7TH CHORDS

SUSPENSIONS
Upper part suspensions (4-3, 7-6, and 9-8) appear frequently. These also have hidden
figures, indicating that the suspension should be supported by a triad.
 Music Languages 1 – Tutorial 8 (Tuesday 13th September 2022)
Alexander Garsden – alexander.garsden@gmail.com
Consultation hour: Wednesdays 2pm, via Zoom

Four-part vocal writing fundamentals

Chordtone Omission

The only chordtone you can ever omit is the chordal fifth…

• You cannot omit the root (how could it be a G major chord, without the note G?).
• You cannot omit the chordal third (otherwise the chord is neither major nor minor).
• In a seventh chord, you cannot omit the chordal seventh (without the seventh, it’s just a triad).

…but you can only do so in root position major or minor triads, and (some) root position 7th chords.

If you omit the 5th in a triad, do not write 2x root notes + 2x chordal 3rds. Write 3x root and 1x chordal 3rd.

Chordtone Doubling

1. In all major/minor triads (except the V chord): you are free to double any chordtone…

BUT make sure you note the following:

• Avoid doubling the third in root position major triads wherever possible (chord sounds unstable)

However, note that there are some progressions where you should double the third in a root position
major chord, to avoid breaking more important voice leading rules. These include:

- for V - VI (interrupted cadence) motion in minor keys, the third of VI should be doubled.
- for viiø7 - I and viio7 – I progressions, the third of I will usually be doubled. Similarly, any major triad
should have a doubled 3rd if approached by its applied leading tone diminished 7th, except for V and V/
(where the chordal third is a tendency tone).

• One good rule of thumb: preference doubling the root, then the chordal fifth, then the chordal third.
• A different, but equally valid approach that many texts use: double the most “stable” scale degree – i.e.
Prioritise the doubling of scale degrees 1, 4, or 5 (“primary tones”) over scale degrees 2, 3, 6, or 7
(“secondary tones”) wherever possible. Note that this view contradicts the rule of thumb mentioned
above, and results in doubled thirds in several diatonic triads (including major triads).
• If the chord is in root position, you can also triple the root, resulting in a very (too?) stable chord.
• If the chord is in first inversion, double the soprano wherever possible (whatever the chordtone).

2. In V, V7, and applied dominant chords (V/ and V7/): NEVER double the chordal third (a tendency tone!)

3. In all 6/4 chords: double the bass.

Note that if you’re thinking about the 6/4 chord as a “second inversion triad”, the bass note is the “chordal
fifth” and NOT the “root” of the chord.

4. In diminished triads: double the third, not the root!

This avoids emphasising the tritone that’s built into the chord. This is especially the case for viio triads, where
the root is the leading tone, and absolutely cannot be doubled, ever.

5. In all 7th chords: avoid doubling anything.

• For V7 (inc. applied dominants) and ii7 chords, it is permissible to omit the fifth, but only if the chord is
in root position. If you do, double the root – never double the chordal third or seventh (tendency tones).
• viiø7 and viio7 (inc. applied) chords should be written as complete chords (i.e. no doubling or omission)
• All inverted 7th chords should be written as complete chords (i.e. no doubling or omission).

6. In suspensions: never double the suspension.

Aside from this important rule, treat a suspended chord like any other chord (avoid doubling third, never
double tendency tones, etc.)
 Vocal ranges

Spacing

Practice task: error identification

Identify the doubling, omission, range, or spacing error in each of the bars below.

Note: Don’t worry about voice leading errors between bars (e.g. parallel 8ves etc.).
We’re just looking at each of the below one chord at a time.
 CORRECTLY RESOLVING TENDENCY TONES

• Leading tone must resolve up by step in all dominant-tonic progressions if in an outer voice. It can
(Note: can doesn’t mean always should) resolve down by third if in an inner voice.

• All chordal 7ths must resolve down by step, except as part of one specific progression where it forms
parallel 10ths against the bass.

CORRECT RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ADJACENT VOICES

• No voice crossing and no voice overlapping. Be especially careful with alto and tenor voices. Note
that two adjacent meeting on the same note is fine (as long as that particular chordtone can be doubled).

Practice task: Error identification

The following progression contains each of the following errors. Identify them all.

Voice overlapping Parallel octave Aug/dim interval Unresolved tendency tone

Incorrect spacing Incomplete chord Incorrect doubling A vocal range error
Music Languages 1 – Tutorial 10 (Tuesday 4th October 2022)
Alexander Garsden – alexander.garsden@gmail.com
Consultation hour: Wednesdays 2pm, via Zoom

Everything you need to know about Applied Dominants

• What is an applied dominant? An applied dominant (or ‘secondary dominant’) is a chromatic chord.
It is the dominant (V) or dominant 7th (V7) of a diatonic chord, to which it immediately resolves.

• Which chords can be approached by an applied dominant? Any diatonic major or minor triad other
than the tonic chord.

• How do you work out the notes of an applied dominant? Consider which chord you want to resolve
to. Ask yourself, what is its V chord (or V7 chord). It’s that simple.

e.g. In the key of C major, if I wanted to approach the ii chord (Dm) by an applied dominant, I’d ask: What is the
dominant of D minor? Answer: A major (or A dominant 7th). So V of ii contains A, C#, E and (possibly) G.

• How do you label an applied dominant using Roman numerals? Don’t just label it as a major (or
dominant 7th) built upon it’s diatonic root note. Instead, use either arrows or slash chords (either
approach is fine). These two systems acknowledge that the chord is the V of the chords it resolves to.

• Why would you use an applied dominant? Because it is the V of the chord it resolves to, it exploits
dominant-tonic tension, creating a brief but satisfying resolution to that chord. It also can give a
progression some extra variety, due to its chromatic colour.

• When would you use an applied dominant? Most commonly in the middle of a phrase, or possibly as
part of an imperfect cadence (approaching the V chord by V7/V).

• What else do I need to know?

o Applied dominants must be major triads or dominant 7th chords. (Just like the real V!)

o Applied dominants contain tendency tones…

- The chordal 3rd (the temporary leading tone) which must resolve up by step.
- If a dominant 7th, the chordal 7th must resolve down by step.

…both of which must resolve correctly, and must never be doubled.

o Some progressions seem like applied dominants, but aren’t.

For example, even though the I chord is technically the “V” of IV, we don’t label I - IV as an
applied dominant. Why not? A) It’s not chromatic! B) More importantly, it’s not how the
motion is heard… i.e. the tonic is stable (more stable in sound than the subdominant) and so
hasn’t generated any harmonic tension. We simply don’t hear this as dominant-tonic motion!
However, if you ever saw I7 – IV then you would label it an applied dominant (i.e. you’d label
it V7/IV – IV). Why? A dominant 7th built on the tonic is A) chromatic, and B) unstable, with a
need to resolve. If you’d like to be certain you never fall into this trap, ensure that your
applied dominant is a dominant 7th chord, rather than a major triad.
 Progressions that look like applied chords, but aren’t.

In major keys:

In minor keys:

DEPENDS ON THE CONTEXT

Practice task: Analysis

Add Roman numerals to the following progression.

Practice task: Writing applied dominants

Complete the following progression in four-part style according to the given Roman numerals.
 FYI: Applied diminished (or applied leading tone) chords
The exact same principle can be used to form ‘applied leading tone diminished chords’ (i.e. dominant substitutes).

Any diatonic major or minor chord (other than I) can be approached by its own viio or viio7 chord.

Note: There is such a thing as an applied half diminished chord. I generally don’t recommend its use, because:

- It’s more difficult to use correctly (it can only approach major triads, and even then, does not approach
all of them equally well).

- It just doesn’t sound as convincing as the fully diminished 7th.

Remember that the viio7 chord has specific voice leading rules.
These apply to applied viio7 chords too!

Practice task: Analysis

Analyse the following passage, correctly labelling any applied dominants

and/or applied diminished chords used.
 Everything you need to know about Modulation

• What is a modulation? A modulation is a change of key. Put differently, it’s when you have a longer
progression of chords that function in a key other than the tonic, most especially when that new key is
reinforced at a cadence point.

• How are modulations achieved? Are any specific chords or devices required? In order for the new
‘tonic’ to be heard as the tonal centre, it needs to be ‘confirmed’ (i.e. reinforced as tonal centre). This is
most clearly achieved through dominant-tonic motion in the new key. Further reinforcement may come
via: the repetition/expansion of the new ‘tonic’ chord; and/or using chords that it closely related to (e.g.
its subdominant chord); and/or using other harmonic devices (e.g. dominant preparation) in the new
key. These elements work together to communicate to the listener that the new ‘tonic’ is tonal centre.

For example, take a look at the progression below, which begins in C major:

Even though most of the chords in this progression are still diatonic to C major, this progression clearly
modulates to A minor (the relative minor). This is indicated by:

o Repeated dominant-tonic motion (both in the middle of the phrase, and at the cadence)
o Repetition and reinforcement of the A minor chord (the new ‘tonic’).
o Dominant preparation before the final cadence.

• Would I label a progression like this using applied dominants? No! Applied dominants are only for
‘one-off’ dominant-tonic motion, and are used when the tonal centre hasn’t changed. Once you take all
of the above observations into account, the tonal centre definitely has changed. Therefore, we need a
different approach that acknowledges this.

• How do you correctly label a modulation? Start a new layer of analysis underneath your previous
Roman numerals, clearly labelling the new key. Where possible, choose a chord diatonic to both keys to
end the original key analysis and begin the new key analysis. This chord is called the pivot chord.

• How do I work out which chord should be the pivot chord? Generally speaking, the chord you
choose to be the pivot chord is the last chord that is diatonic to the original key – i.e. the last chord
before any accidentals are introduced. 9 times out of 10 this ‘rule of thumb’ applies, but consider:

o A sequence of chords may begin to ‘function’ in the new key before accidentals are required. It
is up to you to observe the progression and consider if the chords used are behaving as though
they’re in the original key or the new key.
o Some modulations don’t require accidentals. e.g. The modulation from a minor key to its
relative major is indicated by the absence of accidentals rather than the presence of them.

• How do I tell when a chorale melody suggests a modulation? Look for: The presence of accidentals;
and/or when cadences use scale degrees can’t be harmonised by valid cadence types in the original key.

• What else do I need to know? When you change key, you have to behave like you’re in that key!
Remember to use the notes of that scale (which might require accidentals). Remember that you have a
new leading tone, which will need careful treatment. Remember that if you change tonality (from major
to minor or vice versa) then different rules of harmonic syntax might apply.
 Identifying suitable pivot chords
Example 1

In this example there is only one possible pivot chord. The chord before it is not diatonic to the new key, and the chord after
it is not diatonic to the original key. Note that this example follows our ‘rule of thumb’ (i.e. it’s the last chord before the first
accidental is introduced).

Example 2

In this example there are multiple options for pivot chords – each of the first three chords in bar 2 are diatonic to both keys.
Perhaps the most correct is the first chord in bar 2 – while this doesn’t follow our ‘rule of thumb’, note that this is where A
minor starts to dominate the harmony (i.e. when chords start ‘functioning’ in the new key). Note that you can label multiple
chords in both keys if you believe that they truly function in both keys – this is referred to as a ‘pivot area’.

Example 3

Once again, there are several chords here that are diatonic to both keys and could be valid pivot chords. If I had to choose just
one, I would choose the C major chord (after this point, the harmony starts to behave as though it’s in the new key). Note that
there is no accidental to signify the modulation – modulations from minor keys to their relative major are indicated by the
absence of accidentals, rather than the presence of them.

Practice task
The following passage modulates several times. Each cadence is marked, thereby showing each change of key.
For each modulation, circle the most suitable pivot chord, and write its Roman numeral in both keys below the stave.
 Which keys are you most likely to modulate to?
The three most likely target keys for modulations in tonal music are: the dominant, the subdominant, and the
relative major/minor.

Consider these keys before you start writing your chorale. Similarly, consider what accidentals might
indicate those keys. Remember that all minor keys must include their leading tones.

Slightly more distantly related possibilities are the relative keys of the dominant and subdominant. These don’t
appear quite as frequently, but are worth considering if the first three don’t fit.

Major keys Minor keys

I = Tonic vi = Relative minor i = Tonic III = Relative major

V = Dominant iii = Dominant’s relative minor v = Dominant (minor) VII = Dominant’s relative major

IV = Subdominant ii = Subdominant’s relative minor iv = Subdominant VI = Subdominant’s relative major

Remember: the tonality of the dominant and subdominant keys should match that of your tonic key. Major keys
modulate to major dominants and subdominants. Minor keys modulate to minor dominants and subdominants.

Recognising modulations in a chorale melody

1. Identify the overall key of this melody.

2. Observe the accidentals used. Consider what scales each phrase suggests (don’t forget the key
signature)! When there are multiple valid alternatives, opt for the most closely related key.

3. Consider the cadences in the context of those keys. Given the changing keys you’ve already identified,
which cadence types could be used to support the melody at the end of each phrase?

4. Have a go at harmonising the melody in full (see attached pdf). Notate each modulation correctly with a
pivot chord.
 Some important notes about in minor keys

• You must raise the leading tone in your dominant chords if you want them to have dominant
function (i.e. to create dominant-tonic motion, and to create valid cadences). Minor v can be a beautiful
chord if well-placed, but it cannot take the place of major V in cadences, or at other points where you
need to affirm the key through dominant-tonic motion.

Similarly, viio (built on the raised seventh, i.e. the leading tone) has dominant function. VII (the
subtonic chord, built on the unraised seventh) does not (at least in classical harmony).

• Beware augmented/diminished intervals in minor keys! In major keys, you only had to avoid a
tritone between scale degrees 4 and 7. In minor keys, there are several more you need to avoid,
particularly those that involve the raise leading tone. Beware especially the augmented second
between scale degree 6 and the leading tone. One easy rule to help avoid this: In addition to always
resolving your leading tone correctly, only approach the leading tone from scale degrees 1, 2 or 5.

• Avoid ‘cross relation’

Um… What’s cross relation? Whether or not you are using chromatic chords, minor keys use
accidentals (in the form of the raised leading tone). When your harmonic vocabulary includes
accidentals, there is the possibility of having two consecutive chords that have the same note (i.e. the
same letter name) but with chromatic alterations (e.g. moving from G§ to G#, or from Bb to B§, etc.).
Chromatic motion such as this always sounds smoothest if the two notes are in the same voice.

Cross relation (or ‘false relation’) is when two chromatically altered versions of the same note occur in
different voices – this sounds dissonant and is awkward to sing, and should be avoided wherever
possible. If for some reason placing the two notes in the same voice is not possible, you can soften the
dissonance by making sure that at least one of the two voices is an inner voice, particularly if you can
place both notes in the same register. Never have a cross relation between the outer voices.

• A note on Passing 6/4’s when used to extend a minor triad: If using a P6/4 to extend any minor
chord, try to ensure that the P6/4 is the “second inversion V (major)” of the chord it is extending. This
may result in what appears to be an applied chord.
VI
Music Languages 1 – Tutorial 7 (Tuesday 1st February 2022)
Alexander Garsden – alexander.garsden@gmail.com
Consultation hour: Tuesdays 3:30pm, via Zoom

Our Diatonic Chord Vocabulary

Major key diatonic chords in root position

Minor key diatonic chords in root position

Some general observations first…

What do we mean by ‘inversion’?

Add the correct Roman numeral and figure for each of the following chords.

Pianists beware… Don’t get distracted by what’s happening in the upper voices. From this point on:
Inversion is entirely determined by which chordtone is in the lowest voice.
Root in bass = root position Chordal 3rd in bass = 1st inversion
Chordal 5th in bass = 2nd inversion Chordal 7th in bass = 3rd inversion (7th chords only)

Omitting chordtones
Rule of thumb: In triadic music, the root and the 3rd of every chord must be present (and, if writing a 7th
chord, the chordal 7th – otherwise it’s just a triad). However, you can freely omit the chordal 5th. In four-
part vocal writing (i.e. all your creative assignments for the rest of the semester) this only occurs in root
position chords, but in other musical settings (e.g. 3-voice textures; keyboard writing; etc.) it can also
happen on inverted chords.

Exception: In early baroque music (as with renaissance music), structurally important cadences
sometimes resolve to sonorities made of perfect consonances – either just of the root and 5th, or possibly
just a tripled root!
 Correctly using (and analysing) 6/4 chords

What’s the big deal with “second inversion triads”?

You may have observed that I’m always putting inverted commas around “second inversion triads”. This
is because, as far as I’m concerned, “second inversion triads” don’t really exist!

What do I mean by that? Well… of course they exist, BUT because “second inversion triads” (better
described as ‘6/4 chords’) contain a dissonant 4th above the bass they are unstable, and can’t be used
the same way that root position and first inversion triads can.

That doesn’t mean you can’t use them altogether. But it does mean that there are only small handful of
possible ways which you’re allowed to use them. In fact, there are only four, and any use of a “second
inversion triad” outside of these four functions is an error.

1. The Cadential 6/4

i.e. approaching V with a “second inversion tonic triad” at a cadence point.

It looks like: a “second inversion tonic” chord placed immediately before a root position V at a cadence
point.

How we think of it: One big dominant chord, with a moment of temporary dissonant decoration, that
resolves into a regular, root position V chord.

Don’t get confused by the Roman numeral. The Cadential 6/4 is not a “second inversion dominant
chord” (the notes of the 6/4 actually form a “second inversion tonic chord”). We label it V because that’s
the chord the dissonances resolve to (put differently, we think about is as a decorated V chord).

Things to remember when writing a Cadential 6/4

• The dissonance (i.e the 6/4) is always placed on a stronger rhythmic position than the resolution
(i.e. the 5/3)
• Follow the voice leading indicated by the figures (i.e. resolve the 6th above the bass down by step
to a 5th; resolve the 4th above the bass down by step to a 3rd).
• Wherever possible, treat the 4-3 layer like any other suspension (i.e. prepare it by introducing
that note in the previous chord).
 2. The Passing 6/4

i.e. A “second inversion triad”, being used to harmonise passing motion in the bass
voice.

The Passing 6/4 is the next most common and most effective use of a 6/4 voicing, and creates a great
sense of flow between more stable chords.

How do we label it? One of two different ways.

• You can label a Passing 6/4 with the Roman numeral for the “second inversion triad” it looks
like as long as you put a (P) underneath. Some texts also recommend putting parentheses
around the Roman Numeral! e.g. (V6/4)

• Others don’t bother with any Roman numeral (viewing it as an unstable dissonance and not a
stable triad). Instead, they just write 6/4… sometimes in parentheses.

Things to remember when writing a Passing 6/4

• A passing 6/4 is most commonly (and most easily) employed between two different inversions
of the same chord, usually I or IV – and most often with voice exchange in the outer voices
as follows.

• However, there are other valid possibilities…

• Considering its dissonance, the passing 6/4 sounds best if placed on a weak beat of the bar.

• A passing 6/4 shouldn’t be used to approach a cadence.

 3. The Pedal (or “Neighbouring”) 6/4

i.e. A “second inversion triad” approached from AND/OR resolving to a root position
chord built on the same bass note

Like a cadential 6/4, a Pedal/Neighbouring 6/4 when a second inversion triad is used to decorate a 5/3
chord built on the same bass note.

Note that there are two possible presentations of the Pedal 6/4:

• The complete neighbour (shown in the first bar) where the “real” chordtones are introduced first;
• The incomplete neighbour (shown in the second bar), where the dissonant notes occur
immediately.

In either case, we think of the 6/4 not as a chord in its own right, but as a decoration of the chord it
resolves to.

Note that, by these criteria, a Cadential 6/4 is also a Pedal 6/4. So what’s the difference?

- A Cadential 6/4 occurs at a cadence. A Pedal 6/4 can occur anywhere in the progression.
- A Cadential 6/4 is always a “second inversion tonic triad”, and resolves to root position V.
A Pedal 6/4 can be a “second inversion anything triad”, resolving to root position anything.

How do we label it? One of two different ways.

• As per cadential 6/4’s – use horizontal lines to join the changing figures above the bass note.

• Alternatively, as per passing 6/4’s, you can label a Pedal 6/4 with the Roman numeral for the
“second inversion triad” it looks like as long as you put a (Ped.) or an (N) underneath.

Others don’t bother with any Roman numeral (viewing it as an unstable dissonance and not a stable triad).
Instead, they just write 6/4… sometimes in parentheses.

AN IMPORTANT NOTE: Many teachers/textbooks refer to the Pedal 6/4 by its other name (the
“Neighbouring” 6/4). Beware this misleading terminology! While a Passing 6/4 decorates passing
motion in the bass voice, a “Neighbouring” 6/4 does NOT decorate neighbouring motion in the bass
voice.
 4. The Arpeggiating (or “Consonant”) 6/4

i.e. A second inversion triad as part of an extended arpeggiation of a sustained chord

The Arpeggiating 6/4 is the only way of using a 6/4 chord where we think of it as the chord that it looks
like – i.e. as a second inversion triad, and a consonance.

This can only occur when the chord is surrounded by lots of the same chord, in other (stable) inversions.
Because we are hearing so much of that chord, our ears focus more on the role of the bass note as a
chordtone and can comfortably ignore the dissonance caused by the 4th.

This occurs most frequently in ascending or descending arpeggiated basslines, or repeated tonic-dominant
motion in the bass voice (think Viennese waltzes).

These four possibilities (Cadential, Passing, Pedal/Neighbouring, and

Arpeggiating/Consonant) are the ONLY possible ways you can ever
use a 6/4 chord in a progression.

Any other use of a “second inversion triad” is an invalid dissonance,

and, therefore, an error!

PRACTICE TASK

The following passage contains four 6/4 chords. Roman numerals have been provided, however the
labels for the 6/4 chords are either incomplete or incorrect.

For each 6/4 chord:

1. Identify which type of 6/4 chord is being used.

2. Correct the Roman numeral / label as appropriate to the type of 6/4 chord.
 How do chords function in progressions?

Reinforcing the tonal centre

The tonal centre (i.e. the tonic chord) is reinforced through dominant-to-tonic motion.

V - I
…and, to a lesser extent, through subdominant-to-tonic (IV-I) motion.

Three possible ‘chord functions’

Chords are generally classed as having one of three possible functions within a progression.

Tonic function
A point of harmonic stability.

*Especially in major keys, the iii chord is less successful at substituting for the tonic, since it doesn’t
contain the tonic note. In minor keys III can work better as tonic substitute, however some prefer to avoid
it – since it’s the relative major it can deceive the listener into thinking it’s the real tonic!

Dominant function
Chords that lead back to the tonic.

Note that the “pull” of each of these chords back to the tonic is made stronger by adding the (dissonant)
chordal 7th.

Predominant function
Chords that lead to the dominant, often by building tension before it.

Note that the ii chord is (almost) exclusively used as a predominant chord. IV and vi have multiple functions.

Words that are jumbled up in random order aren’t likely to make sense as sentences. In the same way,
chords placed in random order tend not to make sense as progressions. The basic principle underlying
most good chord progressions is:

Tonic à Predominant à Dominant à Cadence

The ‘logic’ of how chords progress to one another is sometimes described as ‘harmonic syntax’.
Knowing the roles each of the diatonic chords can play helps us to observe (and, more importantly,
to create) stability, instability, flow, tension, or surprise within a chord progression.
 Harmonic processes: Expansion, Weakening, and Dominant Preparation

Just as we saw individual chords had particular functions (tonic, dominant, or predominant), chords may
be strung together for a common purpose.

‘Expansion’ (also called ‘Prolongation’)

A passage of music may increase emphasis on a chord (most commonly the tonic) by:
• Repeating it (whether directly, or in different inversions)
• Keeping it in important/accented rhythmic positions
• Reinforcing it with dominant-tonic motion
• Other harmonic decorations (I – IV – I) that maintain the sense of tonal stability.

‘Weakening’ the tonic

A passage of music may reduce emphasis on the tonic by:
• Using the tonic less frequently; or only using it only on unaccented rhythmic positions; or using
it only in first inversion; or preferencing weaker dominant-to-tonic motion over stronger, more
conclusive resolutions; or preferencing tonic substitutes over the tonic chord.
• Prolongation / expansion of other chords (often the dominant, subdominant, or relative).
• Increased use of dissonance (particularly accented dissonance).
• Use of accidentals – Note the distinction between “decorative” accidentals (which are largely
ornamental, and might not play an important harmonic role) and “functional” accidentals (such
as those that help affirm a new tonal centre, and point our ears in a new direction).

‘Dominant Preparation’
A passage of music may increase tension leading up to the dominant chord by:

• Using several predominant chords in a row (e.g. IV – iv – ii)

• Lengthy and less stable chord progressions (e.g. cycle of fifths) which break off at a predominant
chord
• Increased use of dissonances (particularly if successive dissonances, such as suspension chains)
Music Languages 1 – Tutorial 9 (Tuesday 20th September 2022)
Alexander Garsden – alexander.garsden@gmail.com
Consultation hour: Wednesdays 2pm, via Zoom

General principles of chord progressions in chorales

• Begin the piece by reinforcing the tonal centre (i.e. the tonic chord), providing a strong harmonic
foundation for the work. This is best achieved by placing a tonic chord on the downbeat of the first
complete bar. If there is an anacrusis, harmonise it with either a tonic or a dominant chord.

• Repeating chords is allowed, but:

A) you must either change inversion or leap an octave in the bass*; AND…
B) never from a weak beat (2 or 4) to a strong beat (1 or 3)*; AND…
C) no more than twice consecutively.

*There are some exceptions to these rules. In some cadences, the first chord is occasionally repeated
without changing inversion, especially if supporting a suspension. Also, you may use the same chord for an
anacrusis and the first chord of the next bar (though you must still change inversion or leap an octave in the
bass).

• Cadences (usually indicated with fermatas) should resolve to root position chords. Imperfect cadences
must end on V, and not V7 (and not a dominant substitute either!).

• The only 6/4 chords (second inversion triads) used should be cadential 6/4’s or passing 6/4’s. Note that
pedal 6/4’s are technically possible, but challenging to use correctly given the harmonic rhythm. Similarly,
arpeggiated 6/4’s are impractical in chorales. Any other “second inversion triad” is an error.

Some notes re: rhythmic placement: Cadential 6/4’s can be used to approach perfect or interrupted
cadences. The dissonance (i.e. the 6/4) should be placed on a stronger rhythmic point than the resolution
(i.e. the 5/3). Passing 6/4’s can sound awkward if placed on beat 1. They should not be used as part of
cadences (i.e. they shouldn’t be mistaken for a ‘real’ V chord).

• Don’t use 7th chords except those we’ve discussed: ii7, V7 and viio7

You can’t ‘undo’ a 7th after it’s been added (i.e. you can’t move from V7 to V). Also, remember that adding
the 7th means the chord must resolve to a viable target chord (e.g. ii7 must resolve to V)

• Don’t approach ii from either V or viio. This is referred to as retrogression (i.e. going backwards).

Practice task: Error identification

Review the progression below. How many progression errors can you identify?
 Improving your progression

Consider the many ways that the following melody might be harmonised.

Here are two harmonisations that don’t break any rules, but I would nonetheless consider ineffective and unmusical.
Why might these progressions be considered weak?

To improve the progression, remember the “flow” of chord functions previously discussed:

Tonic (expansion) à Dominant preparation à Cadence

To improve the progression further aim for a smooth bass line, using cadential and passing 6/4’s where
appropriate…

…and/or use cycle of 3rds / cycle of 5ths progressions if the melody can accommodate them.
 What chords can be used to harmonise each scale degree?

Scale degree: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

is the root of: I ii iii IV V vi viio

is the 3rd of: vi viio I ii iii IV V

is the 5th of: IV V vi viio I ii iii

is the 7th of: ii7 - - V7 - viiø7 -

But remember, it’s not always that simple. You might not be able to use your first choice of chord, even if the
soprano note is a chord tone. Why not? Well…

• Maybe the chord choice creates a severe doubling problem, e.g. a doubled leading tone (though this can usually
be resolved by revoicing or inverting the chord)
• Maybe the motion of the soprano line creates counterpoint errors (note that, in some cases, you can’t resolve
these by revoicing the chord, and you simply need to choose another chord instead)
• Maybe the motion of the soprano line creates unresolved tendency tones (e.g. the soprano line 4-5 can’t be
harmonised V7 – I, as it would result in an unresolved chordal seventh).

Practice task: Progression writing

Sketch out two different progressions for the following melody.

Aim not just to avoid errors, but a smooth and logical progression.

i.e.
Avoid repetitive progressions (unless you’re deliberately trying to ‘expand’ an important chord);
Use dominant preparation when approaching a cadence;
Create the smoothest possible bass line;
Use cadential and passing 6/4 chords where practical;
Use harmonic sequences if practical.

If you have time, choose the progression that you think is strongest, and then also sketch in the resulting bass line,
and then have a go at filling in the inner parts.
 Chorale harmonisation process

Identify the key. If the melody you’ve been provided is not diatonic, then you must also identify
the key(s) that is modulates to based on the accidentals that are used.
Sketch in all the scale degree numbers. If you feel you need to, also sketch in a table listing the
diatonic chords and their chordtones.

Identify and sketch in the cadences. At every point indicated by a fermata, decide on a cadence
that fits with the soprano notes. Remember: use root position chords; avoid plagal cadences; and
the final cadence must be perfect. Add Roman numerals and bass notes for each cadence.

Work phrase by phrase, back to front. Sketch in the bass line and chord progression.
• Some find it easier to write the bass line first, starting by writing a mostly-stepwise bass line
that forms good counterpoint with the soprano. Once the bass line is complete, consider
chords that fit with both notes, and make sense as a progression.
• Some find it easier to sketch in a logical chord progression first, and then sketch in a bass line
to support those chords (though extra care must be taken to avoid counterpoint errors!).
• Some find it easier to think about bass line and chord progression together. i.e. To work
chord-by-chord, focussing simultaneously on a logical chord progression, and a melodic,
error-free bass line that forms good counterpoint with the soprano.

Stop! Before you go further…. Proofread!

• Do the bass and soprano lines form good counterpoint (i.e. no parallel 8ves/5ths, no hidden
8ves/5ths; no “contrary” parallel 8ves/5ths; no unresolved tendency tones; no aug/dim
intervals). If not, correct.
• Is the chord progression valid? If not, correct.
• Have you included a Cadential 6/4 and Passing 6/4? If not, find a suitable place for each.
• Could your bass line be more melodic? (Re-proof your counterpoint if you change anything)

Work phrase by phrase, back to front. Sketch in the alto and tenor, aiming for the smallest
amount of movement possible. For each chord, proof for the following as you go.
• Priority 1: Complete the chord by ensuring all necessary chord tones are present.
• Priority 2: Proof for part-writing errors (no parallel 8ves/5ths; tendency tones resolve
correctly; tendency tones are not doubled; spacing rules aren’t broken; no crossing/
overlapping; no aug/dim intervals). Revoice the chord as necessary until there are no errors.
• Priority 3: Ideal spacing, doubling, best possible sense of flow in each voice.

Find suitable opportunities for the required dissonances. Make sure that you have at least one
of each of: unaccented passing tone; unaccented (complete) neighbour tone; and a suspension.
Double check that you haven’t caused any new counterpoint errors by adding them in.

Proofread everything, several times over!

• Are you sure that all your chords are complete and correctly labelled?
• Are you sure that all 8ves and 5ths are approached correctly?
• Are you sure that all chords are correctly spaced, and that the voices don’t cross/overlap?
• Are you sure that all the other part-writing rules have been correctly observed?

Submit your assignment. Weep. Have a piece of cake, etc.