is earned
in consolidation, clustering,
each time an individual makes
correlation, and continuing diversity in
a contribution to the group but
groups that are spatially distributed
the credit decreases each time
and interacting repeatedly over time
the individual influences
(developed by Bibb Latané).
others, makes errors, or
★ Consolidation
deviates from the group’s
○ As individuals interact with
norms (proposed by Edwin
one another regularly, their
Hollander).
actions, attitudes, and
★ The Diligence of Dissenters
opinions become more
○ Part of the secret of the
uniform.
unique influence of minorities
★ Clustering
lies in the quality of their
6 (INFLUENCE)

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INFLUENCE
○ As the law of social impact

SOURCES OF GROUP INFLUENCE
suggests, people are more
influenced by their closest
neighbors, so clusters of ★ Conformity is in many cases an
group members with similar automatic, spontaneous reaction
opinions emerge in groups. rather than a mindful one.
Clustering is more likely when ★ Conformity is often the most
(a) group members reasonable response in a situation:
communicate more frequently When others are well-informed but we
with members who are close ourselves are ignorant, it’s wise to use
by and less frequently with them as an informational resource.
more distant group members ★ People often conform because they
and (b) if members can change accept the legitimacy of the group and
locations to join similar others. its norms.
★ Correlation ★ Conformity is often a means of avoiding
○ Over time, the group criticism, abuse, and exclusion.
members’ opinions on a
variety of issues——even ones IMPLICIT INFLUENCE
★
that are not discussed openly
Unlike explicit, implicit influence
in the group—converge, so that
consciously recognized social
their opinions become
influence, unnoticed and largely
correlated.
automatic cognitive, emotional, and
★ Continuing diversity behavioral reactions to other people.
○ Because
★
of clustering,
Mimicry
members of minorities are
○ People often deliberately
often shielded from the
imitate each other, but
influence attempts of the
mimicry involves an
majority, and their beliefs
unconscious copying of the
continue within the group.
behavior others are exhibiting.
★
★
Dynamic social impact theory suggests
Mindlessness
that minorities, particularly in spatially
○ When in a state of
distributed groups, are protected from
mindlessness, people aren’t
influence. So long as minorities can
asking themselves, “Should I
cluster together, diversity in groups is
agree?” They aren’t even
ensured.
thinking about what they are
doing and so conform almost
automatically (Langer, 1989).
○ Mindlessness is a state of
reduced cognitive processing
characterized by actions
based on habit, routine, or
7 (INFLUENCE)

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INFLUENCE
previously formed appropriate in any given

discriminations rather than situation.
conscious deliberation. ★ Dual Process Theory
○ According to the dual process
INFORMATIONAL INFLUENCE theories of informational
★ Informational influence is the influence, we are influenced
acceptance of “information obtained by other people’s choices for
from another as evidence about two reasons.
reality” (Deutsch & Gerard, p. 629). ○ First, learning about other’s
★ Behavioral economists may call going responses can trigger a
along with the crowd herding, but they thoughtful analysis, or
underscore its rational basis: There is elaboration, of the issues at
information revealed in the choices hand.
other people make (Raafat, Chater, & ○ These cognitive responses are
Frith, 2009). termed direct processes since
★ Social Comparison they prompt a more thorough,
○ Social comparison theory, rational analysis of the issue.
assumes that we sometimes ○ These direct informational
evaluate the accuracy of our influence processes are
beliefs and gauge the quality complemented by less
of our personal attributes by rational, more indirect
comparing ourselves to other processes (Moskowitz &
individuals. Chaiken, 2001).
○ Our groups sometimes even ○ Particularly when our
deliberately gather cognitive resources are
information about members’ limited or when we are not
opinions by taking a so-called motivated to do the cognitive
straw poll. work necessary to weigh the
○ The false consensus effect is information available to us, we
common in groups: We assume use simplifying inferential
that there is more support for principles, termed heuristics,
our position than there to reach decisions quickly
actually is (Krueger & (Kahneman, 2011).
Clement, 1997; Ross, Greene, ○ Heuristic is an inferential
& House, 1977). principle or rule of thumb that
○ False consensus effect is the people use to reach
perceivers’ tendency to conclusions when the amount
assume that their beliefs, of available information is
attributes, and actions are limited, ambiguous, or
relatively common and contradictory.
8 (INFLUENCE)

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INFLUENCE
★ Informational Influence of Minorities respond when they hold two

○ As Moscovici argued, inconsistent cognitions, but
minorities create cognitive researchers have confirmed
conflicts that challenge the that people also experience
status quo of the group and dissonance when they
call for a reevaluation of discover that they do not
issues at hand. agree with other group
○ Minority influence can also members.
trigger indirect processes, just ★ Focus Theory
like majority influence does. ○ Robert Cialdini (2011), in his
Because we are sensitive to focus theory of normative
shifts in the group’s general conduct, explains the
opinion, if we notice that the relationship between
minority position is gaining informational and normative
ground on the majority, then influence and two different
we may all change sides as types of social norms:
well, creating a cascade: a descriptive and injunctive.
rapid opinion shift that flows ○ Descriptive norm defines what
throughout the group people typically do in any
(Sunstein & Hastie, 2015). given situation—the “normal”
course of action.
NORMATIVE INFLUENCE ○ Injunctive norms describe
★ Normative influence, in contrast, what people should do in any
occurs when members tailor their given situation.
actions and attitudes to match the ○ Normative influence, in
norms of the group situation. contrast, requires more
★ Normative influence is a change- cognitive resources; only
promoting interpersonal processes when members can focus on
based on social norms, standards, and the injunctive norm and its
convention. Because individuals implications will individuals
internalize their group’s norms, they change to comply with the
strive to act in ways that are consistent norm’s standard.
with those norms.
★
INTERPERSONAL INFLUENCE
Dissonance and Dissent
○ Discovering one has managed ★ Interpersonal influence is the social
to wander outside of the responses that explicitly, roughly, and
group’s norms generates a sometimes even coercively force
negative reaction that is akin others to conform.
to cognitive dissonance. ★ The deviant always disagreed with the
○ Dissonance theory originally majority.
focused on how people
9 (INFLUENCE)

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INFLUENCE
★ The slider disagreed initially but members who are strongly

conformed over the course of the committed to the group are
discussion. more, rather than less, likely
★ The mode served as a control; he to dissent.
consistently agreed with the majority.
★
WHEN INFLUENCE INHIBITS: THE BYSTANDER
Interpersonal Rejection
EFFECT
○ The group members did not
just argue with the deviant—— ★ Inhibition of Helping in Groups
they also rejected the deviant. ○ Social pressures in the
★
situation, they suggested, may
The Black-Sheep Effect
have interfered with people’s
○ The psychological processes,
capacity to respond in a
which are referred to as
helpful way to the emergency.
subjective group dynamics,
○ Latané and Darley’s work
will cause individuals to react
demonstrated the bystander
negatively to dissenters with
effect—people are less likely to
whom they share only
help when in groups rather
category memberships.
than alone—and soon other
○ Subjective group dynamics
investigators confirmed these
refer to psychological and
results.
interpersonal processes that
result from social ★ Social Influence and the Bystander
categorization and Effect
identification processes, ○ Emergency situations are
including members’ desire to usually unfamiliar ones, so
sustain the positive people who witness them do
distinctiveness of the ingroup not fully understand what is
and the validity of its shared happening and how they
beliefs. should respond.
○ One intriguing consequence of ○ Normative influence does not
subjective group dynamics: enjoin bystanders to help
Ingroup members are strangers.
sometimes judged more ○ If individuals in the situation
harshly than outgroup know each other, then the
members when they perform bystander effect is minimized
identical behaviors. This —and often reversed—with
tendency is termed the black- larger groups providing more
sheep effect (Marques, 2010). help than individuals or
★
smaller groups (Levine et al.,
Identity and Dissent
2005).
○ Social psychologist Dominic
○ People feel less responsible
Packer’s normative conflict
when in groups compared to
model of dissent argues that
10 (INFLUENCE)

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INFLUENCE
being alone, and this diffusion ○ Jurors seem to take their role
of responsibility leaves very seriously.
bystanders feeling that it is ○ Jury members themselves,
not their responsibility to help. when asked to rate the quality
of their group’s deliberations,
are generally very favorable.
APPLICATION:
○ Juries do well when compared
UNDERSTANDING JURIES
with judges’ decisions.
○ Jurors are hardly unbiased,
★ Jury Dynamics rational weighers of evidence;
○ Jury researchers Reid Hastie, the defendant’s physical
Steven Penrod, and Nancy appearance, the lawyers’ style
Pennington (1983), in their of questioning, and the
story model of jury sequencing of evidence are
deliberation, noted that jurors just a few of the factors that
generally approach the bias jurors’ decisions.
decision in one of two ways. ★ Improving Juries
○ Some jurors appear to be ○ Jury Size
verdict driven. They reach a ○ Unanimity
decision about the verdict ○ Procedural Innovations
before deliberation and ■ Some courts also
cognitively organize the permit jurors to (1)
evidence into two categories: take notes during the
evidence that favors a verdict presentation of
of guilty and evidence that evidence and use
favors a verdict of not guilty. these notes during
○ Evidence-driven jurors, in deliberation; (2)
contrast, resist making a final submit questions to
decision on the verdict until the court that, after
they have reviewed all the review by judge and
available evidence; then they legal counsel, can be
generate a story that weaves considered in
together the evidence of the summary statements
trial and their own during the trial or in
expectations and assumptions the presentation of
about people and similar additional evidence;
situations in a coherent and (3) discuss the
narrative (Pennington & trial among
Hastie, 1986, 1992). themselves while the
★ How Effective Are Juries? trial is ongoing
11 (INFLUENCE)

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INFLUENCE
(Vidmar & Hans,

2007).
○ Voir dire
■ The selection of jury
members from a pool
of potential
participants occurs
through a process
known as voir dire.
■ Voir dire—an
alteration of the
French phrase vrai
dire, which means “to
speak truly”—calls for
verbal or written
questioning of
prospective jurors to
uncover any biases or
prejudices that may
stand in the way of
fairness and
impartiality (Kovera
& Austin, 2016)
12 (INFLUENCE)

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GROUP DYNAMICS (PRELIM REVIEWER) 3. COLLECTIVES (Audiences, Crowds, Mobs etc.

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Cohesion is now generally

Relational cohesion [is]

• Stress the quality of their teamwork.

• Members express a sense of belonging to the

• Intense emotional experiences.

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Stages of Group Development

Prepared and arranged by:

Nario, Jaycel Gwyneth

Psychological Society QC - Educational Committee

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★ In groups, structure creates the social actions that should be avoided

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students to violate a norm become more similar to the actions and

THE TRANSMISSION OF NORMS

APPLICATION: NORMS AND HEALTH

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of drinking, the more heavily students occupied by a member who

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(Belbin, 2010; Blumberg et al., recognize the current

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groups are seeing you. This this member analytic and

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○ Moreland and Levine’s theory

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group’s norms and role ○ The group and the individual,

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and they question their ability negative psychological and

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ATTRACTION RELATIONS group. Conversely, groups are

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performance, abilities, and

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APPLYING SOCIAL NETWORKS

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★ The integration of individuals into a some lines and decide which

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distorted toward the majority” ■ Members disagree by

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○ Social psychologist Bibb ○ People who rely on situational

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men (Eagly, Wood, & ○ Conversion theory proposes

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○ According to Hollander, argumentation. Those who