Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13198-023-02193-8
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Artificial intelligence in Indian higher education institutions:
a quantitative study on adoption and perceptions
Silky Sharma1 · Gurinder Singh1 · Chandra Shekhar Sharma2 · Shikha Kapoor1
Received: 31 May 2023 / Revised: 20 September 2023 / Accepted: 19 October 2023
© The Author(s) under exclusive licence to The Society for Reliability Engineering, Quality and Operations Management (SREQOM), India and
The Division of Operation and Maintenance, Lulea University of Technology, Sweden 2024
Abstract The integration of Artificial Intelligence
(AI) into higher education has the potential to bring new
approaches to learning and teaching, but also poses chal-
lenges such as ethical concerns and job displacement. To
address these challenges, efforts are being made to develop
frameworks for the adoption of AI in education. This study
investigates the role of AI in higher education in Indian uni-
versities, identifies dimensions of AI applications, explores
factors influencing the adoption of AI in higher education
processes, and develops a framework for the adoption of AI
applications by stakeholders in the higher education sector.
The study uses a quantitative research design to collect data
from students, academics, and management staff at differ-
ent higher education institutions in India. The technologi-
cal acceptance model, social cognitive theory, and human–
computer interaction theory model are used to understand
the factors that influence the acceptance and adoption of
AI in higher education institutions in India. The results of
the study indicate significant relationships between vari-
ous factors, including artificial intelligence self-efficacy,
behavioural intention to adopt AI, AI adoption in higher
education, perceived usefulness, perceived effectiveness,
* Silky Sharma
silky.sharma25@yahoo.in; silkysharma2212@gmail.com
Gurinder Singh
gsingh@amity.edu
Chandra Shekhar Sharma
cssharma.srcc@gmail.com
Shikha Kapoor
skapoor2@amity.edu
1
Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
Delhi Institute of Advanced Studies, CGS Indraprastha
University, Delhi, India
perceived organizational support, and perceived risk. The
findings of this study can guide the strategic planning and
decision-making related to the integration of AI in higher
education and contribute to the understanding of the poten-
tial benefits and challenges of AI in education.
Keywords Artificial intelligence (AI) · Technological
acceptance model (TAM) · Social cognitive theory (SCT) ·
Human–computer interaction (HCI) theory · Technology in
education · Higher education
1 Introduction
Every decision we make is driven by our aspirations for
the future, and even though we can’t accurately predict it,
we can use our current knowledge to shape and envision it.
Understanding the present and the past that has influenced
it is crucial to better comprehend the potential outcomes
of the future, particularly in the context of the widespread
use of artificial intelligence (AI) in society. The rise of AI
has caught the attention of academics, governments, and
the general public, and there is a growing interest in its
potential to revolutionize learning, teaching, and education,
while also presenting new challenges for educational institu-
tions. As AI becomes more prevalent, it has the potential to
exacerbate skill inequalities and job polarization, or it can
promote equal opportunities for learning. It may lead to the
reorganization or obsolescence of traditional classrooms,
enhance instructional efficiency, or potentially restrict
human agency and responsibility by imposing technologi-
cal demands. Given these vast possibilities, it’s essential to
carefully consider the implications of AI on learning, teach-
ing, and education.
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The integration of AI into organizational settings and its
maximum utilization has led to efforts to address its ethical,
legal, and social implications. AI has been a hot topic in pub-
lic, business, and academic debates, and discussions have
focused on issues such as job displacement, military and
cyber security threats, ethical concerns including bias, and
economic rewards. In today’s digital era, big data is trans-
forming knowledge environments, including education, and
AI has the potential to fundamentally change how students
and teachers are supported in their learning and teaching
efforts. This can be achieved through the utilization of cut-
ting-edge learning analytics and data-driven insights to bet-
ter understand student behaviours’, needs, and skills, which
in turn can increase operational effectiveness in educational
institutions and unlock the learning potential of children.
While the subject of AI and its implications on education
may be complex, it is significant,
The field of artificial intelligence (AI) in education needs
to adapt to changes and a new reality (Close et al. 2020)
in educational settings, which combine authentic activities
and collaborative settings through significant challenges, to
remain relevant and influential. Education, teaching, and
learning have evolved over time with changes in society,
technology, and the emergence of educational technology
(Ed-Tech). The National Education Policy recommends the
introduction of subjects like AI in the syllabus to leverage
the strengths of both machines and teachers for the benefit of
students. However, predicting the future of AI in education
completely is impossible, and history can serve as a useful
lens to assess its potential (Steps Taken by the Government
to Use Artificial Intelligence for Education Transformation
2021).
The epidemic, which has had a profound effect on edu-
cational institutions all across the world, has decimated
all economies. As a result of the administration’s sudden
declaration of a lockdown, schools, colleges, institutes,
and universities were forced to postpone their regularly
scheduled activities. The 1.3 billion pupils throughout the
world who were unable to attend class as usual included
over 320,713,810 kids from India alone (Joshi et al. 2021).
These disruptions precipitated a cascade of changes in the
educational landscape, including dwindling enrolments,
institutional closures, mergers, and a host of similar chal-
lenges. In response to the inadequacy of traditional face-to-
face teaching methods, educational institutions were forced
to explore and implement alternative teaching and evaluation
approaches. It is in this crucible of necessity that digital
learning, underpinned by technology and artificial intelli-
gence (AI), gained ascendancy.
The educational system has seen substantial changes
as a result of issues including lower enrolment, closures,
mergers, and other issues of a similar sort. Since the face-
to-face method did not work, educational institutions were
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Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag
compelled to look into and implement alternative teaching
and evaluation methods. Particularly in developing and
emerging countries, the COVID-19 pandemic has made it
simpler for people to accept digital learning (Dhawan 2020).
While universities and schools were closed owing to the
pandemic, e-learning tools were crucial in assisting teachers
in fostering student learning (Subedi et al. 2020).
In this evolving educational landscape, we find ourselves
at the intersection of history, present challenges, and future
possibilities. We are tasked with understanding and harness-
ing the transformative potential of artificial intelligence (AI)
in education. The promise of AI has captured the imagina-
tion of academics, governments, and the general public in
the twenty-first century. AI holds the potential to revolu-
tionize education, learning, and teaching while simultane-
ously posing new and complex challenges for educational
institutions.
AI, in its various forms, has the capacity to democratize
education by enhancing equal learning opportunities or,
conversely, exacerbate skill disparities and job polarization.
It could lead to the reinvention or obsolescence of tradi-
tional classrooms, amplify the effectiveness of instruction,
or potentially constrain human agency and accountability
through stringent technology requirements. The magnitude
of the potential impact of AI on education is staggering, and
therefore, it is essential to meticulously analyze how AI will
influence the core pillars of education—learning, teaching,
and the educational system itself. The subject matter may be
complex and multifaceted, but its importance is undeniable,
compelling us to direct our attention to it.
As the integration of AI in education unfolds, efforts to
address the ethical, legal, and societal ramifications of AI
have accompanied the push to maximize its utility. Public
discourse, business strategies, and academic research have
centered around various aspects of AI adoption, including
the potential for employment displacement, concerns about
cyber security and military applications, ethical issues sur-
rounding bias and data privacy, and financial incentives.
One of the transformative elements in the digital era is the
rise of big data, which is profoundly altering knowledge
contexts, including education. AI leverages cutting-edge
learning analytics and data-driven insights to gain a deeper
understanding of student behaviours, needs, and skills. It has
the potential to reshape how both students and teachers are
supported in their learning and teaching endeavours. This,
in turn, promises to enhance operational efficiency in edu-
cational institutions and unlock the latent learning potential
of students.
To remain influential and effective, the field of AI in edu-
cation must adapt to the evolving educational settings where
authentic activities and collaborative settings are being
combined, giving rise to new educational challenges. While
the ideas themselves may not be novel, the convergence of
Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag
education, teaching, and learning in the digital age and the
rise of educational technology (Ed-Tech) presents a compel-
ling opportunity.
Distance learning or online education, which gained
popularity in the 1990s with the advent of the internet, has
been one of the precursors for AI in education, although
it is not always dependent on AI. Despite the early recog-
nition of its potential, criticism has accompanied its more
optimistic objectives, with concerns about cost-cutting, the
commodification of education, deskilling and displacement
of professionals, and harm to students being raised. Massive
Open Online Courses (MOOCs), another online educational
system that is not typically dependent on AI, gained atten-
tion in the 2010s for their potential to universalize educa-
tion, but concerns about high dropout rates and participant
demographics have tempered initial enthusiasm (Bond et al.
2019; Christensen et al. 2013; Rivard 2013).
Proponents of AI claim that it will “change the game in
education” by enabling individuals and groups to learn more
effectively than with a single human instructor in classrooms
worldwide. The Department of Education’s STEM 2026
vision also recognizes the potential of intelligent tutoring
systems, the most popular AI-based educational technology
currently, to play a significant role in the future of education
(Tanenbaum 2016; Woolf et al. 2013).
A growing body of research on AI in education is cen-
tered on the use of AI technology to enhance teaching, build
a smart campus, and realize intelligent learning, teaching,
and management. Artificial intelligence (AI) technologies
are being employed in education, resulting in a number of
advancements that will improve the learning experiences of
both students and teachers (Cui et al. 2019). These technolo-
gies include image identification, facial recognition, adaptive
learning, and others.
In this complex and evolving landscape, the adoption
and integration of AI in Indian higher education institutions
become a critical area of examination. This study aims to
contribute to the burgeoning body of literature on AI in edu-
cation by delving into the specifics of its adoption in Indian
universities. Employing a quantitative research methodol-
ogy, this study seeks to explore the myriad factors influenc-
ing AI adoption and provide insights into both its potential
benefits and challenges. Furthermore, it aspires to construct
a comprehensive framework.
1.1 Key milestones and trends in AI adoption in indian
higher education institutions
(a) Early Adoption: Indian higher education institutions
have been relatively early adopters of AI technologies
in the educational landscape. As early as the 1990s,
Indian institutions began experimenting with AI-based
systems for computer-aided instruction, adaptive learn-
ing, and educational content creation.
(b) Focus on Personalization: One of the key trends in AI
adoption in Indian higher education institutions is the
focus on personalization. AI technologies are being
used to create personalized learning experiences, adap-
tive learning systems, and recommendation systems
that cater to individual student needs and preferences.
(c) Emphasis on Learning Analytics: Indian higher edu-
cation institutions are increasingly leveraging AI for
learning analytics, which involves analysing data on
student performance, engagement, and behaviour to
gain insights and inform decision-making. Learning
analytics are being used for predicting student per-
formance, identifying at-risk students, and providing
timely interventions.
(d) Virtual Labs and Simulations: AI technologies are
being used to create virtual labs and simulations in
Indian higher education institutions. These virtual
environments provide students with hands-on learning
experiences, especially in science, engineering, and
medical fields, where access to physical labs may be
limited.
(e) Use of Natural Language Processing (NLP): NLP is a
significant area of AI adoption in Indian higher educa-
tion institutions. NLP technologies are being used for
tasks such as automated essay scoring, language trans-
lation, and sentiment analysis for feedback analysis.
(f) Growth of Ed-Tech Start-ups: India has seen signifi-
cant growth of EdTech start-ups that are leveraging AI
technologies to offer innovative solutions for higher
education. These start-ups are providing AI-powered
platforms for online learning, skill development, and
career counselling.
(g) Collaborations: Indian higher education institutions
are collaborating with both domestic and international
companies to bring the latest AI technologies to their
campuses. These collaborations help to bridge the gap
between academia and industry and provide students
with real-world experience.
(h) Skill Development: Indian higher education institu-
tions are also focusing on developing AI skills among
students. Many institutions are offering courses in AI,
machine learning, and data science to prepare students
for careers in the field.
(i) Virtual Learning: With the COVID-19 pandemic,
virtual learning has become a necessity. AI-powered
virtual classrooms and simulations are being adopted
by many institutions to enhance the virtual learning
experience.
The adoption of AI in Indian higher education institu-
tions is still in its early stages, but the potential benefits are
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significant. The trends and milestones mentioned above are
likely to continue as institutions look for ways to improve the
quality, achievement, and job market of education (Bhagat
and Kim 2020) in offline and online era and prepare students
for the future.
1.2 Challenges of AI in education
Although AI has numerous benefits for education, it will also
face some unexpected challenges Alam 2020). If individuals
are aware of the various problems that could develop, it will
be simpler to prepare for and improve future applications of
AI in education. Fairness must be guaranteed before any-
thing else while utilizing AI in education. As AI advances,
developing countries run the risk of seeing their educational
gaps get wider. Similar to how the digital gap has separated
those who can access the Internet from those who cannot,
the expanding algorithmic barrier now threatens to deprive
many educational opportunities provided by AI. Since the
majority of AI algorithms come from rich countries, they are
unable to fully take into consideration the circumstances of
developing countries and hence cannot be adopted directly
(Yu 2020; Fu 2020). To create the conditions needed for AI
to enhance learning, the education sector must overcome
tremendous obstacles such a lack of basic infrastructure
(Leung and Sharma 2020) and technology (Anderson 2020;
Carey 2020).
Data collection, use, and distribution raise ethical and
security issues that need to be considered. AI has produced
various ethical challenges in the areas of providing tailored
guidance to students, collecting personal data, data privacy,
and the ownership of obligations and data feed algorithms
(Bodó et al. 2017; Southgate 2020). To improve the moni-
toring of AI technology and its products, the public must
debate the relevant ethical, responsible, and safety issues.
It supports educators as they become ready to teach using
AI. Teachers must master new digital teaching methods in
order to effectively use AI to help educational transforma-
tion. In order to build an easy-to-use usage strategy for their
products, makers of AI teaching tools also need to be aware
of how teachers’ function (Hwang et al. 2020).
Due to changes in teaching strategies, higher criteria for
student autonomy in learning are needed. In the age of AI,
learning activities will primarily include students, and they
will be student-centred (Chang and Lu 2019; Fu 2020).
According to several studies (Fang et al. 2019; Walkington
and Bernacki 2020; Yilmaz 2018), students can use an intel-
ligent teaching system to construct personalized learning
plans, independently select learning resources to track their
progress, and participate in group cooperative learning.
It takes greater concentration to communicate between
students. As more and more people use AI platforms for
learning and talking with computers as their aim, the social
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Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag
communication skills of pupils will decline. Students should
be encouraged to learn from each other. To address this
issue, AI education programs can be built up with a focus on
socialization-focused distance learning. Students can study
online in addition to participating in class discussions and
social activities.
1.3 Ethical concerns related to AI adoption in higher
education
Ethical considerations surrounding the adoption of artifi-
cial intelligence (AI) in higher education, particularly in the
context of Indian universities, are of paramount importance
and demand comprehensive strategies. First and foremost,
addressing algorithmic bias and ensuring fairness in AI sys-
tems is imperative. This involves promoting transparency,
using diverse datasets, and actively mitigating biases in AI
algorithms. Additionally, universities should prioritize stu-
dent data privacy by complying with data protection regula-
tions and implementing stringent security measures while
fostering a culture of informed consent. Ethical concerns
related to AI-enabled surveillance should be addressed
through clear communication, stringent data usage policies,
and regular audits. Ensuring the transparency and explain-
ability of AI models, coupled with ethical education pro-
grams, can mitigate ethical issues. To combat academic
misconduct facilitated by AI, institutions should employ AI
tools for detection and invest in academic integrity educa-
tion. Furthermore, universities must proactively address job
displacement concerns by providing reskilling opportuni-
ties and exploring collaborative AI-human models. Bridging
the digital divide and establishing ethical guidelines for AI
adoption are crucial steps (Buckingham Shum and Luckin
2019), as is promoting ethical AI research practices within
the academic community. Ultimately, a concerted effort
involving universities, regulators, tech providers, and civil
society is essential to establish a responsible and ethical
framework for AI integration in Indian higher education.
1.4 Current state of AI adoption in Indian higher
education institutions
The use of AI technologies is gaining interest and adoption
in Indian higher education institutions, although implemen-
tation and maturity levels vary (Chatterjee 2020). While
some institutions have fully integrated AI into their educa-
tional processes, others are still in the early stages of explor-
ing and experimenting with AI technologies. Very few stud-
ies to understand adoption intention of AI-Chatbots (Sandhu
and Gide 2019) in Indian Higher Education sector through
UTAUT (Chatterjee and Bhattacharjee 2020) and the use of
AI-Based robots in Indian university (Roy et al. 2022) have
been done recently.
Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag
AI has numerous applications in education in India,
including profiling and prediction, assessment and evalua-
tion (Roll and Wylie 2016), adaptive systems, personaliza-
tion, and intelligent tutoring systems. While AI is both inno-
vative and derivative, it is changing educational tools and
organizations. Teachers remain crucial in the educational
system, but their role has been transformed by AI. Through
advanced analytics, deep learning, and machine learning, AI
can monitor individual progress, identify gaps in teaching
and learning, and increase educational efficiency and per-
sonalization (Bhoturia 2022). Additionally, AI can alleviate
administrative responsibilities, giving teachers more time
and freedom (Mason et al. 2020) to focus on understanding
and adaptability, which are uniquely human qualities. Com-
bining the strengths of machines and human teachers can
lead to the best outcomes for students. Overall, AI technolo-
gies have the potential to revolutionize education (HolonIQ
2020; Jaiswal and Arun 2021) in India, offering new oppor-
tunities for personalization and efficiency while maintaining
the critical role of teachers in the educational system.
1.5 Objectives of the study
• Investigate the current utilization of artificial intelligence
(AI) within the higher education system of Indian uni-
versities, encompassing its applications in various edu-
cational domains.
• Describe the diverse range of AI applications employed
within Indian higher education institutions and elucidate
their impact on different aspects of the educational pro-
cess, including admission, teaching–learning, examina-
tions, course management, and mentorship.
• Delve into the behavioural factors that influence the
adoption of AI applications across various facets of
higher education. Understand the attitudes, perceptions,
and intentions of stakeholders, including students, fac-
ulty, and management, which shape the adoption of AI
technologies in higher education.
• Create a comprehensive framework aimed at facilitating
the adoption of AI applications within higher education
institutions in India. This framework should consider
and integrate a wide range of factors, causes, and effects
associated with AI adoption, providing guidance to stake-
holders on the effective implementation of AI technolo-
gies in the higher education sector.
2 Research questions
• How is artificial intelligence (AI) currently being
employed within Indian higher education institutions?
• What are the various AI applications utilized in Indian
higher education, and how do these applications impact
different facets of the educational process, including
admission procedures, teaching–learning methods, exam-
inations, course administration, and mentorship?
• How do the attitudes, perceptions, and intentions of
stakeholders, including students, faculty, and manage-
ment, contribute to the adoption of AI technologies in
the higher education sector?
• How can a comprehensive framework be developed to
streamline the adoption of AI applications within Indian
higher education institutions, taking into consideration a
wide array of factors, causes, and effects associated with
AI adoption?
3 Research methodology
The focus of this research is to investigate the function of
artificial intelligence in Indian higher education institutions.
The study is co-relational and conducted in an unplanned
setting. Researchers disseminate a questionnaire to respond-
ents for a quantitative study, as the study involves a larger
population. A quantitative design, which tests a hypothesis
using variables measured with numbers and evaluated with
statistical methods, is preferred over qualitative methods
such as interviews and small samples. The present study is
exploratory in nature, aiming to explore the role of artificial
intelligence in the higher education sector, specifically in
Indian universities.
3.1 Population and sampling
Primary data for the study was collected from students, aca-
demics, and management at different higher education insti-
tutions in India. Respondents from India were chosen using a
Stratified Random Sampling method. The population under
consideration in this study includes an extensive number
of stakeholders from Indian higher education institutions.
Students, faculty, and management personnel from numer-
ous sectors and institutions are among the stakeholders. The
large demographic we chose reflects our goal of gaining a
complete knowledge of the role and impact of artificial intel-
ligence in Indian higher education.
We used Stratified Random Sampling to ensure that our
study provided a representative depiction of the popula-
tion. The population is divided into separate subgroups or
strata based on key characteristics such as academic roles
(students, faculty members, management) and institution
kinds (e.g., universities, colleges, technical institutions) in
this approach. Each group is then considered as a separate
population, with a random sample collected from each. The
rationale behind employing stratified sampling lies in its
ability to account for potential variations within subgroups.
By selecting participants from each stratum, we ensure
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that the sample includes proportional representation from
various categories of stakeholders and institution types.
This approach enhances the study’s validity and allows for
meaningful comparisons between different groups within the
population. A total of 411 participants were included in the
study, drawn from the defined strata. This sample size was
determined to provide statistical power for the analysis while
ensuring that the study remained manageable and logisti-
cally feasible. Prior to data collection, all participants were
provided with clear information about the study’s objec-
tives, their role, and the confidentiality of their responses.
Informed consent was obtained from each participant,
emphasizing their voluntary participation in the research.
A questionnaire was distributed to 411 students, faculty,
and management staff from higher education institutions in
India. The responses from the respondents were measured
using a nominal scale for the most pertinent questions, while
an interval scale is employed as the principal measurement
scale in the second half of the questionnaire. Participants
rate their agreement with statements on a 5-point Likert
scale ranging from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree”.
To supplement primary data and narrow the scope of data
gathering, secondary data are gathered. Due to its usabil-
ity, efficiency in terms of time savings, and affordability of
data, ProQuest, EBSCO Host, Emerald, Science Direct, and
Harvard Business Review are frequently utilized online data-
bases. To support the terminologies and theories applied in
the research, reference books are also utilized. To turn data
into useful information, the data analysis process entails a
number of connected steps. After a complete data analysis,
the tested results are generated using PLS-SEM software.
3.2 Measurement scales
The questionnaire begins with a section to collect demo-
graphic information about the respondents. This includes
gender, age group, education level, income, and marital sta-
tus. These demographic variables can help segment and ana-
lyze the data based on different participant characteristics.
The questionnaire utilizes a 5-point Likert scale to gauge
respondents’ agreement with specific statements. The scale
ranges from “Strongly Disagree” (1) to “Strongly Agree”
(5), with intermediate options.
The questionnaire utilized in this study encompassed var-
ious domains related to the adoption of artificial intelligence
(AI) in higher education in India. Each domain had specific
scale items, and these items were sourced from existing
research to ensure their reliability and validity. Measurement
scales used for each domain and their respective sources:
Perceived Organizational Support: This domain focused
on participants’ perceptions of support from their organi-
zations regarding AI adoption. The scale items, including
statements like “My Organisation helps me to perform my
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Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag
job to the best of my ability” and “All the classrooms of
my institute are equipped with necessary devices for using
AI technology for teaching purposes,” were adapted from
research by Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, Sowa, and
Chatterjee and Bhattacharjee, reflecting the organizational
context (Eisenberger et al. 1986; Chatterjee & Bhattacharjee
2020).
Perceived Ease of Use: This domain assessed partici-
pants’ opinions about the ease of using AI technology. State-
ments such as “AI provides helpful guidance in performing
tasks” and “Overall, I will find AI easy to use” were drawn
from research by Moakofhi, Phiri, Leteane, Bangomwa, and
Davis, reflecting the ease-of-use aspect (Moakofhi et al.
2019; Davis 1989).
Artificial Intelligence Self Efficacy: Self-efficacy refers to
one’s belief in their capability to perform tasks effectively.
In this domain, items like “I am confident that I can perform
effectively on many different tasks” and “I am confident
about my ability to use the software to complete my work”
were adapted from research by Chen, Gully, Eden, Pütten,
Bock, Zheng, Wang, Doll, Deng, and Williams, reflecting
participants’ self-efficacy concerning AI technology (Chen
et al. 2001; Pütten and Bock 2018; Zheng et al. 2018).
Perceived Effectiveness: This domain explored partici-
pants’ perceptions of the effectiveness of AI technology in
education. Statements such as “AI technology in education
contains Summative assessments to help learners assess
their learning” and “Overall, it is a very effective teach-
ing and learning technology” were inspired by research by
Natividad, reflecting the perceived effectiveness of AI in
education (Natividad 2021).
Perceived Risk: Participants’ concerns about the risks
associated with AI adoption were assessed in this domain.
Items such as “I believe AI-powered educational content is
not always correct” and “Using AI Technology exposes me
to an overall risk” were adapted from research by Chatter-
jee and Bhattacharjee, Chen, and Chao, reflecting perceived
risks associated with AI technology (Chatterjee and Bhat-
tacharjee 2020; Chen 2012; Chao 2019).
Behavioural Intention: This domain focused on partici-
pants’ intentions and willingness to adopt AI technology in
the future. Items such as “I intend to use AI Technology in
the future” and “I am willing to use AI technology for devel-
oping smart content” were adapted from research by Yau and
Ho and Chatterjee and Bhattacharjee, reflecting behavioral
intentions related to AI adoption (Yau and Ho 2015; Chat-
terjee & Bhattacharjee 2020).
Adoption of AI in Higher Education: This domain aimed
to capture participants’ perspectives on the impact of AI
adoption in higher education. Items like “Application of
AI in higher education will make education more interac-
tive” and “Application of AI in higher education will make
it cost-effective” were sourced from research by Chatterjee
Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag
and Bhattacharjee, reflecting perceptions of the adoption of
AI in higher education (Chatterjee & Bhattacharjee 2020).
In summary, the research design involves the systematic
collection of numerical data using a structured question-
naire. This questionnaire is designed to measure respond-
ents’ perceptions, attitudes, and intentions regarding AI
adoption in higher education. The data collected will be
analysed quantitatively to draw meaningful insights and
conclusions about the research objectives.
3.3 Theoretical framework
The theoretical frameworks that may be relevant in the con-
text of this research on the function of artificial intelligence
in Indian higher education institutions could include:
• Technological Acceptance Model (TAM): TAM is a
well-known theoretical framework that explains how
users perceive and adopt new technologies. TAM pos-
its that users’ acceptance of technology is influenced by
two primary factors: perceived ease of use and perceived
usefulness. In this study, the domain “Perceived Ease of
Use” directly aligns with the TAM concept. The scale
items in this domain assess participants’ perceptions of
how easy it is to interact with AI technology, such as
“My interaction with AI is easy for me to understand.”
TAM also emphasizes the role of behavioural intention
as a determinant of technology acceptance. The domain
“Behavioural Intention” in the questionnaire captures
participants’ intentions to use AI technology in the future
and their willingness to recommend it to others.
• Social Cognitive Theory (SCT): SCT is a theoretical
framework that focuses on the role of individual cogni-
tion, behaviour, and the social environment in shaping
human behaviour. In the context of this research, SCT
can be used to understand how artificial intelligence is
perceived, learned, and adopted by students, faculty, and
management in Indian higher education institutions, and
Fig. 1  Conceptual framework
how their behaviours and interactions are influenced by
the presence of artificial intelligence. SCT emphasizes
self-efficacy, which is the belief in one’s ability to per-
form tasks effectively. The domain “Artificial Intelligence
Self Efficacy” in the questionnaire assesses participants’
confidence in their ability to use AI technology effec-
tively. SCT also highlights the role of observational
learning, where individuals learn by observing the
behaviours and outcomes of others. While not explicitly
measured in the questionnaire, the domain “Perceived
Organizational Support” indirectly relates to this aspect.
If participants perceive that their organization supports
and encourages the use of AI technology, it can serve as a
form of observational learning, influencing their attitudes
and intentions toward AI adoption.
• Human–Computer Interaction (HCI) Theory: This theo-
retical framework focuses on how people and technology
interact. HCI theory can be applied to this research to
better understand how users engage with AI systems in
higher education settings in India, considering elements
like usability, user experience, and human-centered
design principles. HCI theory emphasizes the user’s
experience and satisfaction with technology. In this
study, the domain “Perceived Effectiveness” assesses
participants’ perceptions of how AI technology enhances
the teaching and learning process.
These theoretical frameworks can serve as a conceptual
foundation for comprehending and analysing how artificial
intelligence functions in higher education institutions in
India. They can also serve as a roadmap for formulating
research questions, hypotheses, and methods for data analy-
sis. Theoretical comprehension of the function of artificial
intelligence in higher education can also be advanced with
their assistance in evaluating the research’s findings and for-
mulating insightful conclusions (Fig. 1).
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Table 1  Response rate Table 2  Gender

Questionnaire Count Percentage Gender Count Percentage (%)

Returned 411 82 Female 159 38.69

Non-returned 89 18 Male 252 61.31
Total 500 100 Grand total 411 100

Source Author creation Source Author creation

3.4 Hypothesis Table 3  Age

Age group Count Percentage (%)
H1 There is a favourable relationship between behavioural
intent to use AI and perceived organisational support. 18–30 years 281 68.37
31–45 years 92 22.38
H2 Perceived ease of use and behavioural intention to use 46–60 years 32 7.79
artificial intelligence have a favourable relationship. 61 and above 6 1.46
Grand total 411 100
H3 There is a positive relationship between behavioural
intention to adopt artificial intelligence and self-efficacy of
artificial intelligence. Table 4  Educational qualifications
Educational qualification Count
H4 The behavioural intention to use artificial intelligence
is positively impacted by perceived effectiveness. Pursuing Doctorate/Doctorate 114
Pursuing Graduation/Graduate 169
H5 Perceived risk has a beneficial effect on behavioural Pursuing Post-Graduation/Post-Graduate 128
intentions to use artificial intelligence. Grand total 411

H6 The use of artificial intelligence has a favourable effect

on behavioural intention. 4.2 Respondents’ demographic profile

H7 The adoption of artificial intelligence in higher educa-
tion is positively impacted by behavioural intention to adopt
it.
4 Results and discussion
4.1 Response rate
An aggregate of 500 questionnaires were given out in total,
and 411 of them were completed and returned, yielding an
82% response rate. According to Mugenda and Mugenda’s
(2008) guideline that a response rate of 50% is sufficient for
analysis, this response rate was deemed satisfactory. In addi-
tion, return rates of 50% are deemed appropriate for analysis
and publication, 60% are deemed good, and 70% are deemed
very good, according to Babbie (2004) (Table 1).
The current study’s response rate was greater than 70%,
which denotes a good degree of response. A very good
percentage of response rate 83% was achieved during the
survey.
The questionnaire’s Sect. 1 contains demographic informa-
tion about the respondents, including questions about their
gender, age, and race. This section also seeks information
on marital status, occupation, monthly income, and level
of education to gain a better understanding of the respond-
ents’ characteristics.
Out of a total of 411 respondents, 159 Females and 252
Males as mentioned in Table 2.
The number of the various age groups among respond-
ents who took part in the questionnaires is shown in the
Table 3. The majority of respondents 68% were from
age group 18–30 Years, 22% were from 31 to 45 Years,
8% were from 46 to 60 Years and the rest 2% were from
61 years and above. The results show that a good number
of respondents from appropriate categories were included
in the study to gain meaningful insights about the use of
artificial intelligence in higher education, with an empha-
sis on Indian Universities.
Table 4 indicates that 169 respondents to the survey
were graduates, 128 were postgraduates, and 114 were
Doctorates. A good representative of qualified people of
various levels like Doctorate, Post Graduate and Under
Graduate have been included in the study.

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Table 5  Designation Designation
Faculty
Management
Other staff
Student
Table 6  Income
Income range
0 to 5 lacs per annum
5 to 10 lacs per annum
10 to 15 lacs per annum
15 to 20 lacs per annum
20 to 25 lacs per annum
> 25 lacs per annum
The designations of respondents from Indian higher
education institutions in Delhi NCR is as captured in the
Table 5. A good number of sample had been taken from
faculty and students category. Also, response from man-
agement and other staff have been captured in the survey.
The count of earners and percentage wise distribution has
been mentioned in Table 6. Respondents’ categorised on the
basis of income earners have been found with income rang-
ing from 0 to 5 Lacs Per Annum, or 5 to 10 Lacs Per Annum,
or 10 to 15 Lacs Per Annum make 84% of the total sample
size those have been considered for analysis purpose. 16%
of respondents make a total of income earners who earn 15
to 20 Lacs Per Annum or 20 to 25 Lacs Per Annum together.
4.3 Measurement model
A Partial Least Squares (PLS) analysis’s first stage entails
assessing the measurement model, sometimes referred to
Count as the outer model. According to Hair et al. (2013), the
measurement model offers guidance for determining corre-
197 lations between latent and observable variables. It enables
21 the use of several variables to examine a single independ-
10 ent or dependent concept. Validity and reliability, some-
183 times referred to as the outer model, are the two main PLS
analysis criteria that are used to evaluate the measurement
model (Ramayah et al. 2011). Validity tests evaluate the
precision with which the instrument measures the intended
Count
notion, and reliability testing evaluate the consistency and
stability of the measuring equipment.
158
85
101 4.4 Construct reliability
28
29 Cronbach Alpha, a conservative measure of item depend-
10 ability, is used to evaluate the reliability of multiple-scale
items (Nunnally 1967). All variables in the study have
Cronbach Alpha values above this level, which indicates
the reliability of the data and the significant correlation
between variables and constructs. Table 7 shows that all
variables in the study have Cronbach Alpha values above
this threshold. For the non-PLS model, Cronbach Alpha
is used because it does not imply equivalence and does
not give each construct the same amount of weight (Chin
1998). Composite reliability is used to further support
the models’ accuracy; this measure is more individualis-
tic than composite reliability, which takes external load-
ings into account (Hair et al. 2006). According to Kline
(2018), a high correlation between a construct’s indicator
variables is essential for dependability as it is a need for
construct quality. Hair et al. (2006) defined reliability as
the consistency of a variable or set of variables with the
object of the measurement. Commonly cited metrics for
construct dependability include Cronbach Alpha and com-
posite reliability. The reliability of the multiple-item scale
is estimated using Cronbach Alpha, a cautious appraisal of

Table 7  Confirmatory factor model fit and reliability and validity assessment
Cronbach’s alpha Composite reliability Composite reliability The average
(rho_a) (rho_c) variance extracted
(AVE)

Adoption of AI in higher education 0.920 0.929 0.940 0.757

Artificial intelligence self efficacy 0.925 0.939 0.942 0.766
Behavior intention 0.883 0.886 0.914 0.681
Perceived ease of use 0.891 0.910 0.920 0.696
Perceived effectiveness 0.928 0.942 0.945 0.776
Perceived organisational support 0.892 0.906 0.919 0.694
Perceived risk 0.872 0.893 0.905 0.658

Construct reliability and validity assessment

Source Author creation

13

items. According to Nunnally (1967), a construct’s internal
dependability is indicated by a Cronbach Alpha score of
0.7 or higher.
4.5 Convergent validity
According to Zikmund et al. (2013), a measure’s validity
has to do with how accurately and precisely it communicates
the intended concept or idea. Construct validity is especially
important in the social sciences. It evaluates how closely test
findings adhere to the theories upon which they are founded,
offering information on whether the test instrument actually
measures the desired construct as suggested by the study.
The measuring scales are subjected to tests for convergent
validity and discriminant validity in order to verify validity.
The degree to which one measure of a construct coincides
with another measure of the same construct is known as con-
vergent validity. The average variance extracted (AVE) and
item loadings are used in partial least squares (PLS) analysis
to assess convergent validity (Hair et al. 2013). According
to Hair et al. (2013), the average variance (AVE) among
the indicators connected to a given construct is determined
as the total of the squared loadings divided by the num-
ber of indicators. When a construct’s AVE is higher than
that of the other constructs in the same model, it means that
the construct has a higher variance in relation to its own
measurements.
A latent variable is said to account for more than 50% of
the variance in the indicators it is related to when the AVE
value is larger than 0.5, while another latent variable only
accounts for less than 50%. All AVE values in the current
study are greater than 0.5, showing strong convergent valid-
ity (0.776 and 0.658). The CR values in Table 8 also show
that all study constructs have excellent levels of internal con-
sistency and reliability and that all item loadings are more
than the 0.6 minimum requirement.
Table 8  Results discriminant validity—HTMT
Adoption of AI in Artificial intelli-
higher education gence self efficacy
Adoption of AI in higher education
Artificial intelligence self efficacy 0.743
Behavior intention 0.647 0.629
Perceived ease of use 0.296 0.264
Perceived effectiveness 0.629 0.432
Perceived organisational support 0.591 0.546
Perceived risk 0.603 0.599
Source Author creation
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Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag
4.5.1 Discriminant validity
When evaluating a construct’s discriminant validity,
researchers look to see if the phenomenon it represents is
distinct from and not covered by other constructs in the
model (Hair et al. 2013). The Fornell-Larcker criterion, the
Heterotrait-Monotrait correlation ratio, and cross-loadings
across components (HTMT) are a few techniques that can
be used to evaluate discriminant validity. The initial load-
ings of the construct should be high for the target construct
and low for other constructs in order to achieve discrimi-
nant validity, demonstrating that the construct is measuring
a unique notion distinct from other constructs in the model
(Chin 1998).
By contrasting the square root of the Average Variance
Extracted (AVE) values with the correlations between latent
variables, it is possible to evaluate a construct’s discrimi-
nant validity (Fornell and Larcker 1981). The square roots
of the AVE coefficients are shown in the correlation matrix’s
diagonal. Since all HTMT (Heterotrait-Monotrait) values
in Table 8 fall between − 1 and 1, demonstrating that the
constructs are measuring distinct concepts apart from one
another, discriminant validity has been established.
The squared foundation of the Average Variance
Extracted (AVE) for each construct must be higher than its
highest correlation with any other construct in order for dis-
criminant validity to be correctly established. According to
Table 9, each construct’s squared value is always greater
than the correlation between that construct and any higher-
ranking construct. Based on this, Table 9 provides an illus-
tration of the study’s achievement of discriminant validity.
4.5.2 Structural model
The coherent and theoretically defined contextual relation-
ship between the observable data on the input and output
sides is represented by the structural model and its latent
variables. The investigation’s major goal is to forecast the
output layer data using the structural model and the input
Behavior Perceived Perceived Perceived organi-
intention ease of use effectiveness sational support
0.355
0.423 0.327
0.709 0.127 0.283
0.711 0.173 0.261 0.866
Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag

Table 9  Fornell
Adoption of AI in Artificial intel- Behavior Perceived Perceived Perceived Perceived risk
higher education ligence self intention ease of effective- organisational
efficacy use ness support

Adoption of AI in higher educa- 0.870

tion
Artificial intelligence self efficacy 0.694 0.875
Behavior intention 0.595 0.590 0.825
Perceived ease of use 0.271 0.248 0.326 0.834
Perceived effectiveness 0.580 0.408 0.394 0.297 0.881
Perceived organisational support 0.560 0.536 0.662 0.120 0.277 0.833
Perceived risk 0.572 0.571 0.656 0.135 0.263 0.769 0.811

Source Author creation

layer data. This means that the structural model is used to
depict one or more dependence relationships that are con-
sistent with the model’s proposed construct. However, mul-
ticollinearity problems at the structural level could affect
both formative and reflective models. When there is a strong
correlation between two or more independent variables, mul-
ticollinearity occurs. Increased standard errors in Ordinary
Least Squares (OLS) regression and erroneous significance
tests for the independent variables can all be consequences
of this. It can also make it more difficult for the researcher
to determine the relative significance of each independent
variable in relation to the others. When the Variance Infla-
tion Factor (VIF) coefficient surpasses a standard cut-off of
4.0, multicollinearity is typically regarded as unfavourable.
Additionally, when the VIF, which is the inverse of the toler-
ance coefficient, is less than 0.25, multicollinearity might be
found (Hair et al. 2014).
Path analysis was used to look at the relationships
between the constructs in the structural model using PLS-
SEM. The expected size and direction (positive or nega-
tive) of the path coefficients can be determined using the
standardized regression coefficients, which make up the path
coefficients. When the independent construct is increased by
one standard deviation while keeping the other explanatory
constructs unchanged, these coefficients show the change in
the dependent construct, measured in standard deviations.
With the exception of the effects of the two control varia-
bles, business size and industry, the expected path coefficient

Fig. 2  Path coefficient

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 Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag

estimates for the connections in the example shown in Fig. 2
range from 0.112 to 0.595 and are all statistically significant
at a 5% level of significance.
In order to evaluate PLS path modeling, bootstrapping
must be used because it is the only approach for demon-
strating the significance of path coefficients in PLS analy-
sis (Chin 1998). According to Efron and Tibshirani (1993),
“bootstrapping” is a non-parametric resampling technique
that combines replacement from the original sample with
repeated random sampling.
The research’s conclusions are consistent with the theo-
ries and conceptual framework and conceptual framework
as per values in Table 10. The hypothesis (H1) that there
is a correlation between artificial intelligence self-efficacy
and behavioural intention to embrace artificial intelligence
was accepted in light of the significant positive correla-
tion that was found (path coefficient = 0.187, t = 3.668, p
0.001). This demonstrates that those who are more at ease
with artificial intelligence are more likely to be interested
in implementing it. The results validated hypothesis 2
(path coefficient = 0.595, t = 14.118, p 0.001), which states
that behavioural intention to use AI and AI adoption in
higher education are significantly correlated. This suggests
that people are more likely to really adopt AI in the con-
text of higher education if they have a higher behavioural
desire to do so. The findings also confirm H3, which holds
that perceived usefulness and behavioural desire to adopt
AI are positively correlated (path coefficient = 0.174,
t = 4.269, p 0.001). This implies that people who view AI
as a user are more likely to be inclined to adopt it.
Similarly, H4 (path coefficient = 0.112, t = 2.573,
p > 0.005), which proposes a positive association between
perceived effectiveness and behavioural desire to embrace
AI, was validated by the findings. This suggests that those
who believe AI to be productive are more likely to have
higher adoption intentions. The findings also support H5,
which postulates a beneficial association between perceived
organisational support and behavioural desire to apply artifi-
cial intelligence (path coefficient = 0.313, t = 4.172, p 0.001).
Finally, H6 (path coefficient = 0.256, t = 3.580, p 0.001),
which examines the relationship between perceived danger
and behavioural intention to embrace AI, was supported by
the findings.
The results are succinctly summarised in Table 11 and
Fig. 2, which indicate the significant path coefficients, t-val-
ues, and p values for each hypothesis and confirm the study’s
general conclusions. The links suggested in the study have
empirical support in these results, which also contribute to
the prevailing theoretical framework.

Table 10  Path coefficient

Original sam- Sample mean Standard deviation T statistics (|O/ P values
ple (O) (M) (STDEV) STDEV|)

Artificial intelligence self efficacy→behavior Intention 0.187 0.189 0.051 3.668 0.001
Behavior intention→adoption of AI in higher education 0.595 0.595 0.042 14.118 0.001
Perceived ease of use→behavior intention 0.174 0.174 0.041 4.269 0.001
Perceived effectiveness→behavior intention 0.112 0.112 0.044 2.573 0.005
Perceived organisational support→behavior Intention 0.313 0.309 0.075 4.172 0.001
Perceived risk→behavior intention 0.256 0.26 0.071 3.58 0.001

Source Author creation

Table 11  Specific indirect path (Mediating Effect)

Original Sample Standard T statis- P values
sample mean deviation tics (|O/
(O) (M) (STDEV) STDEV|)

Perceived effectiveness→behavior intention→adoption of AI in higher educa- 0.067 0.067 0.027 2.434 0.007
tion
Perceived risk→behavior intention→adoption of AI in higher education 0.152 0.154 0.044 3.468 0.002
Perceived organisational support→behavior intention→adoption of AI in higher 0.186 0.184 0.048 3.915 0.001
education
Artificial intelligence self-efficacy→behavior intention→adoption of AI in 0.111 0.113 0.032 3.518 0.001
higher education
Perceived ease of use→behavior intention→adoption of AI in higher education 0.103 0.103 0.024 4.372 0.001

Source Author creation

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Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag
Finally, we consider how behaviour intention influences
how perceptions of artificial intelligence’s adoption in higher
education, perceived danger, perceived organisational sup-
port, and perceived efficacy of use. H7 looks into the pos-
sibility that behaviour intention mediates the relationship
between perceived efficacy and AI uptake in higher educa-
tion. It does, according to the findings (= 0.067, t = 2.434,
p 0.007). The results show that Behaviour Intention plays a
significant and mediating effect between Perceived Risk and
Adoption of AI in Higher Education (= 0.152, t = 3.468, p
0.002). The results of H9 indicate that behaviour intention
significantly mediates the relationship between perceived
organizational support and the adoption of AI in higher edu-
cation (= 0.186, t = 3.915, p 0.001). The findings of H10
show that Behaviour Intention significantly mediates the
relationship between Artificial Intelligence Self-Efficacy
and AI Adoption in Higher Education (= 0.111, t = 3.518,
p 0.001). The results of H11 demonstrate that Behaviour
Intention plays a substantial and mediating effect between
Perceived Ease of Use and Adoption of AI in Higher Educa-
tion (= 0.103, t = 4.372, p 0.001). Hence, it has been dem-
onstrated that behavioural intention significantly mediates
the relationship between perceived effectiveness, perceived
risk, perceived organizational support, perceived ease of
use, and adoption of AI in higher education. The results
demonstrate (Table 11) the important role that behavioural
intention played as a mediator.
5 Discussion
The study’s findings, align closely with the hypothesized
relationships and theoretical framework, and shed light on
critical factors influencing the adoption of artificial intel-
ligence (AI) in Indian higher education. The positive cor-
relation observed between AI self-efficacy and behavioural
intention underscores the importance of bolstering users’
confidence in AI technology through training and support
initiatives. Furthermore, the strong link between behav-
ioural intention and AI adoption highlights the pivotal role
intention plays in driving actual adoption, emphasizing the
need for strategies that enhance stakeholders’ intention to
use AI. Perceived usefulness, perceived effectiveness, and
perceived organizational support were also found to posi-
tively influence behavioural desire, emphasizing the signifi-
cance of emphasizing AI’s practical benefits, and efficacy,
and creating a supportive AI-adoption environment within
educational institutions. Lastly, the positive relationship
between perceived risk and behavioural intention suggests
that addressing concerns related to AI’s reliability and secu-
rity is crucial in encouraging adoption.
As a result, prognostic analyses provide the foundation
of all of this study’s conclusions. In addition, 411 insightful
survey responses were obtained by the study from staff and
students at higher education institutions in India. All of the
hypotheses were supported by the findings, which showed
that a number of factors, including artificial intelligence
self-efficacy, perceived ease of use, perceived effectiveness,
perceived organizational support, and perceived risk, sig-
nificantly influence stakeholders’ behavioural intention to
adopt artificial intelligence in higher education institutions.
In accordance with earlier studies, exposure to AI tech-
nologies and experience-gaining may improve views about
the usefulness of technology and boost students’ motiva-
tion to use it (Kim 2017). The results of this study highlight
how behaviour intention plays a substantial mediating role
in the relationships between perceived efficacy, perceived
risk, perceived organizational support, perceived ease of
use of artificial intelligence, and adoption of AI in higher
education. Behavioural intention is a key driver of AI adop-
tion. Universities can conduct awareness campaigns, work-
shops, and seminars to educate students and faculty about
the potential of AI in education. These findings support
Zhang and Gutierrez’s claim that behavioural intention (BI)
is a reliable indicator of taking part in activities that are in
line with that intention (Zhang and Gutierrez 2007). Uni-
versities can conduct awareness campaigns, workshops, and
seminars to educate students and faculty about the potential
of AI in education. Engaging stakeholders in the decision-
making process and involving them in AI pilot projects can
also increase their willingness to adopt AI. These findings
offer actionable insights for Indian universities seeking to
successfully integrate AI into their educational processes
and underscore the importance of promoting self-efficacy,
minimizing risks, and fostering a supportive AI adoption
climate to enhance higher education with AI technology.
6 Conclusion
In conclusion, the study’s findings are consistent with the
fourth hypothesis and theoretical framework. The results
show that a number of variables, including artificial intelli-
gence self-efficacy, behavioural intention to adopt AI, adop-
tion of AI in higher education, perceived usefulness, per-
ceived effectiveness, perceived organizational support, and
perceived risk, have significant relationships. These findings
shed important light on the variables affecting artificial intel-
ligence adoption in the setting of higher education.
According to the study’s findings, people who are more
confident in their ability to use artificial intelligence are also
more likely to be inclined to use it. Additionally, discov-
ered to positively influence behavioural intention to adopt
AI are perceived usefulness, perceived effectiveness, and
perceived organizational support. This finding suggests that
people who perceive AI as useful, effective, and receiving
13

organizational support are more likely to have a higher inten-
tion to adopt it. The study also discovered that behavioural
intention to adopt AI is significantly influenced by perceived
risk, suggesting that those who perceive AI adoption as hav-
ing less danger are more likely to have higher intentions to
embrace it.
These findings have repercussions for institutions of
higher learning and legislators who are thinking about
integrating AI into their instructional strategies. In order to
encourage the use of AI in higher education settings, they
emphasize the significance of addressing elements like
self-efficacy, perceived usefulness, perceived effectiveness,
organizational support, and perceived risk.
It is significant to emphasize that this study includes limi-
tations that may limit the generalizability of the results, such
as the use of self-reported measures and the unique environ-
ment of higher education. Future studies could investigate
these connections in more depth and make use of objective
metrics to increase the validity of their conclusions. Despite
these drawbacks, the study’s findings add to the body of
knowledge on the application of artificial intelligence and
offer useful information to practitioners and academics who
are interested in this area.
7 Implications
The framework developed in this study provides valuable
insights and practical guidance for stakeholders in the higher
education sector who are looking to effectively harness the
potential of artificial intelligence (AI). By following the out-
lined strategies, institutions can systematically address the
challenges associated with AI integration and pave the way
for its successful adoption. Initially, conducting a compre-
hensive assessment of the institution’s current AI readiness
and the perceptions of its stakeholders is crucial. This will
help identify specific areas that require attention and ensure
that AI initiatives are aligned with the needs and expecta-
tions of faculty, staff, and students. Subsequently, stakehold-
ers can prioritize training and capacity-building programs
to enhance AI skills and self-efficacy in the academic com-
munity. Engaging users in the design and development of
AI applications, along with a strong focus on data security
and ethical considerations, will contribute to user-centric AI
solutions. Adequate resource allocation, well-defined poli-
cies, and interdisciplinary collaboration are key components
of a successful AI adoption strategy. Regular performance
monitoring and transparent communication with all stake-
holders, as well as the scaling of successful models, will
further accelerate the integration of AI in higher education,
ultimately enhancing the quality of teaching, learning, and
administrative processes.
13
Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag
The practical and managerial implications derived from
this study have significant ramifications for the adoption of
artificial intelligence (AI) in higher education. In practical
terms, it is imperative for educational institutions to formu-
late comprehensive AI integration strategies that encompass
user training and development, user-centric design of AI
tools, risk mitigation measures, and a supportive organiza-
tional culture. These strategies should prioritize the devel-
opment of self-efficacy among faculty, staff, and students to
enhance their comfort and competence in using AI technol-
ogy. Furthermore, a user-centric design approach ensures
that AI solutions align with the unique needs and expecta-
tions of the higher education community, promoting their
widespread adoption. To address concerns related to per-
ceived risks, institutions must establish robust data security
protocols, ensure transparency in AI algorithms, and have
mechanisms in place for addressing errors promptly. Encour-
aging a culture of organizational support is essential, with
administrators and managers providing necessary resources,
incentives, and recognition for individuals actively involved
in AI initiatives. Additionally, the continuous monitoring
of AI effectiveness and feedback collection should be inte-
grated into the adoption process, enabling institutions to
refine and enhance AI applications continually.
On a managerial level, institutions need to allocate ade-
quate budgetary and human resources to support AI adop-
tion initiatives fully. Recognizing the long-term benefits of
improved efficiency, personalized learning, and enhanced
educational outcomes, these investments are crucial for suc-
cessful implementation. Moreover, offering training pro-
grams and opportunities for ongoing skill development is
essential to empower faculty and staff with the necessary AI
competencies. Clear policies and guidelines should be estab-
lished to govern AI adoption, encompassing aspects such as
data privacy, ethical AI usage, and academic integrity. These
policies must align with regulatory frameworks and evolving
best practices in AI. Encouraging interdisciplinary collabo-
ration among departments and faculties can harness the full
potential of AI in higher education, promoting resource shar-
ing, research collaboration, and the dissemination of best
practices. Regular performance evaluation, benchmarking
processes, and transparent communication with stakeholders
further contribute to the effective management of AI adop-
tion initiatives.
Finally, as successful AI adoption models emerge, insti-
tutions should consider scaling these initiatives to other
departments or institutions within the higher education
ecosystem, enabling broader access to the benefits of AI-
enhanced education. In conclusion, the practical and man-
agerial implications underscore the need for a strategic,
user-focused approach to AI adoption in higher education,
ensuring its successful integration and transformational
impact on teaching, learning, and administrative processes.
Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag
8 Future research direction
Future research in AI adoption in Indian universities
can explore several promising directions to address both
opportunities and challenges. One significant avenue
for research is the exploration of strategies to mitigate
potential job displacement due to AI adoption. This could
involve studying the development of AI-enhanced roles in
academia, where faculty and staff work alongside AI sys-
tems to enhance educational outcomes and administrative
efficiency. Investigating the creation of new interdiscipli-
nary programs and courses focusing on AI ethics, govern-
ance, and policy can also be valuable, preparing students
and professionals to navigate the evolving landscape.
Additionally, further research can delve into the cus-
tomization of AI systems to cater to the specific needs
and cultural contexts of Indian higher education. Under-
standing how AI can adapt to diverse linguistic, cultural,
and regional requirements will be critical for successful
integration. Furthermore, examining the long-term impact
of AI on teaching and learning outcomes, student engage-
ment, and academic achievement in Indian universities
can provide insights into the effectiveness of AI-enhanced
education. Research on the scalability of AI-driven educa-
tional interventions, especially in remote and underserved
areas, is another important area for investigation.
Exploring the ethical implications of AI adoption,
including issues related to bias, fairness, and privacy in
the Indian higher education context, is essential. Devel-
oping AI ethics guidelines and frameworks tailored to the
Indian educational landscape can help ensure responsible
AI use. Lastly, research can focus on the development of
AI-driven tools and platforms that facilitate collaboration,
research, and innovation in higher education, ultimately
contributing to India’s global competitiveness in academia.
Overall, future research should aim to balance the ben-
efits of AI adoption with the ethical, societal, and human
implications, ensuring that AI serves as a transformative
force for positive change in Indian universities.
Funding No funding was received for conducting this study.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no known
competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Human or animals rights The authors declare that this study does
not involve use of any animal or human participant during the process
of the entire study. Only respondents have participated in the survey of
research totally on voluntary basis.
Informed consent In the research conducted, the participation of the
respondents was totally on voluntary basis understanding the purpose
of the study. Authors adhered to the strict ethical guidelines related
to the privacy and confidentiality of their personal information and
responses to the survey.
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