CLASS XI PHYSICS

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS(part II)

1.STREAMLINED AND TURBULENT FLOW – The streamline flow of a liquid is that
flow in which each element of the liquid passing through a point travels along the same
path and with the same velocity as the preceeding element passing through the same
point.
A streamline may be defined as the path, straight or curved, the tangent to which
at any point gives the direction of the flow of liquid at that point.

Consider a liquid flowing through a pipe of the shape as shown in the

below figure. An element of the liquid possesses velocity ⃗v 1 at the point A, ⃗v 2 at the
point B and ⃗v 3 at the point C.
As the liquid flows, the different elements of the liquid will pass through the
points A, B & C. If it happens so that while moving along the path ABC, the successive
elements of the liquid possess velocities ⃗v 1, ⃗v 2 and ⃗v 3 ; when at the points A, B and C
respectively, then such an orderly flow of the liquid is called streamlined or steady
flow.
For example, path ABC is a streamline. It is obvious that the two streamlines
cannot cross ; for if they do so, the element of the liquid at the point of their intersection
will have two different directions for the flow. If a liquid flows in a tube of uniform cross-
sectional area, all the streamlines will be parallel to the axis of the tube.

Tube of flow – A tube of flow is a bundle of streamlines having the same velocity of
liquid elements over any cross-section perpendicular to the direction of flow.It has been
found that a liquid can possess streamlined motion only when its velocity is less than a
limiting velocity, called the critical velocity.
When the velocity of the liquid becomes greater than the critical velocity for the
liquid ; the different elements of the liquid move along a zig-zag path. As a result of
unsteady motion of the elements of the liquid along zig-zag paths, the liquid gets
churned up. Such a motion of the liquid is called turbulent flow. In such a motion, the
velocity of the different elements of the liquid at any point varies with time both in
magnitude and direction. In turbulent flow of liquid, most of the external energy
maintaining the flow gets used in setting up eddies in the fluid.

Laminar Flow – When the velocity of flow of liquid is less than the critical velocity of
that liquid, then the liquid flows steadily. Each layer of liquid slides over the other layer
such flow is called laminar flow.

2.EQUATION OF CONTINUITY – When a non-viscous and incompressible liquid flows

through a tube of non-uniform bore and its flow is streamline, then the product of
velocity of flow and the area of cross-section of the tube at every transverse cross-
section remains constant.

Consider that a liquid is flowing through a pipe AB of varying cross-section as

shown in the figure. Let the cross-sectional area of the pipe at points A and B be a 1
and a 2 respectively. Let the liquid enter with normal velocity v 1 at A and leave with
velocity v 2 at B.

If there is no source or sink of the liquid along the length of the pipe. Then,

a 1 . v 1=a2 . v 2

This expression is called the equation of continuity for the steady flow of an
incompressible and non-viscous liquid.
 v 1 a2
Since =
v 2 a1

It indicates that the velocity of flow of liquid is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area.

3.BERNOULI’S THEOREM – It states that the total energy (pressure energy, potential
energy and kinetic energy) of an incompressible and non-viscous fluid in steady flow
through a pipe remains constant throughout the flow, provided there is no source or sink
of the fluid along the length of the pipe.
This statement is based on the assumption that there is no loss of energy due to
friction.
Mathematically, for unit mass of fluid flowing through a pipe,

P 1
.
ρ
+ gh + 2
v ²=constant

The mathematical statement of Bernouli’s theorem is known as Bernouli’s equation.

Proof of Bernouli’s theorem – Suppose an incompressible and non-viscous liquid to

be flowing through a pipe of varying cross-sectional area as shown in the figure. The
liquid enters the pipe with a normal velocity v 1 at its wide end A of cross-sectional area
.a 1 and at a height h1 above the reference level(earth’s surface). It leaves the pipe with
a normal velocity v 2 at the narrow end B of cross-sectional area a 2 and at height
.h2 above the earth’s surface. If ρ is the density of the incompressible liquid, then in
accordance with the equation of continuity, the mass m of the liquid crossing any
section of the pipe per second is is given by

.a 1 . v 1 . ρ=a2 . v 2 . ρ=m(say )

m
Or a 1 . v 1=a2 . v 2= - (i)
ρ

Let P1 and P2 be the values of the pressure due to the liquid at the ends A and B
respectively. If the liquid moves from the end A to B under the action of pressure
difference P1−¿ P2 , then in accordance with energy conservation principle, the work
done by the pressure energy of the liquid must appear as the increase in potential and
kinetic energies of the liquid.
The pressure energy exerts a force P1 a1on the liquid at the end A. The liquid
covers a distance v 1 in one second at the end A and therefore

Work done per second on the liquid at the end A = P1 a1 v 1

The liquid reaches the end B against pressure P2 i.e. against a force P2 a2 . At the end
B, the liquid covers a distance v 1 in one second at the end A and therefore

Work done per second by the liquid at the end B = P2 a2 v 2

Hence, net work done by the pressure energy in moving the liquid from the end A to B
in one second = P1 a1 v 1−P2 a2 v 2

Using the equation (i)

Net work done by the pressure energy per second

m m
= P1 −¿ P2
ρ ρ

m
= ¿ P2 ¿ ρ - (ii)

When the mass m of the liquid flows in one second from the end A to B, its height
increases from h1 to h2.

Therefore, increase in potential energy of the liquid per second

= m g h 2−m g h1 =mg(h2−h1) - (iii)

Now, when the mass m of the liquid flows in one second from the end A to B, its velocity
increases from v 1 to v 2.
Therefore, increase in kinetic energy of the liquid per second
1 1 1 2 2
= m v 2 ²− m v 1 ²= m(v 2−v 1 ) - (iv)
2 2 2

According to work-energy conservation principle,

Work done by the pressure energy per second

= increase in potential energy per second + increase in kinetic energy per second

m 1 2 2
.∴ ¿ P2 ¿ =mg ( h2−h1 ) + m(v 2−v 1 )
ρ 2

Or ( P1 P2
ρ
−
ρ ) 1 2 1 2
=g h2−g h1 + v 2− v 1
2 2

P1 1 2 P2 1 2
Or + g h1 + v 1= + g h 2+ v 2 - (v)
ρ 2 ρ 2

P 1 2
Or + gh+ v =constant
ρ 2

It proves the Bernouli’s theorem. This is most convenient form of Bernouli’s equation.
However, it can be expressed in some other forms as explained below:

On multiplying both sides of the equation (v) by ρ ,

1 2 1 2
P1 + ρ g h1+ ρ v 1=P2 + ρ g h2+ ρ v 2
2 2 -(vi)

In this equation, each term has got dimensions of pressure.

When the liquid flows through a horizontal pipe (h1=h2 ¿ , then the equation (v) becomes

P 1 1 2 P2 1 2
+ v = + v - (vii)
ρ 2 1 ρ 2 2

APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULI’S THEOREM –

i)Air foil (lift of an aeroplane)

ii) Atomiser or sprayer

iii)Vaccum brake

iv)Bunsen’s Burner

v) Blowing off the roofs of houses during a storm

vi)Curved path of a spinning ball

OTHER APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULI’S THEOREM –

a)SPEED OF EFFLUX(Torricelli’s law) – The word efflux means fluid outflow. Torricelli
discovered that the speed of efflux from an open tank is given by a formula identical to
that of a freely falling body. Consider a vessel having a narrow orifice O. suppose that
the vessel contains a liquid of density ρ . Let h be the depth of the orifice below the free
surface of liquid in the vessel and hꞋ be the height of the orifice above the bottom of the
vessel.
Due to pressure exerted by the liquid column, the liquid will rush out of
the orifice. The velocity v , with which the liquid leaves the orifice, is called the
velocity of efflux.
Its value can be found by applying Bernoulli’s theorem for the steady flow of liquid.
 As the liquid escapes through the orifice the free surface of the liquid falls in the
vessel. However, if the vessel is quite wide, the velocity of fall of the free surface of the
liquid will be almost zero. Further, as the free surface of the liquid and the liquid
escaping from the orifice are both exposed to the atmosphere, pressure at the points A
and O will be equal to the atmospheric pressure P. Thus, if P1 and P2 are pressures at
the points A and O, then

P1=¿ P2=P

Also if v 1 and v 2 are velocities of the liquid at the points A and O, then

v 1=0 and v 1=v

Finally, if h1 and h2 are heights of the points A and O above the ground, then

h1=h+h Ꞌ and h2 =h Ꞌ

Now, According to the Bernoulli’s Theorem,

P1 1 2 P2 1 2
+ g h1 + v 1= + g h 2+ v 2
ρ 2 ρ 2

P P2 1
or ρ
+ g(h+h Ꞌ)+0= + g h2 + v ²
ρ 2

1
or 2
v ²=g(h+ hꞋ −h Ꞌ)

or v ²=2 gh

or v=√ 2 gh

Range – It is the distance from the bottom of the vessel, where the liquid flowing out of
the orifice strikes the ground.
Torricellis’s Theorem states that velocity of efflux of a liquid through an
orifice is equal to that which a body would acquire on falling freely through a distance
equal to the depth of the orifice below the free surface of the liquid.

Suppose that a body falls freely through a distance h, equal to the depth of the
orifice below the free surface of liquid. Let v be velocity attained by the body on
reaching the orifice. As the body falls freely,

v ² - 0² = 2 g h
 v² =2gh

v=√ 2 gh

This is the proof of Torricelli’s theorem.

b)VENTURIMETER – It is a device based on Bernoulli’s theorem. It is used to measure

the rate of flow(speed) of incompressible liquid. As shown in the figure, a venturimeter
consists of a wide tube having a constriction in the middle. The liquid enters through the
broad end called converging cone. After passing through the narrow short horizontal
part called throat, the liquid then leaves through the other broad end called the
diverging cone.

A manometer in the form of a U-tube is also attached to it, with its one arm at the
broad neck of the tube and the other at constriction as shown in the figure. The
manometer contains a liquid of density ρm .
The speed v 1 of the liquid flowing through the tube at the broad neck area A is to
be from the equation of the continuity. When liquid flows through the Venturimeter, its
velocity (kinetic energy) increases at the throat(constriction) and hence pressure energy
decreases. This decrease in pressure is measured by measuring the difference in levels
of the liquid in the two vertical tubes.
 Let a 1 and a 2 be the areas of cross-section of the venturimeter at the points P and
Q respectively and v 1 and v 2 be the velocities of the liquid, while crossing at these
points. According to the equation of continuity,

.a 1 v1 =a2 v 2

a1 v 1
v 2= - (i)
a2

Now, According to Bernoulli’s theorem,

P 1 1 2 P2 1 2
+ v = + v
ρ 2 1 ρ 2 2

P 1 1 2 P2 1 2
Or + ρv = + ρ v
ρ 2 1 ρ 2 2
- (ii)

Here, P1 and P2 are the values of the pressure of the liquid at the broad end and at the
throat respectively. Then,

1
P1−¿ P2= ρ ( v 22−v 21)
2

From the equation (i), on substituting the value of v 2 in the above equation,

2
1 1 a
P1−¿ P2= ρ ¿ - v 21 ¿= ρ v 21 ( 12 −1)
2 2 a2

1 a ²−a2 ²
P1−¿ P2= ρ v21 ( 1 ) - (iii)
2 a2²

2
v 1=a2 ² ¿

v 1=a2 √ ¿¿ - (iv)

If difference of levels of the liquid in the two vertical tubes of the U-shaped
tube is h m, then

P1−¿ P2=h m ρ g - (v)

Therefore, from the equations (iv) and (v)

v 1=a2 √ ¿¿

4.REYNOLD’S NUMBER – Reynolds proved experimentally that in case of viscous

liquid, critical velocity is given by

Nη
vc=
ρD

where D is diameter of tube, η the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid, ρ its density and
N is a number, called Reynolds number. From the above equation,

ρ D vc
N=
η

i)For a viscous liquid, flow is said to be laminar, when N lies between 0 to 2000.

ii)The flow of liquid becomes turbulent, when the value of N is above 2000.

iii)For N between 2000 to 3000, the flow of liquid is unsteady and may change from
laminar to turbulent and vice-versa.

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