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The Rise of Veterinary Forensics

Nicola M.A. Parry (Writing - original draft) (Writing - review and

editing), Alexander Stoll (Writing - review and editing)

PII: S0379-0738(19)30481-5
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.110069
Reference: FSI 110069

To appear in: Forensic Science International

Received Date: 9 November 2018

Revised Date: 8 February 2019
Accepted Date: 15 November 2019

Please cite this article as: Parry NMA, Stoll A, The Rise of Veterinary Forensics, Forensic
Science International (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.110069

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The Rise of Veterinary Forensics

Nicola M. A. Parrya,*, Alexander Stollb

aMidwest Veterinary Pathology LLC, Lafayette, Indiana, United States

bVeterinary Pathology Centre, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey,

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Francis Crick Road, GU2 7YW, United Kingdom

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* Corresponding author. Email address: nicola@midwestvetpath.com

Highlights
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 Veterinary forensics is an important emerging field.


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Application of forensics in veterinary cases lags behind its use in medical cases.

 Educational opportunities will help veterinarians to better manage forensics

cases.
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 Interdisciplinary collaborations can improve veterinary forensic investigations.

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Abstract
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Veterinary forensics is rapidly emerging as a distinct branch of veterinary

medicine, especially because of increasing mindfulness about animal cruelty, and of the

link between acts of cruelty to animals and violence toward humans. Nevertheless, the

application of forensic sciences in veterinary cases lags behind its application in medical

cases. Although gaps persist in veterinarians’ knowledge of forensics and in how to

apply this field to medicolegal cases involving animals, continued research and

publication in veterinary forensics are rapidly developing the evidence base in this area.

Additionally, educational opportunities in veterinary forensics are also increasing at both

undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Together, these changes will continue to

improve veterinarians’ abilities to investigate cases involving animals. To further

strengthen these investigations, veterinarians should also collaborate with the

appropriate experts in different disciplines of forensic science.

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Keywords: Veterinary forensics; Veterinarian; Abuse; Crime-scene investigation;

Collaboration

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Introduction

Veterinary forensics is a relatively new and emerging specialized field—albeit an

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important one. Recent decades have seen a significant rise in application of forensic

sciences to investigations centered on crimes against animals. In general, animal-

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related litigation can encompass a range of cases, including those involving neglect,

non-accidental injury, theft, illegal killing, violation of wildlife laws, and transport
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violations, as well as activities such as veterinary professional misconduct and

veterinary insurance claims [1].

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This article does not aim to provide a traditional Preferred Reporting Items for

Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)-style review of developments in the

field of veterinary forensics. Rather, it aims to serve as an overview that highlights some

features of the growing awareness of this new field, and to stress the need for
veterinarians to use a collaborative approach with other experts in different areas of

forensic science to improve the investigative process and the strength of the forensic

evidence. This collaboration is especially important because veterinary forensics

predominantly centers on investigating crimes of animal abuse or neglect, and

recognition of the connection between violence against animals and violence against

humans is well documented [1]. The authors, both credentialed veterinary pathologists,

share examples of such collaborations, emphasizing some based on personal

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involvement. The article also discusses some aspects of the growing evidence base in

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veterinary forensics, and educational opportunities in this field.

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Application of forensic sciences in veterinary cases lags behind that in medical
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cases

In medicine, early recorded use of forensics dates back many centuries to at

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least the 200s BC, when the Chinese used fingerprints as identification marks on

legal contracts [2]. The earliest extant publication on forensic medicine is accepted to be
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Sung Tz’u’s, “The Washing Away of Wrongs”, dating from 1247 [3]. Forensic science

has since significantly evolved, and its development is well documented [4,5]. By the
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12th century, physicians in Italy were used as experts to provide opinions as to whether

a person’s medical condition should excuse an appearance in court. The first

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medicolegal autopsies are also thought to have been performed by physicians in Italy

around this time, and then by physicians in several other European countries by the late

16th century [6]. In the mid-to-late 17th century, the first formal academic lectures in

forensic pathology were held at the University of Leipzig [7]; and, by the end of the 18th
century, three chairs in forensic medicine had been established in Paris, Montpellier,

and Strasbourg. In the English-speaking world, the University of Edinburgh was

the first university to establish a Chair of Medical Jurisprudence, in 1807. Subsequently,

the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York City established their first

Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in 1813 [5].

In contrast, the history of application of forensic science in the veterinary field is

less well documented. Animals feature amongst the causes of wounds and death to

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humans in the aforementioned 13th century work by Sung Tz’u [3]. Sung’s descriptions

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include trampling to death by horse or buffalo, marks from donkey’s hooves, butting by

a cow’s horns, tiger bites (curiously, the injury patterns are described by Sung to vary at

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different times of the lunar cycle, and then compared to how cats bite rats), snake,
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reptile and insect bites, and post-mortem injuries caused by insects, rats and dogs [3].

However, the application of forensic science in the veterinary field was relatively
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limited before the 1970s. After this time, application of forensic techniques to potential

animal-related evidence, such as blood and hairs, found at human crime scenes initially
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predominantly aimed to identify a potential animal origin for the evidence. This typically

was used to help eliminate any link between a suspect and the crime scene, rather than
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to help link them. Similarly, application of forensic science in wildlife-related crimes

mostly aimed to identify blood, hair, meat from locally-hunted species [8].
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The rising application of veterinary forensics

In the last few decades, however, use of forensic sciences in the veterinary

profession has significantly increased, driven by a combination of factors, including

increased awareness of associations between crimes against animals and crimes

against humans, and significant improvements in laws that protect animals [9,10].

Although animals are the main victims in animal abuse and wildlife trafficking,

these crimes also have wide-ranging negative impacts throughout society. For example,

compelling links between animal cruelty and violence against humans are now well

established, and highlight that acts such as animal abuse, child abuse, elder abuse, and

domestic violence frequently coexist. As such, animal abuse is now recognized as an

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indicator of other forms of social pathology [11]. Indeed, as of January 1st, 2016 the

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Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) began tracking animal crime with its own category

within the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), in the same way that it

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tracks crimes such as homicide. The Bureau now collects data from participating law
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enforcement agencies about acts of animal cruelty, and classifies them into

subcategories of gross neglect, torture, organized abuse, and sexual abuse [12].
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Additionally, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

Fauna and Flora (CITES) came into force on July 1, 1975. This multilateral treaty is the
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largest international wildlife conservation agreement and was founded in response to

concerns that many species were becoming endangered because of international trade
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[13]. This agreement regulates international trade in certain animal species through a

system of classification and licensing. As a consequence, establishment of the treaty

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also highlighted the need for a global approach to wildlife forensics to support the

implementation and enforcement of the CITES [8].

Wildlife crime remains a growing international concern, and is among the most

profitable criminal industries worldwide, ranking alongside drug-smuggling, human

trafficking, and weapons proliferation [14]. This type of crime can take many forms,

including illegal possessing, trading, smuggling, disturbing, or moving of endangered

animals or their products, as well as hunting out of season, habitat destruction, and

animal abuse [15,16]. As such, investigation of wildlife crime can range from evaluating

individual body parts or animal carcasses to examining large habitats where crimes

have occurred [15]. Wildlife crime has also been shown to be linked to other illicit trades

such as drug smuggling, arms smuggling, and human trafficking. As such, wildlife crime

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has been highlighted as a threat to the three founding pillars of the United Nations

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mission—peace and security, human rights, and sustainable development [17].

The US Congress also passed acts in the 1970s that protect marine mammals,

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fisheries, and endangered species. Subsequently, the National Oceanic and
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Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Marine Forensics Unit was founded, to identify the

origin of evidence collected by NOAA law enforcement agents [18].

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The United Kingdom was the first region in the world to implement animal-

protection legislation, introducing the Act to Prevent the Cruel and Improper Treatment
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of Cattle in 1822 [19]. Later, the 1911 Protection of Animals Act became the first general

animal protection law to be passed in the United Kingdom [20]. Several additional Acts
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were also introduced throughout the 20th century, mostly directed at specific areas of

animal welfare [19]. However, 2006 brought the most significant animal legislation in
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England and Wales in almost 100 years, when the Animal Welfare Act replaced the

Protection of Animals Act, overhauling all animal welfare provisions, including those

related to pet abuse. The 2006 Animal Health and Welfare Act in Scotland, and the

2011 Welfare of Animals Act in Northern Ireland also provide legislation that is similar to
that of the Animal Welfare Act. All three of these Acts also impose a ‘duty of care’ on

any individuals (including veterinarians) who are responsible for an animal, requiring

such individuals to take steps to protect an animal’s welfare [21]. Most recently in the

United Kingdom, the draft Animal Welfare (Sentencing and Recognition of Sentience)

Bill was also introduced before the British Parliament in December 2017. This aims to

further improve animal welfare standards, by recognizing animals as sentient beings

and raising the maximum sentence for animal cruelty from 6 months to 5 years [22].

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Animal law has become one of the fastest-growing fields in the legal profession.

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As of 2014, all 50 US states now have felony-level penalties for malicious cruelty

against animals, compared with just seven in 1993 [23,24]. In recent years, many states

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have also begun to revise their veterinary practice acts to include mandatory or
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voluntary reporting by veterinarians, health care providers, and other social service

providers, of animal cruelty [25].

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Key gaps in veterinary forensics knowledge

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These improvements in provisions to prosecute animal abusers and the

accompanying rise in reporting requirements for veterinarians have also highlighted

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veterinarians’ knowledge, competence, and practice gaps in forensic sciences.

Inevitably, to convict someone of a felony, prosecutors need strong evidence that

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will stand up to scrutiny in a court of law [26]. Veterinarians can play a key role in the

investigation and prosecution of animal abuse. Their specialized professional training

makes them authorities on animal health who are in a unique position to be able to

recognize an animal’s pain or identify injuries [27]. However, when faced with a
forensics case, veterinarians are at a disadvantage compared to their physician

colleagues, for several reasons.

Compared with available literature-based and educational resources in forensic

medicine, similar resources in veterinary forensics are relatively lacking to help

veterinarians deal with these cases. In forensic medicine, documentation in the English-

language scientific literature of use of forensic techniques dates back to at least the late

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1800s [28]. Since then, continued scholarly publication has further strengthened the

evidence base for forensic practices [29]. In contrast, early publication of veterinary

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forensics-related materials dates back only several decades [30-36].

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Developing the evidence base and educational opportunities
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However, the rapidly-growing interest in this field, especially in the past two
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decades, has generated an increasing number of veterinary forensics-related

publications in scientific journals [37-94], as well as several English-language textbooks

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[95-104]. Similar to the situation in forensic medicine, continued publication of veterinary

forensics-related materials in this way will, inevitably, further strengthen the evidence
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base for practices in the rapidly-emerging field of veterinary forensics.

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In the United States, the field of forensic science comprises several formally-

recognized specialties [105], including forensic pathology, which, in 1959, was

recognized by the American Board of Pathology as a subspecialty area of pathology

[106]. The Forensic Specialties Accreditation Board was also created in 2000 and

publishes Standards for Accrediting Forensic Specialty Certification Boards [107].

 Similarly, forensic pathology is one of many forensic science specialties in the

United Kingdom and is recognized as a subspecialty of pathology by the Royal College

of Pathologists [108].

In contrast, however, veterinary forensics is not yet formally recognized as an

individual veterinary specialty. Additionally, until recently, many veterinary students

received no training in veterinary forensic sciences or in recognizing the signs of animal

abuse. According to a 1999 survey, most veterinary students received only an average

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of 76 minutes of training on animal abuse [109]. And, even by 2013, this situation had

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not significantly improved, with most veterinary students still indicating that they felt

unprepared to deal with animal abuse cases in practice [110].

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Although, in recent years, efforts have increased to incorporate veterinary
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forensics into the veterinary school curriculum as elective offerings, its inclusion in the

core curriculum remains lacking. Consequently, even many experienced veterinarians

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feel uncomfortable dealing with forensics cases [27]. This was highlighted in a recent

survey of 1,933 board-certified veterinary pathologists, in which three-quarters of

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respondents stated that their training had not adequately prepared them to appropriately

manage forensic cases. Approximately half of the respondents also expressed the need
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for education on serving as an expert witness in these cases [111].

Consequently, academic institutes have recognized the need to close this gap by
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providing appropriate resources to allow veterinarians to properly assist in these

important cases. Aiming to advance and foster excellence in veterinary forensic

sciences, the International Veterinary Forensic Sciences Association (IVFSA) was

founded in 2008 and hosts an annual conference in this field [112]. Several professional
veterinary organizations, including the IVFSA [112], the American College of Veterinary

Pathologists (ACVP) [113], the Charles Louis Davis and Samuel Wesley Thompson

DVM Foundation [114], and the North American Veterinary Community (NAVC) [115]

have now also begun to offer continuing education (CE) workshops and symposia on

veterinary forensic sciences. The American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS), a

multi-disciplinary professional organization whose members also include veterinarians,

has also provided CE in veterinary forensics at their annual meetings, including a

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workshop at their 2018 meeting [116]. Additionally, the University of Florida [117] and

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other organizations, such as the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to

Animals (ASPCA) [118], National District Attorneys Association (NDAA) [119],

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Veterinary Information Network (VIN) [120], and VetFolio [121] also offer online CE
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seminars and/or workshops on veterinary forensics.

Formal education programs in this field have also begun to emerge. The
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University of Florida now offers online graduate certificates in Veterinary Forensic

Sciences [117], and in Wildlife Forensic Sciences and Conservation [122], as well as a
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master’s degree course in Veterinary Forensic Sciences [117], and multiple

undergraduate and postgraduate programs in the United Kingdom now include modules
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and courses in wildlife forensics [123-126].

So, although not yet formally recognized as an individual veterinary specialty,

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veterinary forensics is clearly rapidly emerging as a distinct field. One that not only plays

a key role in securing justice for abused or endangered animals, but that also interfaces

with the criminal justice system in ways that can improve public health and help combat

organized crime.
Multidisciplinary collaborations in veterinary forensics

As this awareness and interest in the field of veterinary forensics has increased,

so too have the number of cases in which multiple forensic disciplines are employed.

The establishment of a veterinary forensics service in the United Kingdom, (hosted

within the University of Surrey, Guildford, UK), which brought together forensic

scientists and veterinary professionals [127], is similar to that provided by the National

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Fish and Wildlife Forensics Laboratory (Oregon, USA) [128]. Herein, the development of

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a forensic strategy by close collaboration between veterinary professionals and forensic

scientists is devised to maximize the evidential value of the animal, crime scene, or

other object(s).
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It is important that veterinary experts do not stray beyond their areas of proven

expertise in providing forensic opinions. As such, using a collaborative approach

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involving other experts in different areas of forensic science can help improve the

investigative process and the strength of the forensic evidence. The following examples
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highlight some aspects of the use of different forensic disciplines and techniques in

veterinary forensic investigations, as detailed in published literature and from the

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authors’ casework involvements.

Veterinary pathology is central to many cases, and protocols for the forensic
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necropsy are becoming better established within veterinary pathology institutions. It is

beyond the scope of this article to explore these in detail, and these are discussed

elsewhere [1,49,]. The integration of other examinations may take part before, during,

after, or instead of the necropsy. Awareness, rather than expertise, of the forensic
techniques available in cases involving animals, and of their limitations, is important for

the veterinary pathologist and veterinarian dealing with forensic cases. This helps to

avoid compromising evidence. It also helps to communicate the “reality” of the

technique, test, or examination, either when discussing it with an investigating party or

presenting it to the court, or for forensic intelligence purposes. The aim here is to avoid

the “CSI effect” in cases involving animals, as can occur in medical cases [129].

Diagnostic imaging is one field of medicine which is increasingly utilized in the

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investigation of medicolegal cases [130]. There is also increased interest in the use of

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forensic radiology and imaging in the veterinary field [88]. It is particularly useful when

investigating projectile injuries [62] and skeletal injuries, and for the detection of lesions

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which may be missed at necropsy [131]. However, one must remain aware of the
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difference between ante-mortem and post-mortem findings, lesions, and artefacts [54].

Three-dimensional (3D) imaging modalities (including computed tomography

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[CT], magnetic resonance [MR] imaging, surface scanning [132], and photogrammetry

[133]), together with 3D printing [134], augmented reality (AR) [135], and virtual reality
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(VR) [136] technologies) are also finding use in the medicolegal sphere.

In the veterinary field, 3D CT and MR imaging are used by some institutions in

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collaborations between veterinary radiologists and veterinary pathologists. One of the

authors (*NAME TO BE ADDED BEFORE PUBLICATION*) has been developing

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protocols and exploring the applications and limitations of photogrammetry in the

imaging of wounds in animals (unpublished data), and has also been using 3D printing

to teach students about projectile wounds (Figures 1 and 2).

 Projectile wounds in animals can be investigated by the veterinary pathologist

and radiologist. However, from the authors’ experience, involvement of a forensic

firearms expert is particularly useful in these cases. This facilitates expert assessment

of the projectile, weapon, range of fire, and other parameters that need to be interpreted

alongside the veterinary pathological and radiological examination findings [62]. In our

experience, depending on the legislation of the country in which the incident occurs,

there may not be an animal welfare charge, but issues relating to the type of firearm, or

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location of its discharge, or questions surrounding ownership of the firearm and/or the

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animal might constitute an offence. In these cases, the firearms expert is key to

assisting the court. Examples from the UK include, but are not limited to, firing in a

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public place and using modified weapons [137]. In such instances, rather than involving
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an independent body that investigates animal crimes (eg, the RSPCA in the UK), there

might be reason to instead involve the police (with knowledge of the relevant firearms
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legislation in the jurisdiction) alongside the firearms expert who can determine the

kinetic energy of the projectile or other features relating to the discharge of the firearm.
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Likewise, linking an individual to a weapon, or other component of a scene,

requires the involvement of other forensic scientists, including forensic biologists,

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forensic entomologists, or forensic toxicologists, as well as gunshot residue or

fingerprint and marks experts [1,62,64,71]. In the previously discussed firearms

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example, it may be necessary for the biologist to examine the weapon before the

firearms expert does, to obtain samples for DNA analysis; or before the marks expert

does, to obtain fingerprints. And gunshot residue samples may need to be taken from

the scene, animal, person, or weapon [62]. The same consideration of involving forensic
scientists from multiple disciplines applies when evaluating any other object or individual

from which or whom samples may be taken. A forensic strategy can be employed to

facilitate the optimum order of the experts’ evaluations, to preserve the various

evidential types, and allow each expert to minimize the potential for artefact,

contamination, and/or loss of evidence during the process. Awareness of these different

evidence types, and of the correct methods of sampling or collection, by the veterinary

professional and investigating parties, is important to prevent potentially useful evidence

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or intelligence being lost or compromised.

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Analysis of both nonhuman-DNA (to determine the species from which a

material, trace material, or fluid may have originated [138]) and human DNA for

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identification and interpretation purposes is not uncommon in cases submitted for
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veterinary examination. Although nonhuman-DNA analysis is not novel, there are

groups active in researching its use in the forensic context, and scientists in the field are
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gradually improving the evidence base for nonhuman forensic genetics [139,140].

Scenarios experienced by the authors that involve analysis of both non-human DNA
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and human DNA include examination of seized animal materials and products at

borders, food-chain standards investigations, sexual abuse of animals, and crime

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scenes at which the alleged presence or interaction of an individual with a scene,

animal, or object may be investigated [1,139,140]. These cases have sometimes

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involved collaborations involving experts in the fields of fingermarks, footwear marks,

and tool marks, together with experts in fields such as veterinary science (eg, in

anatomy, histology, and pathology), zoology, archaeology, paleopathology, and

anthropology (eg, for species identification) [1,64,66,79,83,139,140] (Figure 3).

 In addition to simply receiving animals, animal material, or objects recovered

from the crime scene, veterinarians and forensic scientists may sometimes need to also

attend the crime scene [83]. This is especially important, for example, in cases involving

domestic abuse or violence against multiple animals and/or humans [74,83]. In such

cases, this allows for bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA), evaluation of marks left at

scenes, and assessment of the animal, animal material, or object, in relation to the rest

of the scene [83].

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An animal can, however, also be treated as a crime scene from which other

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evidence types are collected (1). The presence of fur, feathers, and scales and other

skin appendages (including claws), as well as teeth and gastrointestinal contents can

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provide extra opportunities for the collection of trace evidence [1, 83,127]. Evidence
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types that we have collected for expert analysis have included body fluids, stomach

contents, plant and other environmental materials (Figure 4), paint, flesh, and saliva (eg,
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in cases of animals biting other animals or people), and toxic materials and drugs

(therapeutic, misused pharmaceuticals, and illicit substances).

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Cases involving animals also provide opportunities to use digital forensics in the

investigations. Materials available online in which animals are harmed or misused

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present opportunities to link individuals or groups to alleged crimes, but our experience

also shows that it can provide challenges in terms of jurisdiction (where was media
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recorded?) and time (when did the incident occur?). Likewise, when digital means are

used to handle the proceeds of crimes involving animals, the challenges and limitations

of digital forensics are similar to those encountered in other cyber-crime and illicit acts

[141].
Conclusion

As the field of veterinary forensics continues to grow, continued research and

publication in this area will further develop the evidence base to help educate veterinary

and paraveterinary professionals who investigate these cases involving animals. This

increasing evidence base will help educate veterinarians and scientists about best

practices to use in evidence gathering, scientific analyses, and record-keeping

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procedures in these cases. In conjunction with collaborating on cases with other experts

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in various forensic science disciplines, veterinarians’ use of an evidence-based

approach will help a case to withstand legal scrutiny if it should result in prosecution.

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Author contributions

NP: Writing—Original draft preparation and formatting, reviewing, and editing.

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ALS: Writing, reviewing, and editing. Image production.

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Funding source:

The authors did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public,
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commercial, or not-for-profit sectors, for this work.

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Conflict of interest:

The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgements:
The authors wish to sincerely thank: Access (formerly ArroGen) Veterinary Forensics

Ltd, Wantage, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom, for help developing veterinary forensics

protocols at the University of Surrey; Sophie Regnault (Museum of Comparative

Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA), for expert assistance

with 3D printing; Patricia Wiltshire (Visiting Professor, University of Southampton,

United Kingdom), for expert assistance in forensic botany; and various members of the

Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Switzerland, for expert advice on

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forensic imaging.

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Figure legends

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Figure 1: Screenshot of photogrammetry reconstruction of a porcine limb with fiducial

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markers during development of protocols for 3D documentation of lesions at forensic

veterinary necropsy.
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Figure 2: 3D printed plastic canine skull (printed 1:1 size) with a single gunshot wound,
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used by one of the authors (*INITIALS TO BE ADDED BEFORE PUBLICATION) for

teaching. Produced from segmented CT scan files obtained before forensic necropsy.
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Figure 3: Osteological samples of cremated rodent remains for species identification.

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Figure 4: Samples obtained for botanical examination in a case of yew tree toxicity, in
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which the inappropriate disposal of cuttings at a shared property border with a field of

livestock was disputed.

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