RES Complete Notes

RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
LECTURE NOTES
III EEE I SEM R20
I RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
Branch & Year: III-EEE-I Sem Reg:R20 Faculty: M.Sreekanth
UNIT–I: Fundamentals of Energy Systems and Solar energy Energy conservation
principle – Energy scenario (world and India) – various forms of
renewable energy - Solar radiation: Outside earth’s atmosphere – Earth surface –
Analysis of solar radiation data – Geometry – Radiation on tilted surfaces –
Numerical problems.
Conservation of energy:
In physics and chemistry, the law of conservation of energy states that the
total energy of an isolated system remains constant; it is said to be conserved over
time. This law means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it
can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another. For
instance, chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy when a stick
of dynamite explodes. If one adds up all the forms of energy that were released in
the explosion, such as the kinetic energy and potential energy of the pieces, as well
as heat and sound, one will get the exact decrease of chemical energy in the
combustion of the dynamite. Classically, conservation of energy was distinct from
conservation of mass; however, special relativity showed that mass is related to
energy and vice versa by E = mc2, and science now takes the view that mass–energy
is conserved.
ENERGY SCENARIO INTRODUCTION
Any physical activity in this world, whether carried out by human beings or by
nature, is cause due to flow of energy in one form or the other. The word ‘energy’
itself is derived from the Greek word ‘en-ergon’, which means ‘in-work’ or ‘work
content’. The work output depends on the energy input.
Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In
the case of the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical
importance in view of the ever- increasing energy needs requiring huge investments
to meet them.
Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:
 Primary and Secondary energy
 Commercial and Non commercial energy
 Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
 Conventional and Non-conventional energy
 Primary and Secondary energy
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Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature.
Common primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as
wood). Other primary energy sources available include nuclear energy from
radioactive substances, thermal
energy stored in earth's interior,
and potential energy due to earth's
gravity. The major primary and
secondary energy sources are
shown in Figure Primary energy
sources are costly converted in
industrial utilities into secondary
energy sources; for example coal,
oil or gas converted into steam
and electricity. Primary energy can
also be used directly. Some energy
sources have non energy uses, for
example coal or natural gas can be
used as a feedstock in fertilizer plants.
Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy
Commercial Energy The energy sources that are available in the market for a
definite price are known as commercial energy. By far the most important forms of
commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined petroleum products. Commercial
energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and commercial
development in the modern world. In the industrialized countries, commercialized
fuels are predominant source not only for economic production, but also for many
household tasks of general population.
Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.
Non-Commercial Energy The energy sources that are not available in the
commercial market for a price are classified as non-commercial energy. Non-
commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and
agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price
used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-
commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.
Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating,
electricity generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport,
threshing, lifting water for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting
water and electricity generation.
Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy
1. Renewable energy: ‘Energy obtained from natural and persistent flows of energy
occurring in the immediate environment’. An obvious example is solar (sunshine)
energy, where ‘repetitive’ refers to the 24-hour major period. Note that the energy is
already passing through the environment as a current or flow , irrespective of there
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being a device to intercept and harness this power. Such energy may also be called
Green Energy or Sustainable Energy.
2 Non-renewable energy: ‘Energy obtained from static stores of energy that remain
underground unless released by human interaction’. Examples are nuclear fuels and
fossil fuels of coal, oil and natural gas. Note that the energy is initially an isolated
energy potential, and external action is required to initiate the supply of energy for
practical purposes. To avoid using the ungainly word ‘non-renewable’, such energy
supplies are called finite supplies or Brown Energy.
Conventional and Non-conventional energy resources:
Conventional Energy: Conventional energy resources which are being traditionally used
for many decades and were in common use around oil crisis of 1973 are called conventional
energy resources, e.g., fossil fuel, nuclear and hydro resources.
Non-conventional energy: Non-conventional energy resources which are considered for

large – scale use after oil crisis of 1973, are called non-conventional energy sources, e.g.,
solar, wind, biomass, etc.
Advantages & disadvantages of Nonconventional/renewable energy sources:

Advantages: 1.
1. Available free of cost
2. Cause no or very little pollution
3. Environment-friendly
4. Inexhaustible
5. Have low gestation period
6. Do not deplete natural resources
7. Can sustain energy supply for many generations.
Disadvantages:
1. available in dilute form in nature
2. Cost of harnessing energy is very high
3. Availability is uncertain
4. Difficulty in transporting such resources
Types of Non conventional Energy Sources:

 Solar Energy (energy from sun)
 Wind energy
 Energy from Bio Mass
 Geothermal Energy
 Energy from Oceans
 OTEC
 Tidal Energy, wave Energy
 Small Scale Hydro electric (Mini & Micro)
 Chemical energy sources
 Hydrogen energy
 Magneto hydro dynamics
Potential of NCES:
 The non-conventional sources of energy in the country are available in abundance
and their potential is need to be utilized particularly in a country like India where
the basic economy of the majority of the people about 73 percent is based on
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agriculture and the demand of energy of rural population is less as compared to
urban settlements. In a scenario of increasing urbanization and increasing demands
on commercial energy there is an urgent need to utilize the non-conventional source
of energy which has a large potential in the country.
 Our coastal areas have a large potential of wind energy while the potential of solar
energy in the country is of 20 MW / Km2. “Bio-gas” is another source of energy
which also has a big potential as we have a bulk of live stock. Majority of our rural
population still depends upon the locally available non-conventional sources of
energy based on animal dung, crop waste and full wood etc.
 In order to ensure the efficient use of conventional energy in an environment
friendly manner, it is important to promote the programmers for use of nonconventional
energy sources. So far, our national effort in development and application of renewable
energy has not yielded it any result of significance.
Energy Scenario in INDIA:
India is one of the countries with the largest production of energy from renewable sources.
In the electricity sector, renewable energy account for 34.6% of the total installed power
capacity. Large hydro installed capacity was 45.399 GW as of 31 March 2019, contributing
to 13% of the total power capacity. The remaining renewable energy sources accounted for
22% of the total installed power capacity (77.641 GW) as of 31 March 2019.
Wind power capacity was 36,625 MW as of 31 March 2019, making India the fourth-largest
wind power producer in the world. The country has a strong manufacturing base in wind
power with 20 manufactures of 53 different wind turbine models of international quality up
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to 3 MW in size with exports to Europe, the United States and other countries.Wind or
Solar PV paired with four-hour battery storage systems is already cost competitive, without
subsidy, as a source of dispatchable generation compared with new coal and new gas
plants in India.
The government target of installing 20 GW of solar power by 2022 was achieved four years
ahead of schedule in January 2018, through both solar parks as well as roof-top solar
panels. India has set a new target of achieving 100 GW of solar power by 2022. Four of the
top seven largest solar parks worldwide are in India including the second largest solar park
in the world at Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, with a capacity of 1000 MW. The world's largest
solar power plant, Bhadla Solar Park is being constructed in Rajasthan with a capacity of
2255 MW and is expected to be completed by the end of 2018. Biomass power from biomass
combustion, biomass gasification and bagasse cogeneration reached 9.1 GW installed
capacity as of 31 March 2019. Family type biogas plants reached 3.98 million.
Renewable energy in India comes under the purview of the Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE). India was the first country in the world to set up a ministry of non-
conventional energy resources, in the early 1980s. Solar Energy Corporation of India is
responsible for the development of solar energy industry in India. Hydroelectricity is
administered separately by the Ministry of Power and not included in MNRE targets.
India is running one of the largest and most ambitious renewable capacity expansion
programs in the world. Newer renewable electricity sources are projected to grow massively
by nearer term 2022 targets, including a more than doubling of India's large wind power
capacity and an almost 15 fold increase in solar power from April 2016 levels. These targets
would place India among the world leaders in renewable energy use and place India at the
centre of its "Sunshine Countries" International Solar Alliance project promoting the growth
and development of solar power internationally to over 120 countries. India set a target of
achieving 40% of its total electricity generation from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030, as
stated in its Intended Nationally Determined Contributions statement in the Paris
Agreement. A blueprint draft published by Central Electricity Authority projects that 57% of
the total electricity capacity will be from renewable sources by 2027.[7] In the 2027
forecasts, India aims to have a renewable energy installed capacity of 275 GW, in addition
to 72 GW of hydro-energy, 15 GW of nuclear energy and nearly 100 GW from “other zero
emission” sources.
Global Primary Energy Reserves*
Coal: The proven global coal reserve was estimated to be 9,84,453 million
tonnes by end of 2003. The USA had the largest share of the global reserve (25.4%) followed
by Russia (15.9%), China (11.6%). India was 4th in the list with 8.6%.
Oil: The global proven oil reserve was estimated to be 1147 billion barrels by the end of
2003. Saudi Arabia had the largest share of the reserve with almost 23%.
(One barrel of oil is approximately 160 litres) Gas The global proven gas reserve was
estimated to be 176 trillion cubic metres by the end of 2003. The Russian Federation had
the largest share of the reserve with almost 27%. (*Source: BP Statistical Review of World
Energy, June 2004) World oil and gas reserves are estimated at just 45 years and 65 years
respectively. Coal is likely to last a little over 200 years Global Primary Energy
Consumption The global primary energy consumption at the end of 2003 was equivalent to
9741 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe).
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Energy Distribution Between Developed and Developing Countries
Although 80 percent of the world's population lies in the developing countries (a fourfold
population increase in the past 25 years), their energy consumption amounts to only 40
percent of the world total energy consumption. The high standards of living in the
developed countries are attributable to high energy consumption levels. Also, the rapid
population growth in the developing
countries has kept the per capita
energy consumption low compared
with that of highly industrialized
developed countries. The world
average energy consumption per
person is equivalent to 2.2 tonnes of
coal. In industrialized countries,
people use four to five times more
than the world average, and nine
times more than the average for the
developing countries. An American
uses 32 times more commercial
energy than an Indian.
Non conventional energy sources:
The conventional energy sources discussed above are exhaustible and in some cases,
installation of plants to get energy is highly expensive. In order to meet the energy demand
of increased population, the scientists developed alternate nonconventional natural
Resources sources of energy which should be renewable and provide a pollution free
environment.
Some nonconventional, renewable and inexpensive energy sources are described below:
1. Solar energy:
Solar energy, a primary energy source, is non-polluting and inexhaustible.
There are three methods to harness solar energy:
(i) Converting solar energy directly into electrical energy in solar power stations using photo
cells or photovoltaic cells or silicon solar cell.
(ii) Using photosynthetic and biological process for energy trapping. In the process of
photosynthesis, green plants absorb solar energy and convert it into chemical energy,
stored in the form of carbohydrate.
(iii) Converting solar energy in to thermal energy by suitable devices which may be
subsequently converted into mechanical, chemical or electrical energy.
Since solar energy is non-ending and its conversion to some other energy form is
nonpolluting, attention should be paid for the maximum utilization of solar energy.
2. Wind energy: Wind is air in motion. The movement of air takes place due to the
convection current set out in the atmosphere which is again due to heating of earth’s
surface by solar radiation, rotation of earth etc. The movement of air occurs both
horizontally and vertically.
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The average annual wind density is 3 kW/m 2/day along costal lines of Gujarat, western
ghat central parts of India which may show a seasonal variation (i.e., in winter it may go up
to 10kW/m2/day).]
Since wind has a tremendous amount of energy, its energy can be converted into
mechanical or electrical energy using suitable devices, now days, wind energy s converted
in to electrical energy which is subsequently used for pumping water, grinding of corns etc.
As per available data dearly 20,000 mW of electricity can be generated from wind. In Puri,
wind farms are set up which can generate 550 kW of electricity.
3. Tidal energy:
The energy associated with the tides of the Ocean can be converted in to electrical energy.
France constructed the first tidal power plant in 1966. India could take up Ocean thermal
energy conversion (OTEC) and by the process it will be capable of generating 50,000 mW of
electricity, to meet the power requirements of remote oceanic islands and coastal towns.
The Netherlands is famous for windmills. In India, Gujarat and Tamil nadu have windmills.
The largest wind farm has been set at Kanyakumari which generates 380 mW of electricity.
4. Geothermal energy:
The geothermal energy may be defined as the heat energy obtainable from hot rocks present
inside the earth crust. At the deeper region of earth crust, the solid rock gets melted in to
magma, due to very high temperature. The magma layer is pushed up due to some
geological changes and get concentrated below the earth crust. The places of hot magma
concentration at fairly less depth are known as hot spots.
These hot spots are known as sources of geothermal energy. Now a days, efforts are being
made to use this energy for generating power and creating refrigeration etc. There are a
quite few number of methods of harnessing geothermal energy. Different sites of geothermal
energy generation are Puga (Ladakh), Tattapani (Suraguja, M.P.), Cambay Basin (Alkananda
Valley, Uttaranchal).
5. Bio-mass based energy:
The organic matters originated from living organisms (plants and animals) like wood, cattle
dung, sewage, agricultural wastes etc. are called as biomass. These substances can be
burnt to produce heat energy which can be used in the generation of electricity. Thus, the
energy produced from the biomass is known as biomass energy.
There are three forms of biomass:
(i) Biomass in traditional form:
Energy is released by direct burning of biomass (e.g. wood, agricultural residue etc.)
(ii) Biomass in nontraditional form:
The biomass may be converted in to some other form of fuel which can release energy. For
example carbohydrate can be converted into methanol or ethanol which may be used as a
liquid fuel.
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(iii) Biomass for domestic use:
When organic matters like cow dung, agricultural wastes, human excreta etc. subjected to
bacterial decomposition in presence of water in absence of air, a mixture of CH 4, C02, H2 ,
H2S etc. is produced. These gases together is known as biogas. The residue left after the
removal of biogas is a good source of manure and biogas is used as a good source of non -
polluting fuel.
6. Biogas:
Biogas is an important source of energy to meet energy, requirements of rural area. As per
given data, around 22,420-million m3 of gas can be produced from the large amount of cow
dungs obtained in rural areas in a year. The gas is generated by the action of bacteria on
cow dung in absence of air (oxygen). There are two types of biogas plants namely. Fixed
done type and floating gas holder type (Fig.4.3 & 4.4).
These plants are commonly known as Gobar gas plants because the usual raw material is
cow dung (Gobar). The methodology involves in the process is to prepare a slurry of cow
dung with water. Sometimes form waters can also be added to the slurry.
The slurry is subjected to bacterial decomposition at 35 .C. There are about 330, 00 biogas
plants in India. All India dung production is about 11.30 kg per cattle and 11.60 kg per
buffalo with about 67.10 m3 of gas per ton of wet dung.
7. Petro plants:
In order to release the pressure on mineral oils (a nonrenewable resource), the scientists
have discovered some potential plant species from which liquid hydrocarbons can be
extracted. The liquid hydrocarbons present in such plants can be converted in to
petroleum. Such plants are known as petro plants which belong to families Apocynaceae,
Ascalepiadaceae, Euphrobiaceae; Convolvulaceae and Spontaceae. Still research is on to
increase the biomass of the petro plants and effective method of converting their
hydrocarbons in petroleum.
8. Dendrothermal energy (Energy plantation):
Due to rapid deforestation and overgrazing, a number of denuded wastelands are formed.
On these wastelands, fast growing trees and shrubs may be planted which will provide fuel
wood, charcoal, fodder, etc. Through gasification, these plants can produce a lot of energy-
9. Baggasse-based plants:
Bagggasse is generated as a waste product in sugar mills. This can be utilised to produce
electrical energy. As per available data, the sugar mills in India can generate about 2000
mW surplus electricity during crushing season.
10. Energy from urban waste:
Sewage and solid municipal wastes can also generate energy on their suitable treatments.
What is solar Energy: so·lar en·er·gy (Noun) :Radiant energy Emitted by the sun
Solar power is energy from the sun. "Solar" is the Latin word for "sun" and
it's a powerful source of energy. Without it, there will be no life. Solar energy is
considered as a serious source of energy for many years because of the vast amounts of
energy that is made freely available, if harnessed by modern technology.
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Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by
humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy
technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaic‟s, solar thermal electricity, solar
architecture and artificial photosynthesis, which can make considerable contributions
to solving some of the most urgent energy problems the world now faces. [1][2]
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active
solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active
solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to
harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun,
selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and
designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of

affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longerterm
benefits. It will increase countries‟ energy security through reliance on an
indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability,
reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fuel prices lower
than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives
for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent
and need to be widely shared
Environmental Impact of solar power
Solar energy has the potential to dramatically change the way the world gets its power.
Enough solar energy falls on a 100-square-mile area of the southwestern United States to
power the entire nation. While solar is among the world's cleanest forms of energy, plans to
develop utility scale solar farms have raised concerns about potential environmental
impacts.
Climate Change
The burning of fossil fuels for energy remains the world's No. 1 source of carbon
dioxide emissions. Solar power is sometimes described as a zero emissions or emissions-
free form of energy, and it is true that greenhouse gas emissions from solar are
negligible . However, the construction of new utility scale solar energy projects is bound to
result in some greenhouse gas emissions. This fact is acknowledged in the Final
Environmental Impact Statement for one proposed solar farm in California. Water
Creating energy is a water intensive process. In the U.S., electricity production
accounts for more than 40 percent of all daily freshwater withdrawals. Solar photovoltaic
systems do not require any water to generate electricity. Some solar thermal systems use
water, but this water can be reused. Utility scale parabolic and central tower solar energy
systems use steam plants to produce power, often relying on water for cooling . There is
some concern that these types of systems, when located in arid environments, could put a
strain on local water resources.
Land
When placed on existing structured, such as the rooftop of a home or office building, solar
energy systems require negligible amount of land space. Utility scale solar farms, on the
other hand, do require large amounts of land to produce electricity on a commercial scale.
This fact raises concerns about the potential impact of such
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projects on natural habitats, concerns the EPA is working to address by citing
renewable energy projects on contaminated lands and mine sites.
Hazardous Waste
Solar photovoltaic panels may contain hazardous materials that could be

released when a panel is damaged or disposed of improperly . Concentrating solar
energy systems may also use potentially hazardous materials like oils and molten salts,
creating the potential for spills.
Visual
One person's beauty is another person's eyesore. For some, solar panels evoke
positive feelings, even when set in a natural landscape. For others, the sight of a solar
panel invading a pristine desert environment is gut wrenching. It's largely a matter of
opinion.
Solar Radiation on Earth’s Surface:
Solar irradiance (SI) is the power per unit area (watt per square metre, W/m 2), received
from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation as reported in the wavelength ra nge
of the measuring instrument. Solar irradiance is often integrated over a given time period in
order to report the radiant energy emitted into the surrounding environment (joule per
square metre, J/m 2), during that time period. This integrated solar irradiance is
called solar irradiation, solar exposure, solar insolation, or insolation.
Irradiance may be measured in space or at the Earth's

surface after atmospheric absorption and scattering. Irradiance in space is a function of
distance from the Sun, the solar cycle, and cross-cycle changes. Irradiance on the Earth's
surface additionally depends on the tilt of the measuring surface, the height of the sun
above the horizon, and atmospheric conditions. Solar irradiance affects plant
metabolism and animal behaviour.
The study and measurement of solar irradiance have several important applications,
including the prediction of energy generation from solar power plants, the heating and
cooling loads of buildings, and in climate modeling and weather forecasting.
Solar Radiation Spectrum
The concept of solar energy can be abstract. We might know that it is electromagnetic
radiation from the Sun, but “WHERE on
the electromagnetic spectrum is it?… and
“HOW MUCH is there?”
Knowing where and how much gives a

person the power of their solar energy
inheritance.
Solar Energy is what we’ve always known

as lightand heat.
It’s composition is: 6 – 7% ultraviolet

light; around 42% visible light and 51% near infra-red. 99.9% of the sun’s output of
energy occurs between 250 and 2500 nanometers. We receive solar energy at an intensity
of 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea level for many hours of the day.
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Direct & Diffuse Radiation:
The total or global solar radiation striking a collector has two components, direct beam
radiation and diffuse radiation. Additionally, radiation reflected by the surface in front of a
collector contributes to the solar radiation received. But unless the collector is tilted at a
steep angle from the horizontal and the ground is highly reflective (e.g., snow), this
contribution is small.
As the name implies, direct beam radiation comes in a direct line from the sun. For sunny
days with clear skies, most of the solar radiation is direct beam radiation. On overcast days,
the sun is obscured by the clouds and the direct beam radiation is zero.
Diffuse radiation is scattered out of the direct beam by molecules, aerosols, and clouds.
Because it comes from all regions of the sky, it is also referred to as sky radiation. The
portion of total solar radiation that is diffuse is about 10% to 20% for clear skies and up to
100% for cloudy skies.
The solar radiation that penetrates the earth‟s atmosphere and reaches the
surface differs in both amount and character from radiation at the top of the
atmosphere. The radiation entering the atmosphere is partly absorbed by molecules,
and a part of the radiation is reflected back into the space by clouds. Part of the solar
radiation is scattered by droplets in clouds by atmospheric molecules and dust
particles. Oxygen and ozone absorb nearly all the ultraviolet radiation where as CO2
and H2O vapor absorbs some energy from infrared range.
1. Part of the radiation is reflected back into the space, especially by clouds.
2. Oxygen and ozone absorbs nearly all the ultraviolet radiation and water vapour and
CO2 absorb some of the energy in the infrared range.
3. Some part of the solar energy radiation is scatted by droplets in the clouds by
atmospheric molecules, and by dust particles.
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Calculating Incident Solar Radiation on Inclined Surface
For every PV installer, hobbyist and Solar Energy consultant, calculating incident Solar
radiation on inclined surface can be
extremely beneficial for two
reasons:
1. Feasibility study can be carried

out for a PV panel or a solar
water heater installation
2. Optimal tilt angle that
maximizes that radiation
received can be found for a
given location (by reversing the
calculation)
Finding solar radiation falling over a
slope surface accurately requires
complex calculations. It depends
upon the time of the day, day of the
year, position on earth and also orientation of the receiver.
Most irradiation is received when the receiver is perpendicular to the sun. By employing a
tracking system the receiver can be constantly orientated to be perpendicular to sun rays.
In many cases the employment of a tracking system is not practical, such as for roof
installations. In such cases the receiver has a fixed orientation. The calculation mentioned
herein can accept any orientation for the receivers but it has to be a constant value.
In this article, equations of medium complexity are explored.These calculations do not take
into account the effect of cloud cover. The use of Microsoft Excel (or any other spread sheet)
is most helpful.
Ignoring the cloud cover and other atmospheric effects, the insolation is mainly dependent
on two main factors:a) Position of the sun
a) Position of the Sun

The position of the sun is changing constantly in the sky and with that the amount of
insolation on the receiver also changes. The position of the sun in the sky is described
by the azimuth angle and the elevation angle. The elevation of the sun or how high it is in
the sky is dependent upon the latitude as well as declination of the sun. The declination
changes from day to day. The elevation angle can be given as: α=90-Φ+δ The latitude Φ
captures the position on the earth. The declination δ captures time of the year.
For this mid-level calculation, the time of the day which is represented by the hour angle ω
is not taken into account.
b) Orientation of the Receiver

The orientation of the receiver has two main features:
 What direction it is facing? (North, South, South East etc.)
What is the tilt angle of the receiver?
The direction of the receiver is also sometimes referred to as aspect of the receiver. As
mentioned earlier, for simplicity, the orientation of the receiver is considered fixed. To
maximize the solar insolation the receiver should be kept facing due south in Northern
Hemisphere and vice-versa in Southern Hemisphere.
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The energy received on the inclined surface G(inclined) is given as:
G (inclined) = G(horizontal) * Sin (α+β) / Sinα
The latitude Φ that is required for the calculation of the elevation angle α can be found out
for any location.
The declination can be calculated for a location using the following formula:
δ= 23.45° * Sin[ 360/365 (284+d)]
Where d is the day of the year. d = 1 for 1st January, d = 365 for 31st December.
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www.Jntufastupdates.com 20
Unit-IV WIND ENERGY
RajeshBabu Kanchana
Wind Energy and Wind Power: Wind is a form of solar energy. Winds are
caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the
irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Wind flow
patterns are modified by the earth's terrain, bodies of water, and vegetative
cover. This wind flow, or motion energy, when "harvested" by modern wind
turbines, can be used to generate electricity.
How Wind Power Is Generated: The terms "wind energy" or "wind power"
describe the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical
power or electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind
into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific
tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert
this mechanical power into electricity to power homes, businesses, schools,
and the like.
Advantages of Wind Energy:

Wind energy has a number of different benefits. We can use it for a variety of
purposes, primarily for the production of clean and renewable electricity.
Let’s jump right in and take a look at the different advantages wind energy
has.
1. Wind Energy Is Renewable & Sustainable
Wind energy itself is both renewable and sustainable. The wind will never
run out, unlike reserves of fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and gas.) This
makes it a good choice of energy for a sustainable power supply.
2. It’s Also Environmentally Friendly
Wind energy is one of the most environmentally friendly energy sources
available today. This is based on the simple reason that wind turbines don’t
create pollution when generating electricity.
Most non-renewable energy sources need to be burnt. This process releases
gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) into the atmosphere.
These gases are known to contribute to climate change. In contrast, wind
turbines produce no greenhouse gases when generating electricity.
3. It Can Reduce Fossil Fuel Consumption
Generating electricity from wind energy reduces the need to burn fossil fuel
alternatives such as coal, oil, and gas. This can help to conserve dwindling
supplies of the earth’s natural resources. As a result, they will last longer
and help to support future generations.
4. Wind Energy is Free
Unlike most non-renewable energy sources, wind energy is completely free.
Anyone can make use of the wind and it will never run out. This makes wind
energy a viable option for generating cheap electricity.
5. It Has A Small Footprint
Wind turbines have a relatively small land footprint. Although they can
tower high above the ground, the impact on the land at the base is minimal.
Wind turbines are often constructed in fields, on hills or out at sea. At these
locations, they pose hardly any inconvenience to the surrounding land.
Farmers can still farm their fields, livestock can still graze the hills and
fishermen can still fish the sea.
6. Both Industrial & Domestic Wind Turbines Exist
Wind turbines aren’t just limited to industrial-scale installations (such as
wind farms.) They can also be installed on a domestic scale. As a result,
many landowners opt to install smaller, less powerful wind turbines. This
can help to provide a portion of a domestic electricity supply. Domestic wind
turbines are often coupled with other renewable energy technologies. You
can often find them installed alongside solar panels and geothermal heating
systems.
7. Wind Energy Can Provide Power For Remote Locations
Wind turbines can play a key role in helping to bring power to remote
locations. This can help to benefit everything from small off-grid villages to
remote research facilities. It might be impractical or too expensive to hook
such locations up to traditional electricity supplies. In these cases, wind
turbines could have the answer.
8. Wind Technology is Becoming Cheaper
The first-ever wind turbine started generating electricity in 1888. Since then,
they have become more efficient and have come down in price. As a result of
this, wind power is becoming much more accessible.
Government subsidies are also helping to reduce the cost of wind
technologies. Many countries across the world now provide incentives for the
construction of wind turbines. In addition, incentives are sometimes
available for domestic users to supply electricity back to the grid.
9. It Is Also Low Maintenance
Wind turbines are fairly low in maintenance. A new wind turbine can last a
long time prior to it requiring any maintenance. Although older turbines can
come up against reliability issues, technological advancements are helping
to improve overall reliability.
10. It Has Low Running Costs
As wind energy is free, running costs are often low. The only ongoing cost of
wind energy is for the maintenance of wind turbines, but they are low
maintenance in nature anyway.
11. Wind Energy Has Huge Potential
Wind energy has huge potential. It’s both renewable and sustainable and is
present in a wide variety of places. Although wind turbines aren’t cost-
effective at every location, the technology isn’t limited to just a handful of
locations. This is an issue that can affect other renewable energy
technologies – such as geothermal power stations.
12. It Can Increase Energy Security
By using wind energy to generate electricity, we are helping to reduce our
dependency on fossil fuel alternatives. In many cases, a country will source
some or all of its fossil fuels from another country. War, politics and overall
demand often dictate the price of these natural resources. This can
sometimes cause serious economic problems or supply shortages.
By using local renewable energy sources, a country can reduce its
dependency on external supplies of natural resources. As a direct result of
this, the country can increase its energy security.
13. The Wind Energy Industry Creates Jobs
The wind energy industry has boomed since wind turbines became
commercially available. As a result of this, the industry has created jobs all
over the world. Jobs now exist for the manufacturing, installation, and
maintenance of wind turbines. You can even find jobs in wind energy
consulting. This is a job where specialist consultants determine whether a
wind turbine installation is going to be profitable.
According to recent data released by the International Renewable Energy
Agency (IRENA), the renewable energy industry employed over 10 million
people worldwide in 2017. Of these jobs, 1.15 million were in the wind
power industry. China leads the way in providing over 500,000 of these jobs.
Germany is in second place with around 150,000 jobs and the United States
are a close third with around 100,000 wind energy jobs.
Disadvantages of Wind Energy
We’ve had a look at the advantages, so now let’s take a look at
the disadvantages of wind energy. Wind energy has a number of drawbacks
and cons, with the NIMBY (not in my backyard) factor playing a large role.
1. The Wind Fluctuates
Wind energy has a similar drawback to solar energy in that it is not
constant. Although wind energy is sustainable and will never run out, the
wind isn’t always blowing. This can cause serious problems for wind farm
developers. They will often spend a significant amount of time and money
investigating whether a particular site is suitable for wind power.
For a wind turbine to be efficient, it needs to have an adequate supply of
wind energy. For this reason, we often find wind turbines on top of hills or
out at sea. In these locations, there are fewer land obstacles to reduce the
force of the wind.
2. Installation is Expensive
Although costs are reducing over time, wind turbines are still expensive.
First, an engineer must carry out a site survey. This may involve having to
erect a sample turbine to measure wind speeds over a period of time. If
deemed adequate, a wind turbine then needs to be manufactured,
transported and erected on top of a pre-built foundation. All of these
processes contribute to the overall cost of installing wind turbines.
When we take the above into account for offshore wind farms, the costs
become much greater. Installing structures out at sea is far more complex
than on land. Some companies have even commissioned bespoke ships
capable of transporting and installing wind turbines at sea.
3. Wind Turbines Pose A Threat to Wildlife
We often hear that wind turbines pose a threat to wildlife – primarily birds
and bats. However, researchers now believe that they pose less of a threat to
wildlife than other manmade structures. Installations such as cell phone
masts and radio towers are far more dangerous to birds than wind turbines.
Nevertheless, wind turbines still contribute to mortality rates among bird
and bat populations.
4. Wind Turbines Create Noise Pollution
One of the most common disadvantages of wind turbines is the noise
pollution they generate. You can often hear a single wind turbine from
hundreds of meters away. Combine multiple wind turbines with the right
wind direction and the audible effects can be much greater. This issue is one
of the biggest impacts of wind energy.
Noise pollution from wind turbines has ruined the lives of many
homeowners. Although steps are often taken to install them away from
dwellings, they do sometimes get built too close to where people live. This is
why new wind farms often come up against strong public objection.
5. They Also Create Visual Pollution
Another common drawback of wind turbines is the visual pollution they
create. Although many people actually like the look of wind turbines, others
don’t. These people see them as a blot on the landscape. This, however,
tends to come down to personal opinion. As we build more wind farms,
public acceptance is becoming more common.
Global Wind Patterns

The Four Major Wind Systems and Wind Belts:
The four major

wind systems are
the Polar and
Tropical Easterlies,
the Prevailing
Westerlies and the
Intertropical
Convergence Zone.
These are also wind
belts. There are
three other types of
wind belts, also.
They are called
Trade Winds,
Doldrums, and
Horse Latitudes.
Polar Easterlies-
Polar Easterlies can
be found at the
north and south
poles and they are
cold and dry
because of where it is located, which is at high latitudes. This type of wind
system forms when cool air, at the poles, and then transfers to the equator.
Polar Easterlies are located 60-90 degrees latitude in both the southern and
northern hemispheres.
Tropical Easterlies- Tropical Easterlies take direction in an east to west

flow because of the rotation of the Earth. As air from the equator rises, it
gets warmer and when it cools down, it comes back down to the equator.
Tropical easterlies are located 0-30 degrees latitude in both hemispheres.
Prevailing Westerlies- Prevailing Westerlies are located in the 30-60

degrees latitude in the northern and southern hemispheres. They blow from
west to east and occur in the clement part of the Earth.
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)- The Intertropical Convergence

Zone is also known as Equatorial Convergence Zone or the Intertropical
Front. It forms when southest and northeast trade winds converge in a low
pressure zone, near the equator. It usually appears as a band of clouds and
comes with thunderstorms, which are short but produce extreme amounts
of rain.
Horse Latitudes- Horse latitudes, also known as the subtropical high, are
about 30-35 degrees north and south of the equator. Horse latitudes is a
region where there is weak winds because of high pressure and decreasing
dry air.The orgin of the name Horse latitudes is uncertain but it is said that
ships that needed wind power couldn't move on the water and the sailors
threw the horses and cattle over the ship to save on provisions.
Trade Winds- Trade winds blow from the horse latitudes to the low pressure
of the ITCZ. Trade winds get its name from its capability of blowing trade
ships across the ocen, very quickly. In the northern hemisphere, the winds
blow from the northeast, which is called the Northeast Trade winds. In the
Southern hemisphere, the trade winds blow from the southeast, and
surprisingly, they're called the Southeast Trade Winds.
Doldrums- Doldrums is the same thing as the Intertropical Convergence

Zone, it's just a different name for it. This name originated from some sailor
who noticed the stillness in the rising air and called it the "doldrums", which
means depression or despondency. Like I've stated earlier, it takes place 5
degrees north and south of the equator the equator and between the two
belts of trade winds. When the trade winds converge, it produces
convectional storms.
Main Parts of a Wind Turbine:
Weather vane:
A weather vane, wind vane, or weathercock is
an instrument used for showing the direction of
the wind. It is typically used as an architectural
ornament to the highest point of a building. The
word "vane" comes from the Old English
word "fana" meaning "flag". Although partly
functional, wind vanes are generally decorative,
often featuring the traditional cockerel design with
letters indicating the points of the compass. Other common motifs include
ships, arrows and horses. Not all weather vanes have pointers. When the
wind is sufficiently strong, the head of the arrow or cockerel (or equivalent
depending on the chosen design) will indicate the direction from which the
wind is blowing.
Anemometer: device for measuring the speed of

airflow in the atmosphere, in wind tunnels, and in
other gas-flow applications. Most widely used for
wind-speed measurements is the revolving-cup
electric anemometer, in which the revolving cups
drive an electric generator. The output of the
generator operates an electric meter that
is calibrated in wind speed. The useful range of this
device is approximately from 5 to 100 knots. A propeller may also be used to
drive the electric generator, as in the propeller anemometer. In another type
of wind-driven unit, revolving vanes operate a counter, the revolutions being
timed by a stopwatch and converted to airspeed. This device is especially
suited for the measurement of low airspeeds.
Site Selection Considerations: This is a list of things to consider when
selecting sites for installing wind monitoring devices and wind generators.
Site selection will depend on a number of factors including the general
terrain and wind flow characteristics of an area and the proximity to the
location of intended use. For more detailed information, check the references
listed below.
Considerations:
1.Wind Characteristics:
Ideal sites are generally located in areas with good exposure to the prevailing
wind, away from structures, terrain or vegetation that might alter the wind
or introduce excessive turbulence. For wind measurement, sites that
represent a wide area are ideal in order to estimate the wind resource over
as wide an area as possible. Vegetation will often show signs of "flagging" if
wind is present in sufficient amounts. Proximity to End Use: The costs
associated with wind energy grow with increased distance to where the
energy might be used. A windy site close to transmission lines or close to a
pumping location might be most appropriate.
2.Terrain and Land Use:
Consider the amount of land available, how this land is currently used, it’s
proximity to other uses such as roads, houses, towns or parks. Avoid
potential problems by considering your neighbors and the public in this
process. Site Accessibility: To install a monitoring tower or a wind turbine
and to provide routine maintenance it will be necessary to get equipment to
the site. Accessibility may be important. It may also be useful to have cell
phone coverage at the site to obtain help with maintenance issues that
might arise.
The following characteristics are important in considering a wind turbine
site, and are examined in this
A. Predicted Wind Resource
B. Noise
C. Environmental Issues and Permitting
D. Proximity to Airports
E. Wind Turbine Component Transportation & Access
F. Distance to Transmission/Distribution Lines for Power Distribution
G. Net-metering
H. Production Estimates for Selected Turbines
Betz's law: It calculates the maximum power that can be extracted from the
wind, independent of the design of a wind turbine in open flow. It was
published in 1919, by the German physicist Albert Betz. The law is derived
from the principles of conservation of mass and momentum of the air
stream flowing through an idealized "actuator disk" that extracts energy
from the wind stream. According to Betz's law, no turbine can capture more
than 16/27 (59.3 percent) of the kinetic energy in wind. The factor 16/27
(0.593) is known as Betz's coefficient. Practical utility-scale wind turbines
achieve at peak 75% to 80% of the Betz limit. The Betz limit is based on an
open disk actuator; if a diffuser is used to collect additional wind flow and
direct it through the turbine, more energy can be extracted. However, such
shrouded turbines are costly to build in utility-scale units because of the
extra structure required.
Tip Speed Ratio:
The Tip Speed Ratio (often known as the TSR) is
of vital importance in the design of wind turbine
generators. If the rotor of the wind turbine turns
too slowly, most of the wind will pass undisturbed
through the gap between the rotor blades.
Alternatively if the rotor turns too quickly, the
blurring blades will appear like a solid wall to the
wind. Therefore, wind turbines are designed with
optimal tip speed ratios to extract as much power
out of the wind as possible.
When a rotor blade passes through the air it

leaves turbulence in its wake. If the next blade
on the spinning rotor arrives at this point while
the air is still turbulent, it will not be able to
extract power efficiently from the wind. However if
the rotor span a little more slowly the air hitting
each turbine blade would no longer be turbulent.
Therefore the tip speed ratio is also chosen so
that the blades do not pass through too much
turbulent air.
Tip Speed Ratio Calculations

The tip speed ratio is given by dividing the speed of the tips of the turbine
blades by the speed of the wind – for example if a 20 mph wind is blowing on
a wind turbine and the tips of its blades are rotating at 80 mph, then the tip
speed ratio is 80/20 = 4.
Optimum Tip Speed Ratio

The optimum tip speed ratio depends on the number of blades in the wind
turbine rotor. The fewer the number of blades, the faster the wind turbine
rotor needs to turn to extract maximum power from the wind. A two-bladed
rotor has an optimum tip speed ratio of around 6, a three-bladed rotor
around 5, and a four-bladed rotor around 3.
Highly efficient aerofoil rotor blade design can increase these optimum
values by as much as 25-30% increasing the speed at which the rotor turns
and therefore generating more power. A well designed typical three-bladed
rotor would have a tip speed ratio of around 6 to 7.
If the tip speed ratio is too low – for example if poorly designed rotor blades
are used – the wind turbine will tend to slow and/or stall. If the tip speed
ratio is too high the turbine will spin very fast through turbulent air, power
will not be optimally extracted from the wind, and the wind turbine will be
highly stressed and at risk of structural failure.
Different types of turbine have
completely different optimal
TSR values – for example
a Darrieus wind turbine is a
vertical axis (VAWT)) design with
aerofoil blades which generate
aerodynamic lift and therefore
the TSR can be high, but
a Savonius wind turbine ne which
is also a VAWT is a drag design
and so the TSR will always be
less than 1 – i.e. it cannot spin
faster than the wind hitting it.
Pictured above is a graph showing the power coefficient for different values
of tip speed ratio for a two-bladed
two rotor. The theoretical maximum
efficiency of a wind turbine generator is given by the Betz Limit of around
59%. With a tip speed ratio (TSR) of just under 6, the power coefficient for
this example turbine is 0.45 (= 45%).
Types of Wind Turbines:
1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine:

Horizontal axis wind turbines, also
shortened to HAWT, are the common
style that most of us think of when we
think of a wind turbine. A HAWT has a
similar design to a windmill, it has
blades that look like a propeller that
spin on the horizontal axis.
Horizontal axis wind turbines have the
main rotor shaft and electrical
generator at the top of a tower, and
they must be pointed into the wind.
Small turbines are pointed by a simple
sim
wind vane placed square with the rotor (blades), while large turbines
generally use a wind sensor coupled
with a servo motor to turn the turbine
into the wind. Most large wind turbines
have a gearbox, which turns the slow
rotation of the rotor into a faster f
rotation that is more suitable to drive
an electrical generator.
Since a tower produces turbulence
behind it, the turbine is usually pointed
upwind of the tower. Wind turbine
blades are made stiff to prevent the
blades from being pushed into the
towerr by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable
distance in front of the tower and are sometimes tilted up a small amount.
Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence,
because they don’t need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line
with the wind. Additionally, in high winds the blades can be allowed to bend
which reduces their swept area and thus their wind resistance. Since
turbulence leads to fatigue failures, and reliability is so important, most
HAWTs are upwind machines.
HAWT Advantages
 The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind
shear. In some wind shear sites, every ten meters up the wind speed
can increase by 20% and the power output by 34%.
 High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicularly to the
wind, receiving power through the whole rotation. In contrast, all
vertical axis wind turbines, and most proposed airborne wind turbine
designs, involve various types of reciprocating actions, requiring airfoil
surfaces to backtrack against the wind for part of the cycle.
Backtracking against the wind leads to inherently lower efficiency.
HAWT Disadvantages
 Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades,

gearbox, and generator.
 Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft
and brake assembly) being lifted into position.
 Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas,
disrupting the appearance of the landscape and sometimes creating
local opposition.
 Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused
by turbulence when a blade passes through the tower’s wind shadow
(for this reason, the majority of HAWTs use an upwind design, with
the rotor facing the wind in front of the tower).
 HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the
blades toward the wind.
 HAWTs generally require a braking or yawing device in high winds to
stop the turbine from spinning and destroying or damaging itself.
 Cyclic Stresses & Vibration – When the turbine turns to face the wind,
the rotating blades act like a gyroscope. As it pivots, gyroscopic
precession tries to twist the turbine into a forward or backward
somersault. For each blade on a wind generator’s turbine, force is at a
minimum when the blade is horizontal and at a maximum when the
blade is vertical. This cyclic twisting can quickly fatigue and crack the
blade roots, hub and axle of the turbines.
Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT)
Vertical axis wind turbines, as shortened to VAWTs, have the main rotor
shaft arranged vertically. The main advantage of this arrangement is that
the wind turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind. This is an
advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable or has
turbulent winds.
With a vertical axis, the generator and
other primary components can be
placed near the ground, so the tower
does not need to support it, also
makes maintenance easier. The main
drawback of a VAWT is it generally
creates drag when rotating into the
wind.
It is difficult to mount vertical-axis

turbines on towers, meaning they are
often installed nearer to the base on
which they rest, such as the ground or
a building rooftop. The wind speed is
slower at a lower altitude, so less wind
energy is available for a given size
turbine. Air flow near the ground and
other objects can create turbulent flow, which can introduce issues of
vibration, including noise and bearing wear which may increase the
maintenance or shorten its service life. However, when a turbine is mounted
on a rooftop, the building generally redirects wind over the roof, thus
doubling the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the rooftop mounted
turbine tower is approximately 50% of the building height, this is near the
optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence.
Traditional VAWT Advantages
 They can produce electricity in any wind direction.

 Strong supporting tower in not needed because generator, gearbox
and other components are placed on the ground.
 Low production cost as compared to horizontal axis wind turbines.
 As there is no need of pointing turbine in wind direction to be efficient
so yaw drive and pitch mechanism is not needed.
 Easy installation as compared to other wind turbine.
 Easy to transport from one place to other.
 Low maintenance costs.
 They can be installed in urban areas.
 Low risk for human and birds because blades moves at relatively low
speeds.
 They are particularly suitable for areas with extreme weather
conditions, like in the mountains where they can supply electricity to
mountain huts.
Traditional VAWT Disadvantages
 As only one blade of the wind turbine works at a time, efficiency is

very low compared to HAWTS.
 They need an initial push to start; this initial push that to make the
blades start spinning on their own must be started by a small motor.
 When compared to horizontal axis wind turbines they are very less
efficient because of the additional drag created when their blades
rotate.
 They have relative high vibration because the air flow near the ground
creates turbulent flow.
flo
 Because of vibration, bearing wear increases which results in the
increase of maintenance costs.
 They can create noise pollution.
 VAWTs may need guy wires to hold it up (guy wires are impractical
and heavy in farm areas).
Darrieus Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine

Figure shows a typical Darrieus vertical-axis wind
turbine. The physical appearance of the Darrieus
wind turbine looks like a large egg beater.
The blade is mounted on a large monopole, and the

generator is located at the bottom of the blade. The
top of the pole has a number of guy wires that hold
the pole in place when the force of the wind causes
the blade to rotate.
Figure 3 shows the internal parts of the Darrieus
wind turbine.
Figure 3 Internal
Parts of the Darrieus
Wind Turbine
When the Darrieus
blade is operating, it
is moving through the
air in a circular path.
The oncoming airflow
generates a net force
pointing obliquely
forward and is
projected inward past
the turbine axis at a
certain distance,
giving a positive
torque to the shaft.
This helps the blade
to rotate in the
direction it is already
travelling
travelling.
The action of this
blade is similar to the aerodynamic principles used in helicopters, and it
makes the operation of this type of wind turbine quieter than a horizontal-
axis wind turbine of the same size. Because there is less friction on the
blade, the blade can rotate with equal torque regardless of the wind’s
direction.
A problem with the Darrieus wind turbine is that it is not self-starting, so
it uses its generator as a motor to get the rotor started. As the wind
increases the blade speed, the power to the motor is turned off and it begins
working as a generator.
Darrieus wind turbines were installed on early wind
farms, but most of them have been taken out of use
in commercial applications because they are not as
efficient as HAWTs and they require constant
maintenance.
Savonius Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine
The Savonius vertical-axis
axis wind turbine uses cups,
called scoops, instead of blades to capture wind
power. Figure shows an example of a Savonius
vertical-axis wind turbine. When the wind blows, it
creates a positive force in the scoop and a negative
force on the back side of the scoop. This difference
in force pushes the turbine around. In a typical
Savonius turbine, the wind comes from the front of
the cylinder, causing rotation. However, wind also
strikes the back of the other scoops, tending to slow
the rotor.
Wind Farms:
wind farm or wind park,park also called a wind power station or wind power
plant is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce
]
electricity.. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind
turbines and cover an extended area of hundreds of square mil miles, but the
land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes. A
wind farm can also be located offshore.
Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in China,
India, and the United States. Wind farms tend to have much less impact on
the environment than many other power stations. Onshore wind farms are
also criticized for their visual impact and impact on the landscape, as
typically they need to take up more land than other power stations and need
to be built in wild
ld and rural areas, which can lead to "industrialization of the
countryside", habitat loss,
loss, and a drop in tourism. Critics have linked wind
farms to adverse health effects (see wind turbine syndrome
syndrome). Wind farms
have also been criticized for interfering with radar, radio and television
reception.
Design and location:

The location is critical to the success of a wind farm. Conditions
contributing to a successful wind farm location include: wind conditions,
access to electric transmission, physical access, and local electric prices.
The faster the average wind speed, the more electricity the win
wind turbine will
generate, so faster winds are generally economically better for wind farm
developments. The balancing factor is that strong gusts and high turbulence
require stronger more expensive turbines, otherwise they risk damage. The
average power in the wind is not proportional to the average wind speed,
however. For this reason, the ideal wind conditions would be strong but
consistent winds with low turbulence coming from a single direction.
Mountain passes are ideal locations for wind farms under th
these conditions.
Mountain passes channel wind blocked by mountains through a tunnel like
pass towards areas of lower pressure and flatter land
How do offshore and onshore wind farms work?
First of all, it’s useful to go back to basics and explain how a wind turbine
works. As the wind turns the carbon-fibre blade on the unit, a motor turns,
which turns kinetic energy into electricity. This energy is transferred to
the gearbox, which converts the slow speed of the spinning blades into
higher-speed rotary motion—turning the drive shaft quickly enough to
power the electricity generator. Wind farms can be based onshore (on land)
or offshore (sea or freshwater), with key differences between the two. Below,
we take a look at some of the advantages and disadvantages of each.
What is offshore wind?
Offshore wind power, sometimes referred to as offshore wind energy, is when

wind over open water, usually in the ocean, is used to generate power. Wind
farms are constructed in bodies of water where higher wind speeds are
available.
Advantages of offshore wind:
 Windmills can be built that are larger and taller than their onshore
counterparts, allowing for more energy collection.
 They tend to be far out at sea, meaning they are much less intrusive to
neighbouring countries, allowing for larger farms to be created per square
mile.
 Typically
out at sea, there is a much higher wind speed/force allowing for
more energy to be generated at a time.
 Wind farms have a relatively negative impact on the environment. They are
not built in shipping lanes, fishing areas or in a delicate environment.
 Thereare no physical restrictions such as hills or buildings that could block

the wind flow.
Disadvantages of offshore wind:
 The biggest disadvantage of an offshore wind farm is the cost. OFF shore
wind farms can be expensive to build and maintain and because of their hard
to reach locations, they are susceptible to damage from very high-speed
winds during storms or hurricanes which is expensive to repair.
 Theeffect of offshore wind farms on marine life and birds are not yet fully
understood.
 Offshorewind farms that are built closer to coastlines (generally within 26

miles) can be unpopular with residents as it can affect property values and
tourism.
What is onshore wind?
Onshore wind power refers to turbines that are located on land and use wind
to generate electricity. They are generally located in areas where there is low
conservation or habitat value.
Advantages of onshore wind:

 The cost of onshore wind farms is relatively cheap, allowing for mass farms
of wind turbines.
 The shorter distance between the windmill and the consumer allows for less
voltage drop off on the cabling.
 Wind turbines are very quick to install, unlike a nuclear power station,
which can take over twenty years, a windmill can be built in a matter of
months.
Disadvantages of onshore wind:
 One of the biggest issues of onshore wind farms is that many deem them to
be an eyesore on the landscape.
 They don’t produce energy all year round due to often poor wind speed or
physical blockages such as buildings or hills.
 The noise that wind turbines create can be compared to as the same as a
lawnmower often causing noise pollution for nearby communities.
Selection of generator (synchronous, induction):
Just like a DC Machine, a same induction machine can be used as an induction

motor as well as an induction generator, without any internal modifications.
Induction generators are also called as asynchronous generators. Before starting
to explain how an induction (asynchronous) generator works. In an induction
motor, the rotor rotates because of slip (i.e. relative velocity between the rotating
magnetic field and the rotor). Rotor tries to catch up the synchronously rotating
field of the stator but never succeeds. If rotor catches up the synchronous speed,
the relative velocity will be zero, and hence rotor will experience no torque.
But what if the rotor is rotating at a speed more than synchronous speed?
How Induction Generators Work?
 Consider, an AC supply is connected to the stator terminals of an induction
machine. Rotating magnetic field produced in the stator pulls the rotor to run
behind it (the machine is acting as a motor).
 Now, if the rotor is accelerated to the synchronous speed by means of a prime
mover, the slip will be zero and hence the net torque will be zero. The rotor
current will become zero when the rotor is running at synchronous speed.
 If the rotor is made to rotate at a speed more than the synchronous speed, the
slip becomes negative. A rotor current is generated in the opposite direction,
due to the rotor conductors cutting stator magnetic field.
 This generated rotor current produces a rotating magnetic field in the rotor
which pushes (forces in opposite way) onto the stator field. This causes a stator
voltage which pushes current flowing out of the stator winding against the
applied voltage. Thus, the machine is now working as an induction generator
(asynchronous generator).
Induction generator is not a self-

excited machine. Therefore, when
running as a generator, the
machine takes reactive power from
the AC power line and supplies
active power back into the line.
Reactive power is needed for
producing rotating magnetic field. The active power supplied back in the line is
proportional to slip above the synchronous speed.
Self-Excited Induction Generator

It is clear that, an induction machine
needs reactive power for excitation,
regardless whether it is operating as a
generator or a motor. When an induction
generator is connected to a grid, it takes
reactive power from the grid. But what if
we want to use an induction generator to
supply a load without using an external
source (e.g. grid)?A capacitor bank can be connected across the stator terminals to
supply reactive power to the machine as well as to the load. When the rotor is
rotated at an enough speed, a small voltage is generated across the stator terminals
due to residual magnetism. Due to this small generated voltage, capacitor current
is produced which provides further reactive power for magnetization.
Applications of induction generators: Induction generators produce useful power

even at varying rotor speeds. Hence, they are suitable in wind turbines.
Advantages: Induction or asynchronous generators are more rugged and require
no commutator and brush arrangement (as it is needed in case of synchronous
generators).
One of the major disadvantage of induction generators is that they take quite
large amount of reactive power.
Maximum power point tracking :
Wind generation system has been attracting wide attention as a renewable

energy source due to depleting fossil fuel reserves and environmental
concerns as a direct consequence of using fossil fuel and nuclear energy
sources. Wind energy, even though abundant, variescontinually as wind
speed changes throughout the day. Amount of power output from a WECS
depends upon the accuracy with which the peak power points are tracked
by the MPPT controller of the WECS control system irrespective of the type
of generator used. The maximum power extraction algorithms researched so
far can be classified into three main control methods, namely tip speed ratio
(TSR) control, power signal feedback (PSF) control and hill-climb search
(HCS) control.
The TSR control method regulates the rotational speed of the generator in
order to maintain the TSR to an optimum value at which power extracted is
maximum. This method requires both the wind speed and the turbine speed
to be measured or estimated in addition to requiring the knowledge of
optimum TSR of the turbine in order for the system to be able extract
maximum possible power. Fig. shows the block diagram of a WECS with
TSR control.
In PSF control, it is required to have the knowledge of the wind turbine’s

maximum power curve, and track this curve through its control
mechanisms. The maximum power curves need to be obtained via
simulations or off-line experiment on individual wind turbines. In this
method, reference power is generated either using a recorded maximum
power curve or using the mechanical power equation of the wind turbine
where wind speed or the rotor speed is used as the input. Fig. shows the
block diagram of a WECS with PSF controller for maximum power
extraction.
The HCS control algorithm continuously searches for the peak power of the
wind turbine. It can overcome some of the common problems normally
associated with the other two methods. The tracking algorithm, depending
upon the location of the operating point and relation between the changes in
power and speed, computes the desired optimum signal in order to drive the
system to the point of maximum power. Fig.1shows the principle of HCS
control and Fig.2 shows a WECS with HCS controller for tracking maximum
power points.
UNIT–III: Solar Photovoltaic Systems
Semiconductor Materials Overview
1. Semiconductor materials come from different groups in the periodic table,
yet share certain similarities.
2. The properties of the semiconductor material are related to their atomic
characteristics and change from group to group.
3. Researchers and designers take advantage of these differences to improve
the design and choose the optimal material for a PV application.
The atoms in a semiconductor are materials from either group IV of the
periodic table, or from a combination of group III and group V (called III-V
semiconductors), or of combinations from group II and group VI (called II-VI
semiconductors). Because different semiconductors are made up of elements
from different groups in the periodic table, properties vary between
semiconductors. Silicon, which is a group IV, is the most commonly used
semiconductor material as it forms the basis for integrated circuit (IC) chips
and is the most mature technology and most solar cells are also silicon
based. A full periodic table is given in the page Periodic Table. Several of the
material properties of silicon are given in the page Silicon Material
Parameters
A section from the periodic

table. More common
semiconductor materials
are shown in blue. A
semiconductor can be
either of a single element,
such as Si or Ge, a
compound, such as GaAs,
InP or CdTe, or an alloy,
such as SixGe(1-x) or AlxGa(1-
x)As, where x is the fraction
of the particular element
and ranges from 0 to 1.
Semiconductor Structure
Overview
1. Semiconductors are made up of atoms bonded
together to form a uniform structure
2. Each silicon atom has four valence electrons
which are shared, forming covalent bonds
with the four surrounding Si atoms.
3. Understanding how these atoms are
arranged is vital in understanding the
material properties of different
semiconductors, and how best to engineer
them.
Semiconductors, such as Silicon (Si) are made
up of individual atoms bonded together in a
regular, periodic structure to form an arrangement whereby each atom is
surrounded by 8 electrons. An individual atom consists of a nucleus made
up of a core of protons (positively charged particles) and neutrons (particles
having no charge) surrounded by electrons. The number of electrons and
protons is equal, such that the atom is overall electrically neutral. The
electrons surrounding each atom in a semiconductor are part of a covalent
bond. A covalent bond consists of two atoms "sharing" a pair of electrons.
Each atom forms 4 covalent bonds with the 4 surrounding atoms. Therefore,
between each atom and its 4 surrounding atoms, 8 electrons are being
shared. The structure of a semiconductor is shown in the figure below.
Schematic representation of covalent bonds in a silicon crystal lattice. Each

line connecting the atoms represents an electron being shared between the
two. Two electrons being shared are what form the covalent bond.
Conduction in Semiconductors Overview

1. Semiconductors act as insulators at low temperatures and conductors at
higher temperatures.
2. Conduction occurs at higher temperature because the electrons
surrounding the semiconductor atoms can break away from their covalent
bond and move freely about the lattice
3. The conductive property of semiconductors forms the basis for
understanding how we can use these materials in electrical devices.
The bond structure of a semiconductor determines the material properties of
a semiconductor. One key effect are the energy levels which the electrons
can occupy and how they move about the crystal lattice. The electrons in the
covalent bond formed between each of the atoms in the lattice structure are
held in place by this bond and hence they are localizedto the region
surrounding the atom. These bonded electrons cannot move or change
energy, and thus are not considered "free" and cannot participate in current
flow, absorption, or other physical processes of interest in solar
cells. However, only at absolute zero are all electrons in this "stuck,"
bonded arrangement. At elevated temperatures, especially at the
temperatures where solar cells operate, electrons can gain enough energy to
escape from their bonds. When this happens, the electrons are free to move
about the crystal lattice and participate in conduction. At room temperature,
a semiconductor has enough free electrons to allow it to conduct current. At
or close to absolute zero a semiconductor behaves like an insulator.
When an electron gains enough energy to participate in conduction (is

"free"), it is at a high energy state. When the electron is bound, and thus
cannot participate in conduction, the electron is at a low energy state.
Therefore, the presence of the bond between the two atoms introduces two
distinct energy states for the electrons. The electron cannot attain energy
values intermediate to these two levels; it is either at a low energy position in
the bond, or it has gained enough energy to break free and therefore has a
certain minimum energy. This minimum energy is called the "band gap" of a
semiconductor. The number and energy of these free electrons, those
electrons participating in conduction, is basic to the operation of electronic
devices.
The space left behind by the electrons allows a covalent bond to move from
one electron to another, thus appearing to be a positive charge moving
through the crystal lattice. This empty space is commonly called a "hole",
and is similar to an electron, but with a positive charge.
The most important parameters of a semiconductor material for solar cell

operation are:
 the band gap;

 the number of free carriers (electrons or holes) available for conduction; and
 the "generation" and recombination of free carriers (electrons or holes) in
response to light shining on the material.
The P-N Junction

If a block of P-type semiconductor is placed in contact with a block of N-
type semiconductor in Figurebelow(a), the result is of no value. We have
two conductive blocks in contact with each other, showing no unique
properties. The problem is two separate and distinct crystal bodies. The
number of electrons is balanced by the number of protons in both blocks.
Thus, neither block has any net charge.
However, a single semiconductor crystal manufactured with P-type
material at one end and N-type material at the other in Figure below (b)
has some unique properties. The P-type material has positive majority
charge carriers, holes, which are free to move about the crystal lattice.
The N-type material has mobile negative majority carriers, electrons. Near
the junction, the N-type material electrons diffuse across the junction,
combining with holes in P-type material. The region of the P-type material
near the junction takes on a net negative charge because of the electrons
attracted. Since electrons departed the N-type region, it takes on a
localized positive charge. The thin layer of the crystal lattice between
these charges has been depleted of majority carriers, thus, is known as
the depletion region. It becomes nonconductive intrinsic
semiconductor material. In effect, we have nearly an insulator separating
the conductive P and N doped regions.
(a) Blocks of P and N semiconductor in contact have no exploitable

properties. (b) Single crystal doped with P and N type impurities develops a
potential barrier.
This separation of charges at the PN junction constitutes a potential

barrier. This potential barrier must be overcome by an external voltage
source to make the junction conduct. The formation of the junction and
potential barrier happens during the manufacturing process. The
magnitude of the potential barrier is a function of the materials used in
manufacturing. Silicon PN junctions have a higher potential barrier than
germanium junctions.
In Figure below(a) the battery is arranged so that the negative terminal
supplies electrons to the N-type material. These electrons diffuse toward
the junction. The positive terminal removes electrons from the P-type
semiconductor, creating holes that diffuse toward the junction. If the
battery voltage is great enough to overcome the junction potential (0.6V in
Si), the N-type electrons and P-holes combine annihilating each other.
This frees up space within the lattice for more carriers to flow toward the
junction. Thus, currents of N-type and P-type majority carriers flow
toward the junction. The recombination at the junction allows a battery
current to flow through the PN junction diode. Such a junction is said to
be forward biased.
(a) Forward battery bias repels carriers toward junction, where

recombination results in battery current. (b) Reverse battery bias attracts
carriers toward battery terminals, away from junction. Depletion region
thickness increases. No sustained battery current flows.
If the battery polarity is reversed as in Figure above(b) majority carriers
are attracted away from the junction toward the battery terminals. The
positive battery terminal attracts N-type majority carriers, electrons, away
from the junction. The negative terminal attracts P-type majority carriers,
holes, away from the junction. This increases the thickness of the no
conducting depletion region. There is no recombination of majority
carriers; thus, no conduction. This arrangement of battery polarity is
called reverse bias.
The diode schematic symbol is illustrated in Figure below (b)
corresponding to the doped semiconductor bar at (a). The diode is
a unidirectional device. Electron current only flows in one direction,
against the arrow, corresponding to forward bias. The cathode, bar, of the
diode symbol corresponds to N-type semiconductor. The anode, arrow,
corresponds to the P-type semiconductor. To remember this
relationship, Not-pointing (bar) on the symbol corresponds to N-type
semiconductor. Pointing (arrow) corresponds to P-type.
(a) Forward biased PN junction, (b) Corresponding diode schematic symbol
(c) Silicon Diode I vs V characteristic curve.
If a diode is forward biased as in Figure above(a), current will increase

slightly as voltage is increased from 0 V. In the case of a silicon diode a
measurable current flows when the voltage approaches 0.6 V in
Figureabove(c). As the voltage increases past 0.6 V, current increases
considerably after the knee. Increasing the voltage well beyond 0.7 V may
result in high enough current to destroy the diode. The forward voltage,
VF, is a characteristic of the semiconductor: 0.6 to 0.7 V for silicon, 0.2 V
for germanium, a few volts for Light Emitting Diodes (LED). The forward
current ranges from a few mA for point contact diodes to 100 mA for small
signal diodes to tens or thousands of amperes for power diodes.
If the diode is reverse biased, only the leakage current of the intrinsic
semiconductor flows. This is plotted to the left of the origin in
Figure above(c). This current will only be as high as 1 µA for the most
extreme conditions for silicon small signal diodes. This current does not
increase appreciably with increasing reverse bias until the diode breaks
down. At breakdown, the current increases so greatly that the diode will
be destroyed unless a high series resistance limits current. We normally
select a diode with a higher reverse voltage rating than any applied voltage
to prevent this. Silicon diodes are typically available with reverse break
down ratings of 50, 100, 200, 400, 800 V and higher. It is possible to
fabricate diodes with a lower rating of a few volts for use as voltage
standards.
 REVIEW:
 PN junctions are fabricated from a monocrystalline piece of
semiconductor with both a P-type and N-type region in proximity at a
junction.
 The transfer of electrons from the N side of the junction to holes
annihilated on the P side of the junction produces a barrier voltage.
This is 0.6 to 0.7 V in silicon, and varies with other semiconductors.
 A forward biased PN junction conducts a current once the barrier
voltage is overcome. The external applied potential forces majority
carriers toward the junction where recombination takes place,
allowing current flow.
 A reverse biased PN junction conducts almost no current. The applied
reverse bias attracts majority carriers away from the junction. This
increases the thickness of the nonconducting depletion region.
 Reverse biased PN junctions show a temperature dependent reverse
leakage current. This is less than a µA in small silicon diodes.
Difference between Intrinsic Semiconductors and Extrinsic

Semiconductors
Semiconductors are the foundation of modern electronics. Lets see the
differences between their two types :- Intrinsic Semiconductors and
Extrinsic Semiconductors .
Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic Semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors, also called

an undoped semiconductors or i- These are impure semiconductors.
type semiconductor, are pure When a small quantity of impurity is
semiconductor without any mixed in a pure or intrinsic
significant dopant species present. conductor, conductivity of
The number of charge carriers is semiconductor increases. Such an
therefore determined by the impure semiconductor is called
properties of the material itself extrinsic semiconductor.
instead of the amount of impurities.
Conductivity of intrinsic Conductivity of extrinsic

semiconductors is poor. semiconductors is large.
Number of electrons in conduction If it is an n-type electrons are in

band and holes in valence band are majority and if it is a p-type holes
approximately equal. are in majority.
In n-type Fermi-level lies near the

Fermi energy level lies at the centre
bottom of conduction band and in p-
of forbidden energy gap.
type near the top of valence base .
Solar Cell Structure

A solar cell is an electronic device which directly converts sunlight into
electricity. Light shining on the solar cell produces both a current and a
voltage to generate electric power. This process requires firstly, a material in
which the absorption of light raises an electron to a higher energy state, and
secondly, the movement of this higher energy electron from the solar cell
into an external circuit. The electron then dissipates its energy in the
external circuit and returns to the solar cell. A variety of materials and
processes can potentially satisfy the requirements for photovoltaic energy
conversion, but in practice nearly all photovoltaic energy conversion uses
semiconductor materials in the form of a p-n junction.
Types of photovoltaic cells

Photovoltaic cells or PV cells can be manufactured in many different ways
and from a variety of different materials. Despite this difference, they all
perform the same task of harvesting solar energy and converting it to
useful electricity.. The most common material for solar panel construction
is silicon which has semiconducting properties.[2]Several of these solar cells
are required to constructtruct a solar panel and many panels make up a
photovoltaic array.
There are three types of PV cell technologies that dominate the
world market: mono crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, and thin film.
Higher efficiency PV technologies, including
including gallium arsenide and multi
multi-
junction cells, are less common due to their high cost, but are ideal for use
in concentrated photovoltaic systems and space applications.[3]There is also
an assortment of emerging PV cell technologies which include Perovskite
cells, organic solar cells, dye-sensitized
dye sensitized solar cells and quantum dots.
Mono crystalline Silicon Cell
The first commercially available solar cells were made from mono crystalline
silicon, which is an extremely pure form of silicon. To produce these, a seed
crystal is pulled out of a mass of molten silicon creating a cylindrical ingot
with a single, continuous, crystal
crystal lattice structure. This crystal is then
mechanically sawn into thin wafers, polished and doped dopedto create the
required p-n junction.. After an anti-reflective
anti reflective coating and the front and rear
metal contacts are added, the cell is finally wired and packaged alongside
many other cells into a full solar panel.[3] Monocrystalline silicon cells are
highly efficient,, but their manufacturing process is slow and labour
intensive, making them more expensive than their polycrystalline or thin
film counterparts.
An image comparing a polycrystalline silicon cell (left) and a mono

crystalline silicon cell (right).
(right)
Polycrystalline Silicon Cell

Instead of a single uniform crystal structure, polycrystalline (or
multicrystalline) cells contain many small grains of crystals (see figure 2).
They can be made by simply casting
cas a cube-shaped
shaped ingot from molten
silicon, then sawn and packaged similar to monocrystalline cells. Another
method known as edge-defined
edge film-fed
fed growth (EFG) involves drawing a
thin ribbon of polycrystalline silicon from a mass of molten silicon. A
cheaper
aper but less efficient alternative, polycrystalline silicon PV cells
dominate the world market, representing about 70% of global PV production
in 2015.
Thin Film Cells
Figure. A thin film solar panel composed of non-crystalline silicon deposited

on a flexible material.
Although crystalline PV cells dominate the market, cells can also be made
from thin films—making them much more flexible and durable. One type of
thin film PV cell is amorphous silicon (a-Si) which is produced by
depositing thin layers of silicon on to a glass substrate. The result is a very
thin and flexible cell which uses less than 1% of the silicon needed for a
crystalline cell.[3] Due to this reduction in raw material and a less energy
intensive manufacturing process, amorphous silicon cells are much cheaper
to produce. Their efficiency, however, is greatly reduced because the silicon
atoms are much less ordered than in their crystalline forms leaving
'dangling bonds' that combine with other elements making them electrically
inactive. These cells also suffer from a 20% drop in efficiency within the first
few months of operation before stabilizing, and are therefore sold with power
ratings based on their degraded output.[3]
Other types of thin film cells include copper indium gallium
diselenide (CIGS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe). These cell technologies
offer higher efficiencies than amorphous silicon, but contain rare and toxic
elements including cadmium which requires extra precautions during
manufacture and eventual recycling.[3]
High Efficiency Cells
Other cell technologies have been developed which operate at much

higher efficiencies than those mentioned above, but their higher material
and manufacturing costs currently prohibit wide spread commercial use.
Gallium Arsenide
Silicon is not the only material suitable for
crystalline PV cells.. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is an
alternative semiconductor which is highly suitable
for PV applications. Gallium arsenide has a similar
crystal structure to that of mono crystalline silicon,
but with alternating gallium and arsenic atoms.
NASA's Juno Spacecraft with gallium arsenide multi-
multi
junction solar cells.
Due to its higher light absorption coefficient and wider band gap
gap, GaAs cells
are much more efficient than those made of silicon. Additionally, GaAs cells
can operate at much higher temperatures without considerable performance
degradation, making them suitable for concentrated photovoltaic
photovoltaics. GaAs
cells are produced by depositing layers of gallium and arsenic onto a base of
single crystal GaAs, which defines the orientation of the new crystal growth.
This process makes GaAs cells much more expensive than silicon cells,
making them useful only when high efficiency is needed, such as space
applications.
Multi-Junction
The majority of PV cells, including
including those discussed above, contain only
one p-n junction of semiconductor materiall which converts energy from one
discreet portion of the solar spectrum into useful electricity. Multi
Multi-junction
cells have 2 or more junctions layered on top of each other, allowing energy
to be collected from multiple portions
p of the spectrum. Light that is not
absorbed by the first layer will travel through and interact with subsequent
layers. Multi-junction
junction cells are produced in the same way as gall gallium
arsenide cells—slowly
slowly depositing layers of material onto a single crystal
base, making them very expensive to produce, and only commercially viable
in concentrated PV systems and space applications.[3]
To increase their utility, a number of individual PV cells are interconnected
together in a sealed, weatherproof package called a Panel (Module). For
example, a 12 V Panel (Module) will have 36 cells connected in series and a
24 V Panel (Module) will have 72 PV Cells connected in series
To achieve the desired voltage and current, Modules are wired in series and
parallel into what is called a PV Array. The flexibility of the modular PV
system allows designers to create solar power systems that can meet a wide
variety of electrical needs. Fig. 5 shows PV cell, Panel (Module) and Array.
Fig.5. PV cell, Module and Array
The cells are very thin and fragile so they are sandwiched between a
transparent front sheet, usually glass, and a backing sheet, usually glass or
a type of tough plastic. This protects them from breakage and from the
weather. An aluminum frame is fitted around the module to enable easy
fixing to a support structure. The picture in Fig. 6 below shows a small part
of a Module with cells in it. It has a glass front, a backing plate and a frame
around it.
Fig. Construction of a typical Mono-crystalline PV / Solar Panel
As mentioned, PV / Solar cells are wired in series and in parallel to form a

PV / Solar Panel (Module). The number of series cells indicates the voltage of
the Panel (Module), whereas the number of parallel cells indicates the
current. If many cells are connected in series, shading of individual cells can
lead to the destruction of the shaded cell or of the lamination material, so
the Panel (Module) may blister and burst. To avoid such an operational
condition, Bypass Diodes are connected anti-parallel to the solar cells as in
Fig.7 As a consequence, larger voltage differences cannot arise in the
reverse-current direction of the solar cells. In practice, it is sufficient to
connect one bypass diode for every 15-20 cells. Bypass diodes also allow
current to flow through the PV module when it is partially shaded, even if at
a reduced voltage and power. Bypass diodes do not cause any losses,
because under normal operation, current does not flow through them.
Fig.7. Parallel PV cell with bypass diodes
Cross section of a solar cell.
The basic steps in the operation of a solar cell are:
 the generation of light-generated carriers;

 the collection of the light-generated carries to generate a current;
 the generation of a large voltage across the solar cell; and
 the dissipation of power in the load and in parasitic resistances.
How a PV Cell Works
Solar panels convert the

sunlight's photon energy
into electricity.
Sunlight is composed of
photons, or particles of
radiant solar energy.
These photons contain
various amounts of
energy depending on the
wavelength of the solar
spectrum. When
the photons strike a solar cell, some are absorbed while others are reflected.
When the material absorbs sufficient photon energy, electrons within the
solar cell material dislodge from their atoms. The electrons migrate to the
front surface of the solar cell, which is manufactured to be more receptive to
the free electrons. When many electrons, each carrying a negative charge,
travel toward the front surface of the cell, the resulting imbalance of charge
between the cell's front and back surfaces creates a voltage potential like the
negative and positive terminals of a battery. When the two surfaces are
connected through an external load, electricity flows.
How do solar panels work?

Individual solar cells vary in size from about 1 cm to about 10 cm across. A
cell of this size can only produce 1 or 2 watts, which isn't enough power for
most applications. To increase power output, cells are electrically connected
into a module. Modules are connected to form an array. The term "array"
refers to the entire generating plant, whether it is made up of one or several
thousand modules.
Large banks of solar cells

maximise the amount of solar
energy they can generate.
The performance of a
photovoltaic array is
dependent upon sunlight.
Climate (e.g. clouds, fog) has
a significant effect on the
amount of solar energy
received by a PV array and, in turn, its performance.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic and the Solar Cell I-V Curve
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves show the current and voltage ( I-V )
characteristics of a particular photovoltaic ( PV ) cell, module or array giving
a detailed description of its solar energy conversion ability and efficiency.
Knowing the electrical I-V characteristics (more importantly Pmax) of a solar
cell, or panel is critical in determining the device’s output performance and
solar efficiency.
Photovoltaic solar cells convert the suns radiant light directly into electricity.
With increasing demand for a clean energy source and the sun’s potential as
a free energy source, has made solar energy conversion as part of a mixture
of renewable energy sources increasingly important. As a result, the demand
for efficient solar cells, which convert sunlight directly into electricity, is
growing faster than ever before.
Photovoltaic ( PV ) cells are made made almost entirely from silicon that has
been processed into an extremely pure crystalline form that absorbs the
photons from sunlight and then releases them as electrons, causing an
electric current to flow when the photoconductive cell is connected to an
external load. There are a variety of different measurements we can make to
determine the solar cell’s performance, such as its power output and its
conversion efficiency.
The main electrical characteristics of a PV cell or module are summarized in
the relationship between the current and voltage produced on a typical solar
cell I-V characteristics curve. The intensity of the solar radiation (insolation)
that hits the cell controls the current ( I ), while the increases in the
temperature of the solar cell reduces its voltage ( V ).
Solar cells produce direct current ( DC ) electricity and current times voltage
equals power, so we can create solar cell I-V curves representing the current
versus the voltage for a photovoltaic device.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristics Curves are basically a graphical representation
of the operation of a solar cell or module summarising the relationship
between the current and voltage at the existing conditions of irradiance and
temperature. I-V curves provide the information required to configure a solar
system so that it can operate as close to its optimal peak power point (MPP)
as possible.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve
The above graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical

silicon PV cell operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a
solar cell is the product of current and voltage ( I x V ). If the multiplication
is done, point for point, for all voltages from short-circuit to open-circuit
conditions, the power curve above is obtained for a given radiation level.
With the solar cell open-circuited,
open circuited, that is not connected to any load, the
current will be at its minimum (zero) and the voltage
voltage across the cell is at its
maximum, known as the solar cells open circuit voltage,, or Voc. At the
other extreme, when the solar cell is short circuited, that is the positive and
negative leads connected together, the voltage across the cell is at its
minimum (zero) but the current flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum,
known as the solar cells short circuit current, or Isc.
Then the span of the solar cell I-V I V characteristics curve ranges from the
short circuit current ( Isc ) at zero output volts,
s, to zero current at the full
open circuit voltage ( Voc ). In other words, the maximum voltage available
from a cell is at open circuit, and the maximum current at closed circuit. Of
course, neither of these two conditions generates any electrical power, but
there must be a point somewhere in between were the solar cell generates
maximum power.
However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for
which the power reaches its maximum value, at Impand Vmp. In other
words, the point at which
which the cell generates maximum electrical power and
this is shown at the top right area of the green rectangle. This is the
“maximum power point” or MPP.. Therefore the ideal operation of a
photovoltaic cell (or panel) is defined to be at the maximum power po
point.
The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell is positioned near the bend
in the I-V
V characteristics curve. The corresponding values
of Vmp and Imp can be estimated from the open circuit voltage and the
short circuit current: Vmp ≅ (0.8–0.90)Voc and Imp ≅ (0.85––0.95)Isc. Since
solar cell output voltage and current both depend on temperature, the
actual output power will vary with changes in ambient temperature.
Thus far we have looked at Solar Cell I-V V Characteristic Curve for a single
solar cell or panel. But many photovoltaic arrays are made up of smaller PV
panels connected together. Then the I-V I V curve of a PV array is just a scaled
up version of the single solar cell I-V
I V characteristic curve as shown.
Equivalent circuit of a solar cell
The equivalent
equiv circuit of a solar cell
The schematic symbol of a solar cell
To understand the electronic behaviour of a solar cell, it is useful to create

a model which is electrically equivalent, and is based on discrete ideal
electrical components whose behaviour is well defined. An ideal solar cell
may be modelled by a current source in parallel with a diode
diode; in practice no
solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance and a series resistance component
are added to the model.
model The resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is
shown on the left. Also shown, on the right, is the schematic representation
of a solar cell for use in circuit diagrams.
Series Resistance
Series resistance in a solar cell has three causes: firstly, the movement of
current through the emitter and base of the solar cell; secondly, the contact
resistance between the metal contact and the silicon; and finally the
resistance of the top and rear metal contacts. The main impact of series
resistance is to reduce the fill factor, although excessively high values may
also reduce the short-circuit
circuit current.
Schematic of a solar cell with series

seri resistance.
I=IL−I0exp[q(V+IRS) /nkT]
where: I is the cell output
current, IL is the light generated
current, V is the voltage across the
cell terminals, T is the temperature,
q and k are constants,
constants n is the
ideality factor, and RS is the cell
series resistance. The formula is an
example of an implicit function due
to the appearance of the current, I,
on both sides of the equation and
requires numerical methods to solve.
The effect of the series resistance on the IV curve is shown below. To
generate the plot the voltage across the diode is varied thereby avoiding the
need to solve an implicit equation.
Cell series resistance, RS = 1 Ω cm2
The effect of series resistance depens on fill factor. The area of the solar cell
is 1 cm2 so that the units of resistance can be either ohm or ohm cm2. The
short circuit current (ISC) is unaffected by the series resistance until it is very
large.
Series resistance does not affect the solar cell at open-circuit voltage since
the overall current flow through the solar cell, and therefore through the
series resistance is zero. However, near the open-circuit voltage, the IV curve
is strongly affected by the series resistance. A straight-forward method of
estimating the series resistance from a solar cell is to find the slope of the IV
curve at the open-circuit voltage point.
An equation for the FF as a function of series resistance can be determined

by noting that for moderate values of series resistance, the maximum power
may be approximated as the power in the absence of series resistance minus
the power lost in the series resistance.
Shunt Resistance
Significant power losses caused by the presence of a shunt resistance, RSH,

are typically due to manufacturing defects, rather than poor solar cell
design. Low shunt resistance causes power losses in solar cells by providing
an alternate current path for the light-generated current. Such a diversion
reduces the amount of current flowing through the solar cell junction and
reduces the voltage from the solar cell. The effect of a shunt resistance is
particularly severe at low light levels, since there will be less light-generated
current. The loss of this current to the shunt therefore has a larger impact.
In addition, at lower voltages where the effective resistance of the solar cell
is high, the impact of a resistance in parallel is large.
Circuit diagram of a solar cell including the shunt resistance.
The equation for a solar cell in presence of a shunt resistance is:
I=IL−I0exp[qV/nkT]−V/RSH
where: I is the cell output current, IL is the light generated current, V is the
voltage across the cell terminals, T is the temperature, q and k
are constants, n is the ideality factor, and RSH is the cell shunt resistance.
The effect of a low shunt resistance is shown in below.
Cell shunt resistance is: 1.00e+3 ohm cm2
The effect of shunt resistance on fill factor in a solar cell:

cell The area of the
2
solar cell is 1 cm , the cell series resistance is zero, temperature is 300 K,
and I0 is 1 x 10-12 A/cm2.
An estimate for the value of the

shunt resistance of a solar cell can
be determined from the slope of the
IV curve near the short-circuit
short
current point.
The impact of the shunt resistance

on the fill factor can be calculated
in a manner similar to that used to
find the e impact of series resistance
on fill factor. The maximum power may be approximated as the power in the
absence of shunt resistance, minus the power lost in the shunt resistance.
Impact of Both Series and Shunt Resistance

In the presence of both series and shunt resistances, the IV curve of the
solar cell is given by;
and the circuit diagram of the solar cell is given as;
Parasitic series and shunt resistances in a solar cell circuit.
Solar Photovoltaic Systems
Solar Photovoltaic System uses solar cells to convert light into electricity. A
PV system consists of PV modules and balance of systems (BOS). Balance of
systems includes module support structure, storage, wiring, power
electronics, etc.
DC (direct current) electricity is generated when solar radiation strikes the
PV module. Power can be used in any DC load directly during this
generation. But the generation exists during daytime. So, some storage
device is needed to run the system at night or in low sunshine hour. Again
this power cannot be used to run any AC (alternate current) load. Inverter
has to be used to convert DC into AC.
Solar PV systems are categories into
 Stand-alone PV systems (also called off-grid systems)

 Grid connected PV systems (also called on-grid systems)
 Hybrid systems
a) Stand-alone PV systems:
Stand-alone systems are not connected with utility power lines and these
are self sufficient systems. These systems could either be used to charge the
batteries that serve as an energy storage device or could work directly using
the solar energy available in the daytimes. These systems consist of the
following:
 Solar panels mounted on the roof or in open spaces. Photovoltaic

modules produce direct current (DC) electrical power.
 Batteries to store DC energy generated by the solar panels.
 Charge controller to prevent overcharging the battery.
 Inverter to convert electricity produced by the system from DC to AC
power.
The following diagram shows PV system powering AC loads with battery

bank. DC loads can also be connected directly to the battery bank. It is also
possible to power the
AC load without
battery, but in that
case it would be
confined only to
daytime when solar
radiation is sufficient
to generate required
electricity.
b)Grid connected PV systems :
A grid connected photovoltaic system will be interacted with utility grid. The
main advantage of this system is that power can be drawn from the utility
grid and when power is not available from grid, PV system can supplement
that power. These grid connected systems are designed with battery or
without battery storage. These systems consist of the following:

 Specially designed inverter to transform the PV generated DC
electricity to the grid electricity (which is of AC) at the grid voltage.
The following diagram

shows PV system
powering AC loads.
This system is
connected to utility
power supply and
having battery storage
for backup.
c)Hybrid systems :
System with more than one source of power is called Hybrid system. It is
often desirable to design a system with additional source of power. The most
common type of hybrid system contains a gas or diesel powered engine
generator. Another hybrid approach is a PV/Wind system. Adding a wind
turbine to a PV system provides complementary power generation. These
systems consist of the following:

 Specially designed inverter to transform the PV generated DC
electricity to the grid electricity (which is of AC) at the grid voltage.
The following diagram shows PV system powering AC loads. This system is

connected to utility power supply & diesel generator and having battery
storage for backup.
System design: storage sizing – PV system sizing:
Sizing Objectives
 Sizing is the basis for PV system electrical designs, and
establishes the sizes and ratings of major components needed to
meet a certain performance objective
 The sizing of PV systems may be based on any number of
factors, depending on the type of system and its functional
requirements.
Sizing Principles
The sizing principles for interactive and stand-alone PV systems are based
on different design and functional requirements.
 Utility-Interactive Systems (without energy storage):
1. Provide supplemental power to facility loads.
2. Failure of PV system does not result in loss of loads.
 Stand-Alone Systems (with energy storage):

1. Designed to meet a specific electrical load requirement.
2. Failure of PV system results in loss of load.
Sizing Stand-Alone Systems

The sizing objective for any type of stand-alone PV system is a critical
balance between energy supply and demand.
 The PV array must provide enough energy to meet the load plus
system losses under the worst case conditions.
 Consequently, the efficiency of the electrical loads is a critical
concern.
 Stand-alone PV systems can be considered a type of banking

system.
The battery is the bank account. The PV array produces energy

(income) and charges the battery (deposits), and the electrical
loads consume energy (withdrawals).
1.Stand-alone PV systems are sized to meet specific load requirements,
and involve the following key steps:
 Determine the average daily load

requirements for each month.
 Conduct a critical design analysis to
determine the month with the
highest load to solar insolation
ratio.
 Size battery bank for system voltage
and required energy storage
capacity.
 Size PV array to meet average daily
load requirements during period
with lowest sunlight and highest
load (usually winter).
 Sizing stand-alone PV systems
begins with determining the
electrical load, and then sizing the
battery and PV array to meet the
average daily load during the
critical design month.
2.Load Analysis:
 The energy consumption for electrical loads is estimated on an
average daily basis for each month of the year.
 Use worksheets to list each load, its average power, daily time of use
and compute energy consumption.
 List AC and DC loads separately, and apply inverter efficiency to
determine the DC energy required for AC loads.
 The daily DC energy required is used to size the battery and PV array.
 The peak AC power demand dictates the size of inverter required.
 Explore opportunities for improvements in load efficiency and end-use
practices to reduce size and costs of PV system required.
3.Critical Design Analysis:
 A critical design analysis evaluates the ratio of the average daily

load energy requirements and available solar insolation for each
month.
 Use a worksheet to list the average daily loads for each month,
and divide the loads by the available solar insolation for different
array tilt angles.
 The critical design month is the month with the highest ratio of
load to solar insolation, and defines the optimal tilt angle that
results in the smallest array possible.
 For constant loads, the critical design month is the month with
the greatest average daily load.
4.Selecting the System DC Voltage:
 The DC voltage for stand-alone PV systems is selected based on

the operating voltages for DC utilization equipment, including
loads and inverters.
 Higher DC voltages are used for systems with higher power loads
to reduce the system currents and the size of the conductors and
switchgear required.
 Smaller stand-alone systems used for residential and small off
grid application typically use 12 V, 24 V or 48 V systems, while
larger systems may use even higher DC voltages.
5.Selecting an Inverter:
Selecting an inverter for stand-alone systems is based on the following:
 Nominal system DC voltage (battery)
 AC output voltage
 Peak AC power required for cumulative load
 Surge current requirements, if any
 Additional features (battery charger, etc.)
6.System Availability:
 System availability is a statistical parameter, and represents the
percentage of time over an average year that a stand-alone PV
system meets the system loads.
 The sizing of stand-alone PV systems is based on long-term averages
for solar insolation, and invariably, 100% load availability can never
be achieved.
 Higher system availability can be achieved by increasing the size
of the PV array and/or battery.
7.Sizing the Battery:

Batteries for stand-alone systems are sized to store energy produced by the
array for use by the system loads as required.
The total amount of rated battery capacity required depends on the
following:
 Desired days of storage to meet system loads with no recharge from
PV
 Maximum allowable depth-of-discharge
 Temperature and discharge rates
 System losses and efficiencies
 The system voltage defines the number of series-connected battery
cells required.
 The total capacity needed defines the number of parallel battery
strings required.
8.Autonomy:
 Autonomy is the number of days that a fully charged battery can meet
the system loads without any recharge from the PV array.
 The specified autonomy and maximum allowable depth-of discharge
define the total amount of battery capacity required for a given system
load.
 Greater autonomy periods are used for more critical applications and
increase system availability, but at higher cost due to the larger
battery required.
9.Factors Affecting Battery Sizing:

Greater autonomy periods increase the size of the battery and increase
availability, and decrease average daily depth-of discharge.
 Maximum depth-discharge defines the usable battery capacity and is

defined by the load cut-off voltage.
 Greater allowable DOD provides greater system availability, but at the
expense of battery health.
 Depth-of-discharge must be limited in cold climates to protect lead-
acid batteries from freezing.
 Rated battery capacity is affected by temperature, discharge rate
and age of the battery.
10.Sizing the Battery:

Battery sizing is based on rated capacity and specified limits of operation.
11. Sizing the PV Array

 The PV array for stand-alone systems is sized to meet the
average daily load during the critical design month.
 System losses, soiling and higher operating temperatures are factored
in estimating array output.
 The system voltage determines the number of series-connected
modules required per source circuit.
 The system power and energy requirements determine the total
number of parallel source circuits required.
12.PV Array Battery Charging:
Standard silicon PV modules with 36

series-connected cells are
optimally suited for charging a
nominal 12 V lead-acid battery
WHAT IS MPPT?
PV modules still have relatively low conversion efficiency; therefore,
controlling maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for the solar array
is essential in a PV system. The amount of power generated by a PV depends
on the operating voltage of the array. A PV’s maximum power point (MPP)
varies with solar insulation and temperature.
MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included in

charge controllers used for extracting maximum available power from PV
module under certain conditions. The voltage at which PV module can
produce maximum power is called ‘maximum power point’ (or peak power
voltage).
How MPPT works?

The major principle of MPPT is to extract the maximum available
power from PV module by making them operate at the most efficient
voltage (maximum power point).
 MPPT checks output of PV module, compares it to battery voltage
then fixes what is the best power that PV module can produce to charge the
battery and converts it to the best voltage to get maximum current into
battery. MPPT is most effective under these conditions:
•Cold weather, cloudy or hazy days: Normally, PV module works better at

cold temperatures and MPPT is utilized to extract maximum power available
from them. When battery is deeply discharged: MPPT can extract more
current and charge the battery if the state of charge in the battery is lowers.
MPPT solar charge controller:

A MPPT solar charge controller is the charge controller embedded with
MPPT algorithm to maximize the amount of current going into the battery
from PV module.
 MPPT is DC to DC converter which operates by taking DC input from PV
module, changing it to AC and converting it back to a different DC voltage
and current to exactly match the PV module to the battery.
 Examples of DC to DC converter are
• Boost converter
• Buck converter
 MPPT algorithm can be applied to both of them depending on system
design.
DC-DC CONVERTER
DC/DC converters are
used in applications where
an average output voltage
is required, which can be
higher or lower than the
input voltage.The choice of
the appropriate DC/DC
converter for the
implementation of both the MPPT system and its integration in the facility
array has not been explicitly studied, despite its affecting significantly the
optimum operation of the photovoltaic system. The aim of this work is to
make a comparative of the photovoltaic system performance using the three
basic topologies of three different DC-DC converters (Buck and Boost
converter) and MPPT tracker, for that we require the study of characteristics
and properties of DC/DC converters, especially as regards the input
impedance that they present under certain operating conditions. So that it
may be possible to make a decision on the best configuration to be used
Fig.6 shows the diagram of a solar

panel connected to a DC/DC converter,
where the resistance shown at the
converter‟s input is represented by Ri
(RL is the converter‟s load resistance).
In relation to the photovoltaic module, the converter is its
Ri value load resistance. Assuming converters without losses, the ratio of
input resistance to load resistance is shown in
Table 1, both for CCM and DCM.
The ratio of the time interval in which the switch is on (TON) to the
commutation period (TC) is called duty cycle (D) of the converter. If K value is
lower than or equal to another one called Kcrit, the converter will operate in
DCM. Conversely, if K exceeds the value of Kcrit, the converter will operate
in CCM. As observed in Table 1, the value of Kcrit is different
for each type of converter.
A. Buck Converter
This is a converter whose output voltage
is smaller than the input voltage and
output current is larger than the input
current. The circuit diagram is shown in
the following figure .
B. Boost Converter
This is a converter whose output
voltage is larger than the input
voltage and output current is
smaller than the input current.
The circuit diagram is shown in
the following figure
PERTURB & OBSERVE METHOD (P&O):
Perturb and Observe (P&O) method A P&O
method is the most simple, which moves
the operating point toward the maximum
power point periodically increasing or
decreasing the PV array voltage by
comparing power quantities between in
the present and past. The block diagram
of P&O method is illustrated in Fig.
If the power increased, the perturbation is
continuous in the same direction in the next perturbation cycle, otherwise the perturbation
direction is reversed. This way, the operating point of the system gradually moves towards
the MPP and oscillates around it in steady-state
steady conditions. Large perturbation step sizes
yield fast tracking of the MPP under varying atmospheric
tmospheric conditions but result in reduced
average power conversion in steady state due to large oscillations around the M
MPP. Hence
the famous trade off problem between faster response and steady-state
state oscillations is
inherent. Moreover, the perturbation is not generic. In order to overcome all this, high
performance P&O technique is proposed.
Fig 3.1:Flow chart of the MPPT algorithm with P&O method.
HILL CLIMBING ALGORITHM:
The hill climbing algorithm locates the maximum power point by relating
changes in the power to changes in the control variable used to control the
array. This system includes the perturb and absorb algorithm Hill-climbing
algorithm involves a perturbation in the duty ratio of the power inverter. In
the case of a PV array connected to a system, perturbing the duty ratio of
power inverter perturbs the PV array current and consequently perturbs the
PV array voltage. Figure 7.1 shows the characteristic of PV array curve. In
this method, by incrementing the voltage, the power increases when
operating on the left of the MPP and decreases the power when on the right
of the MPP. Therefore, if there is an increase in power, the subsequent
perturbation is kept at same point to reach the MPP and if there is a
decrease in power, the perturbation is reversed. This algorithm is
summarized in Table 7.1. The process is repeated periodically until the MPP
is reached. The system then oscillates about the MPP. The oscillation is
minimized by reducing the perturbation step size.
Figure 7.2 shows the entire block diagram of the proposed system.
In this, the PV array output vary with temperature, insolation, angle of
incidence and the PV characteristics of the PV cell or array which is used.
So in order to track the maximum power point for a particular condition, the
voltage and current is sensed and is scaled to 5V through an operational
amplifier and is given as an input to the analog channel of the PIC
microcontroller for making necessary control action. The PIC microcontroller
tracks the variation of dp/dv which is either positive, negative or zero. If it is
zero, it doesn’t make any change in control signal. Whereas if it is positive, it
increments the modulation index and if it is negative, it decrements the
modulation index. The PIC microcontroller sends necessary signal to PWM
generator which generates gate pulses for triggering the inverter.
The algorithm used for MPPT is discussed below:
Step 1: Sensing and measuring the voltage and current of PV array
Step 2: Initialize the modulation index to a particular value
Step 3: The initial power Pin is calculated
Step 4: Increase the value of m
Step 5: Sense the PV array voltage and current
Step 6: Calculate the modified power Pfin
Step 7: If the change in power is positive, increase m value; if it is negative,
decrease m value’ and if there is no change in power, m value is
retained.
Step 8: Repeat step 5.
Unit-6
Geo-Thermal Energy
What is Geo-Thermal Energy: Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the
Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. The geothermal
energy of the Earth's crust originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and
from radioactive decay of minerals (80%). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in
temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of
thermal energy in the form of heatfrom the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates
from the Greek roots γη (ge), meaning earth, and θερμος (thermos), meaning hot.At the core of the
Earth, thermal energy is created by radioactive decay and temperatures may reach over 5000 °C
(9,000 °F). Heat conducts from the core to surrounding cooler rock. The high temperature and
pressure cause some rock to melt, creating magma convection upward since it is lighter than the
solid rock. The magma heats rock and water in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).
Sources of Geo Thermal Energy:From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing
since Paleolithic times and for space since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known
for electricity generation. Worldwide, 11,400 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power is online in 24
countries in 2012. An additional 28 giga watts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed
for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural
applications in 2010.Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally
friendly, but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent
technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources,
especially for applications such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation.
Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are
much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the
potential to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels.The Earth's
geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity's energy needs,
but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited. Drilling and exploration for deep
resources is very expensive. Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions
about technology, energy prices, subsidies, and interest rates. Pilot programs like EWEB's
customer opt in Green Power Program show that customers would be willing to pay a little more
for a renewable energy source like geothermal. But as a result of government assisted research
and industry experience, the cost of generating geothermal power has decreased by 25% over the
past two decades. In 2001, geothermal energy cost between two and ten US cents per kWh.
Energy inside the Earth: Geothermal energy is generated in the earth's core, about4,000 miles
below the surface. Temperatures hotter than the sun's surface are continuously produced inside
the earth by the slow decay of radioactive particles, a process that happens in all rocks. The earth
has a number of different layers:
 The core itself has two layers: a solid iron core and anouter core made of very hot melted
rock, called magma.
 The mantle which surrounds the core and is about 1,800 miles thick. It is made up of
magma and rock.
 The crust is the outermost layer of the earth, the land that forms the continents and ocean
floors. It can be three to five miles thick under the oceans and 15 to 35 miles thick on
thecontinents.
 The earth's crust is broken into pieces called plates. Magma comes close to the earth's
surface near the edges of these plates. This is where volcanoes occur. The lava that erupts
from volcanoes is partly magma. Deep underground, the rocks and water absorb the heat
from this magma. The temperature of the rocks and water get hotter and hotter as you go
deeper underground.
Where Geo Thermal Energy is found: Most geothermal reservoirs are deep underground with no
visible clues showing above ground Geothermal energy can sometimes find its way to the surface in
the form of:
 volcanoes and fumaroles (holes where volcanic gases are released)
 hot springs and geysers.
The most active geothermal resources are usually found along major plate boundaries where
earthquakes and volcanoes are concentrated. Most of the geothermal activity in the world occurs
in an area called the Ring of Fire. This area rims the Pacific Ocean. When magma comes close to
the surface it heats ground water found trapped in porous rock or water running along fractured
rock surfaces and faults. Such hydrothermal resources have two common ingredients: water
(hydro) and heat (thermal). Naturally occurring large areas of hydrothermal resources are called
geothermal reservoirs. Geologists use different methods to look for geothermal reservoirs. Drilling
a well and testing the temperature deep underground is the only way to be sure a geothermal
reservoir really exists.Most of the geothermal reservoirs in the United States are located in the
western states,Alaska, and Hawaii. California is the state that generates the most electricity from
geothermal energy. The Geysers dry steam reservoir in northern California is the largest known
dry steam field in the world. The field has been producing electricity since 1960.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Geo Thermal Energy:
Advantages:
 Geothermal energy is renewable energy source. Geothermal energy is renewable energy

source because earth’s heat is being constantly replenished by the radioactive decay of
minerals at a rate of 30 TW.
 Geothermal energy is clean source of energy because geothermal power plants are
connected with minimum carbon emissions, with most of them are equipped with
emission-control systems to reduce the exhaust of greenhouse gases carried by drawn
fluids.
 Geothermal energy belongs to energy sources that can be directly used. Hot springs have
been used for bathing since ancient times and in modern times geothermal energy is
directly used to heat homes via geothermal heat pumps.
 Geothermal energy is reliable source of energy that does not suffer from intermittency
issue like this is the case with some other renewable energy sources, most notably solar
and wind. Geothermal heat is available 24-7 and is therefore one of the most reliable
renewable energy sources, a one that does not require energy storage solution in order to
work reliably.
 Geothermal power plants have minimal land and freshwater requirements unlike for
instance solar energy which needs large area and plenty of water for cooling. Geothermal
plants use only 3.5 square kilometers (1.4 sq mi) per gigawatt of electrical production and
require just 20 liters of freshwater per MW/h.
Disadvantages:
 The biggest disadvantage of geothermal energy are high upfront costs, most of which refer
to exploitation and drilling. Geothermal power plant construction and well drilling
currently cost about €2-5 million per generated MW of electricity.
 Small number of countries that currently harness geothermal energy. Geothermal energy
is currently being harnessed in only 24 countries of the world. The main reason why there
aren't more countries involved is because geothermal power plants are currently cost-
effective only in areas near tectonic plate boundaries though the recent technological
advances such as EGS (enhanced geothermal systems) should significantly expand the
range of viable geothermal resources in years to come.
 The lack of qualified personnel needed to install geothermal systems. Geothermal energy
use isn't widely spread or as popular as this is the case with solar and wind, which means
that there is less qualified personnel available to hire and they also cost more.
 Local depletion of geothermal resources. This has been the case in several well known
geothermal sites such as Geysers. In order to avoid local depletion of geothermal resources
extraction of geothermal energy must be closely monitored.
 Enhanced geothermal systems can trigger earthquakes therefore severely affecting land
stability if not done carefully.
Uses of Geo thermal energy: Application of geothermal energy is to use the earth's
temperatures near the surface, while others require drilling miles into the earth. The three main
uses of geothermal energy are:
1. Direct Use Heat Systems: The direct use of hot water as an energy source has been happening
from the ancient times like hot springs which are said to be mineral rich waters having natural
healing powers. The most common use direct use of geothermal energy is for heating building
through DISTRICT HEATING SYSTEM in which hot water near the earth surface can be piped into
buildings and industries for heat.
2. Industrial uses: Dying of cloth, Washing wool, and piping under sidewalks to keep from
freezing, manufacturing paper, Greenhouses, Spas Aquaculture: Fish, Shrimp, Abalone, and
Alligators.
3. Electricity Generation: In a power plant requires water or steam at very high temperature (300
to 700 Fahrenheit). Geothermal power plants are generally built where geothermal reservoirs are
located .A geothermal power station can provide a large amount of electricity
Geothermal Wells:A geothermal production well produces fluid heated by the natural heat of
the earth. Geothermal fluids may be steam or hot water and in California have total dissolved
solid concentrations of up to 250,000 parts per million (about seven times above sea water). Very
hot geothermal fluids may be used for electrical power generation. Cooler (but still quite hot)
geothermal fluids are used for projects such as space heating, aquaculture, snow melting, food
processing, dehydration, and hot tubs and spas.
Harnessing Geothermal Energy
As society becomes more and more interested in the use of clean and renewable energy
sources, convenient and affordable options are starting to surface. Clean, renewable sources come
in many forms, through solar power, wind power, and even geothermal power. Geothermal power
is a natural source that initially came from the origination of the earth. There are other
contributing factors to the inner earth’s power, such as the shifting of tectonic plates, the decay of
radioactive minerals and elements, as well as the energy generated from solar rays continuously
striking the earth’s crust. It is important to differentiate between geothermal energy and thermal
energy. Geothermal energy is power that is generated within the earth, while thermal energy is
generated through the heating and acceleration of molecules.Geothermal energy can be harnessed
in many ways. The most popular are geothermal heat pumps, geothermal hot water, and
geothermal hot dry rock. All of these things can be harnessed with the use of geothermal plants.
The plants themselves, though, are not necessarily cost efficient yet. The plants themselves emit
some pollution. Any drilling that is done can release noxious gases such as carbon dioxide and
greenhouse gases. This is a contributing factor to the diminishing atmosphere as well as to acid
rains.
While geothermal energy is not 100 percent clean, it is 100 percent renewable. The release of
some greenhouse gases is still less than those emitted through the burning of fossil fuels, which
are not renewable and extremely harsh on the environment. Many geothermal power plants do use
extra processes to minimize the emission of pollutants. It has also been theorized that any toxic
fluids emitted during the process of harnessing geothermal energy can be injected back into the
earth’s core, so they will not come in contact with the atmosphere. Geothermal hot water (hot
springs are considered to be geothermal hot water) can be found underground and can be used
many ways. It can be pumped directly into an application for hot water or it can be used to heat
buildings, grow greenhouse plants, fish farming, and pasteurizing. For instance, water issued
from hot springs is heated by the geothermal heat from the interior of the earth. The temperature
of the earth’s rocks increase with depth (known as a geothermal gradient.) If water reaches into
the crust it comes in contact with these very hot rocks. The water from hot springs in non-
volcanic areas is heated in this manner. Geothermal hot dry rock can also be used to generate
electricity. Cracks and pores in the rock release geothermal energy which can be captured. If the
rate of geothermal energy released is not sufficient for power generation, high-pressure cold water
is pumped into the rock. The water captures the heat of the rock until it is forced out of the
ground in the form of hot water. The water is then converted into electricity with either a steam
turbine or a binary power plant system. While geothermal energy itself is renewable, geothermal
sites are not necessarily. An overworked site, or one with an excessively large energy plant, can
quickly be depleted. Geothermal power sites also need to be actively managed to minimize the
release of greenhouse gases and toxic elements so as to limit the impact to the surrounding
environment.
Potential in India:It has been estimated from geological, geochemical, shallow geophysical and
shallow drilling data it is estimated that India has about 10,000 MWe of geothermal power
potential that can be harnessed for various purposes. Rocks covered on the surface of India
ranging in age from more than 4500 million years to the present day and distributed in different
geographical units. The rocks comprise of Archean, Proterozoic, the marine and continental
Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, Teritary, Quaternary etc., More than 300 hot spring locations have been
identified by Geological survey of India (Thussu, 2000). The surface temperature of the hot springs
ranges from 35 C to as much as 98 C. These hot springs have been grouped together and termed
as different geothermal provinces based on their occurrence in specific geotectonic regions,
geological and strutural regions such as occurrence in orogenic belt regions, structural grabens,
deep fault zones, active volcanic regions etc., Different orogenic regions are – Himalayan
geothermal province, Naga-Lushai geothermal province, Andaman-Nicobar Islands geothermal
province and non-orogenic regions are – Cambay graben, Son-Narmada-Tapi graben, west coast,
Damodar valley, Mahanadi valley, Godavari valley etc.
 Puga Valley (J&K)

 Tatapani (Chhattisgarh)
 Godavari Basin Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh)
 Bakreshwar (West Bengal)
 Tuwa (Gujarat)
 Unai (Maharashtra)
 Jalgaon (Maharashtra)

TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS

There are four basic types of ground loop systems. Three of these -- horizontal, vertical, and
pond/lake -- are closed-loop systems. The fourth type of system is the open-loop option. Which
one of these is best depends on the climate, soil conditions, available land, and local installation
costs at the site. All of these approaches can be used for residential and commercial building
applications.
CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS
Most closed-loop geothermal heat pumps circulate an antifreeze solution through a closed loop --
usually made of plastic tubing -- that is buried in the ground or submerged in water. A heat
exchanger transfers heat between the refrigerant in the heat pump and the antifreeze solution in
the closed loop. The loop can be in a horizontal, vertical, or pond/lake configuration.One variant
of this approach, called direct exchange, does not use a heat exchanger and instead pumps the
refrigerant through copper tubing that is buried in the ground in a horizontal or vertical
configuration. Direct exchange systems require a larger compressor and work best in moist soils
(sometimes requiring additional irrigation to keep the soil moist), but you should avoid installing
in soils corrosive to the copper tubing. Because these systems circulate refrigerant through the
ground, local environmental regulations may prohibit their use in some locations.
HORIZONTAL
This type of installation is generally most cost-effective for residential installations, particularly for
new construction where sufficient land is available. It requires trenches at least four feet deep.
The most common layouts either use two pipes, one buried at six feet, and the other at four feet,
or two pipes placed side-by-side at five feet in the ground in a two-foot wide trench. The Slinky™
method of looping pipe allows more pipe in a shorter trench, which cuts down on installation costs
and makes horizontal installation possible in areas it would not be with conventional horizontal
applications.
VERTICAL
Large commercial buildings and schools often use vertical systems because the land area required
for horizontal loops would be prohibitive. Vertical loops are also used where the soil is too shallow
for trenching, and they minimize the disturbance to existing landscaping. For a vertical system,
holes (approximately four inches in diameter) are drilled about 20 feet apart and 100 to 400 feet
deep. Into these holes go two pipes that are connected at the bottom with a U-bend to form a loop.
The vertical loops are connected with horizontal pipe (i.e., manifold), placed in trenches, and
connected to the heat pump in the building.
POND/LAKE
If the site has an adequate water body, this may be the lowest cost option. A supply line pipe is
run underground from the building to the water and coiled into circles at least eight feet under the
surface to prevent freezing. The coils should only be placed in a water source that meets minimum
volume, depth, and quality criteria.
OPEN-LOOP SYSTEM
This type of system uses well or surface body water as the heat exchange fluid that circulates
directly through the GHP system. Once it has circulated through the system, the water returns to
the ground through the well, a recharge well, or surface discharge. This option is obviously
practical only where there is an adequate supply of relatively clean water, and all local codes and
regulations regarding groundwater discharge are met.
HYBRID SYSTEMS
Hybrid systems using several different geothermal resources, or a combination of a geothermal
resource with outdoor air (i.e., a cooling tower), are another technology option. Hybrid approaches
are particularly effective where cooling needs are significantly larger than heating needs. Where
local geology permits, the "standing column well" is another option. In this variation of an open-
loop system, one or more deep vertical wells is drilled. Water is drawn from the bottom of a
standing column and returned to the top. During periods of peak heating and cooling, the system
can bleed a portion of the return water rather than reinjection it all, causing water inflow to the
column from the surrounding aquifer. The bleed cycle cools the column during heat rejection,
heats it during heat extraction, and reduces the required bore depth.
Types of Geo thermal Power Plants:
Dry Steam Power Plants:
Steam plants use hydrothermal fluids that are primarily steam. The steam goes directly to a
turbine, which drives a generator that produces electricity. The steam eliminates the need to burn
fossil fuels to run the turbine. (Also eliminating the need to transport and store fuels!)
This is the oldest type of geothermal power plant. It was first used at Lardarello in Italy in 1904.
Steam technology is used today at The Geysers in northern California, the world's largest single
source of geothermal electricity. These plants emit only excess steam and very minor amounts of
gases.
2.Flash and Double Flash Cycle

Hydrothermal fluids above 360°F (182°C) can be used in flash plants to make electricity.
Fluid is sprayed into a tank held at a much lower pressure than the fluid, causing some of the
fluid to rapidly vaporize, or "flash." The vapor then drives a turbine, which drives a generator.
If any liquid remains in the tank, it can be flashed again in a second tank (double flash) to extract
even more energy.
3.Binary Cycle power Plant
Most geothermal areas contain moderate-temperature water (below 400°F). Energy is extracted
from these fluids in binary-cycle power plants. Hot geothermal fluid and a secondary (hence,
"binary") fluid with a much lower boiling point than water pass through a heat exchanger. Heat
from the geothermal fluid causes the secondary fluid to flash to vapor, which then drives the
turbines.Because this is a closed-loop system, virtually nothing is emitted to the atmosphere.
Moderate-temperature water is by far the more common geothermal resource, and most
geothermal power plants in the future will be binary-cycle plants.
Biomass
Biomass Energy
The term "biomass" refers to organic matter that has stored energy through
the process of photosynthesis. It exists in one form as plants and may be
transferred through the food chain to animals' bodies and their wastes, all of
which can be converted for everyday human use through processes such as
combustion, which releases the carbon dioxide stored in the plant material.
Many of the biomass fuels used today come in the form of wood products,
dried vegetation, crop residues, and aquatic plants. Biomass has become
one of the most commonly used renewable sources of energy in the last two
decades, second only to hydropower in the generation of electricity. It is
such a widely utilized source of energy, probably due to its low cost and
indigenous nature, that it accounts for almost 15% of the world's total
energy supply and as much as 35% in developing countries, mostly for
cooking and heating.
Biomass is one of the most plentiful and well-utilised sources of renewable

energy in the world. Broadly speaking, it is organic material produced by the
photosynthesis of light. The chemical material (organic compounds of
carbons) is stored and can then be used to generate energy. The most
common biomass used for energy is wood from trees. Wood has been used
by humans for producing energy for heating and cooking for a very long
time.
Biomass has been converted by partial-pyrolisis to charcoal for thousands of

years. Charcoal, in turn has been used for forging metals and for light
industry for millennia. Both wood and charcoal formed part of the backbone
of the early Industrial Revolution (much northern England, Scotland and
Ireland were deforested to produce charcoal) prior to the discovery of coal for
energy.
Wood is still used extensively for energy in both household situations, and
in industry, particularly in the timber, paper and pulp and other forestry-
related industries. Woody biomass accounts for over 10% of the primary
energy consumed in Austria, and it accounts for much more of the primary
energy consumed in most of the developing world, primarily for cooking and
space heating.
It is used to raise steam, which, in turn, is used as a by-product to generate

electricity. Considerable research and development work is currently
underway to develop smaller gasifiers that would produce electricity on a
small-scale. For the moment, however, biomass is used for off-grid electricity
generation, but almost exclusively on a large-, industrial-scale.
For the production of energy from biomass, the term feedstock is used to
refer to whatever type of organic material will be used to produce a form of
energy. The feedstock must then be converted to a usable energy form
through one of many processes.
Feedstock + Process -> Usable Energy Form
Some common biomass conversion processes include:
• Combustion: the process by which flammable materials are burned in

the presence of air or oxygen to release heat. It is the simplest method by
which biomass can be used for energy. In its rudimentary form, combustion
is used for space heating (i.e. a fire for warmth) but can also be used to heat
steam for electricity generation.
• Gasification: is the conversion of biomass into a combustible gas

mixture referred to as Producer Gas (CO+H2+CH4) or Syngas. The
gasification process uses heat, pressure and partial combustion to create
syngas, which can then be used in place of natural gas.
• Pyrolysis: Consists of thermal decomposition in the absence of

oxygen. It is the precursor to gasification, and takes place as part of both
gasification and combustion [3]. The products of pyrolysis include gas, liquid
and a sold char, with the proportions of each depending upon the
parameters of the process.
• Anaerobic digestion (or bio digestion): is the process whereby

bacteria break down organic material in the absence of air, yielding a biogas
containing methane and a solid residue. The methane can then be captured
to produce energy. Similarly, the solid residue can also be burned to
produce energy.
• Fermentation: involves the conversion of a plant’s glucose (or

carbohydrate) into an alcohol or acid. Yeast or bacteria are added to the
biomass material, which feed on the sugars to produce ethanol (an alcohol)
and carbon dioxide. The ethanol is distilled and dehydrated to obtain a
higher concentration of alcohol to achieve the required purity for the use as
automotive fuel. The solid residue from the fermentation process can be
used as cattle-feed and in the case of sugar cane can be used as a fuel for
boilers or for subsequent gasification.
Some feedstocks are more conducive for certain biomass conversion

processes than others. The determination of which feedstocks and processes
will be used is determined largely by the availability of resources and the
desired end form of energy.
Types of Biomass Fuels
Biomass fuels are organic materials produced in a renewable manner. Two
categories of biomass fuels, woody fuels and animal wastes, comprise the
vast majority of available biomass fuels. Municipal solid waste (MSW) is also
a source of biomass fuel. Biomass fuels have low energy densities compared
to fossil fuels. In other words, a significantly larger volume of biomass fuel is
required to generate the same energy as a smaller volume of fossil fuel.
The low energy density means that the costs of fuel collection and
transportation can quickly outweigh the value of the fuel. Biomass fuels are
typically consumed on-site or transported short distances only (e.g., less
than 50 miles). Biomass fuels tend to have a high moisture content, which
adds weight and increases the cost of transportation. The moisture content
also decreases combustion performance.
There are two primary factors to be considered in the evaluation of biomass

fuels: Fuel supply, including the total quantities available, the stability of
the supply or of the industry generating the fuel, and competitive uses or
markets for the fuel. Cost of biomass fuel collection, processing, and
transportation, and who pays these costs.
This section discusses three sources of biomass fuel: woody fuels, animal
waste, and MSW. These discussions include the issues of fuel supply and
costs. These fuels are summarized, along with their respective benefits and
barriers, in Table 2 at the end of this section.
1. Woody Fuels
Wood wastes of all types make excellent biomass fuels and can be used in a
wide variety of biomass technologies. Combustion of woody fuels to generate
steam or electricity is a proven technology and is the most common
biomass-to-energy process. Different types of woody fuels can typically be
mixed together as a common fuel, although differing moisture content and
chemical makeup can affect the overall conversion rate or efficiency of a
biomass project. There are at least six subgroups of woody fuels. The
differentiators between these subgroups mainly have to do with availability
and cost. Forestry residues—in-forest woody debris and slash from logging
and forest management activities. Mill residues—by-products such as
sawdust, hog fuel, and wood chips from lumber mills, plywood
manufacturing, and other wood processing facilities. Agricultural residues—
by-products of agricultural activities including crop wastes, vineyard and
orchard pruning’s or turnings, and rejected agricultural products. Urban
wood and yard wastes—residential organics collected by municipal
programs or recycling centres and construction wood wastes. Dedicated
biomass crops—trees, corn, oilseed rape, and other crops grown as
dedicated feedstocks for a biomass project. Chemical recovery fuels (black
liquor)—woody residues recovered out of the chemicals used to separate
fiber for the pulp and paper industry.
2. Forestry Residues
Forestry residues have been the focus of many recent biomass studies and
feasibility assessments due to increasing forest management and wildfire
prevention activities under the National Fire Plan. The USDA Forest Service
and the Bureau of Land Management have been tasked with reducing the
hazardous fuel loading within the forests and the urban-wild land interface.
Forestry residues are typically disposed of by on-site (in-forest) stacking and

burning. This results in substantial air emissions that affect not only the
forest lands and nearby populations, but the overall regional air quality as
well. Open burning can also cause water quality and erosion concerns. The
Forest Service and other public and private land management entities would
like to have viable alternatives for disposing of their forestry residues in a
more environmentally benign manner.
3. Mill Residues
Mill residues are a much more economically attractive fuel than forestry
residues, since the in-forest collection and chipping are already included as
part of the commercial mill operations. Biomass facilities collocated with
and integral to the mill operation have the advantage of eliminating
transportation altogether and thus truly achieve a no-cost fuel. Mill residues
have long been used to generate steam and electricity.
4. Agricultural Residues
Agricultural residues can provide a substantial amount of biomass fuel.

Similar to the way mill residues provide a significant portion of the overall
biomass consumption in the Pacific Northwest, agricultural residues from
sugar cane harvesting and processing provide a significant portion of the
total biomass consumption in other parts of the world. One significant issue
with agricultural residues is the seasonal variation of the supply.
Large residue volumes follow harvests, but residues throughout the rest of
the year are minimal. Biomass facilities that depend significantly on
agricultural residues must either be able to adjust output to follow the
seasonal variation, or have the capacity to stockpile a significant amount of
fuel.
5. Urban Wood and Yard Wastes
Urban wood and yard wastes are similar in nature to agricultural residues
in many regards. A biomass facility will rarely need to purchase urban wood
and yard wastes, and most likely can charge a tipping fee to accept the fuel.
Many landfills are already sorting waste material by isolating wood waste.
This waste could be diverted to a biomass project, and although the volume
currently accepted at the landfills would not be enough on its own to fuel a
biomass project, it could be an important supplemental fuel and could
provide more value to the community in which the landfill resides through a
biomass project than it currently does as daily landfill cover.
6. Dedicated Biomass Crops
Dedicated biomass crops are grown specifically to fuel a biomass project.

The most prevalent example of dedicated biomass crops are corn varieties
grown for ethanol production. Fast-growing poplar trees have also been
farm-raised for a biomass fuel, but this has not proven to be economically
sustainable. Another dedicated crop example is soybean oils used in the
production of biodiesel.
7. Chemical Recovery Fuels
Chemical recovery fuels are responsible for over 60 percent of the total
biomass energy consumption of the United States, and therefore must be
mentioned in any analysis of biomass. By and large, the chemical recovery
facilities are owned by pulp and paper facilities and are an integral part of
the facility operation.
8. Animal Wastes
Animal wastes include manures, renderings, and other wastes from

livestock finishing operations. Although animal wastes contain energy, the
primary motivation for biomass processing of animal wastes is mitigation of
a disposal issue rather than generation of energy. This is especially true for
animal manures. Animal manures are typically disposed of through land
application to farmlands. Tightening regulations on nutrient management,
surface and groundwater contamination, and odour control are beginning to
force new manure management and disposal practices. Biomass
technologies present attractive options for mitigating many of the
environmental challenges of manure wastes. The most common biomass
technologies for animal manures are combustion, anaerobic digestion, and
composting. Moisture content of the manure and the amount of
contaminants, such as bedding, determine which technology is most
appropriate.
9. Dry Animal Manure
Dry animal manure is produced by feedlots and livestock corrals, where the
manure is collected and removed only once or twice a year. Manure that is
scraped or flushed on a more frequent schedule can also be separated,
stacked, and allowed to dry. Dry manure is typically defined as having
moisture content less than 30 percent. Dry manure can be composted or
can fuel a biomass-to-energy combustion project.
Animal manure does have value to farmers as fertilizer, and a biomass-to-

energy project would need to compete for the manure. However, the total
volume of manure produced in many livestock operations exceeds the
amount of fertilizer required for the farmlands, and Nutrient Management
Plans are beginning to limit the over-fertilization of farmlands. Therefore,
although there are competitive uses for the manure and low-cost disposal
options at this time, manure disposal is going to become more costly over
time, and the demand for alternative disposal options, including biomass-to-
energy, will only increase.
10. Wet Animal Manure (Dairy Manure Slurry)
Wet animal manure is typically associated with larger and more modern
dairy operations that house their milking cows in free-stall barns and use a
flush system for manure collection. The combination of free-stall barns and
manure flushing collects all of the milking cow manure with every milking
cycle, two or three times a day. The manure is significantly diluted through
the addition of the flush water, but after separation of some of the flush
water, the slurry is an excellent fuel.
Biomass Pyrolysis
Biomass pyrolysis is
the thermal
decomposition of
biomass occurring in
the absence of
oxygen. It is the
fundamental
chemical reaction
that is the precursor
of both the
combustion and
gasification processes
and occurs naturally in the first two seconds. The products of biomass
pyrolysis include biochar, bio-oil and gases including methane, hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide.
The pyrolysis process consists of both simultaneous and successive

reactions when organic material is heated in a non-reactive atmosphere.
Thermal decomposition of organic components in biomass starts at 350 °C–
550 °C and goes up to 700 °C–800 °C in the absence of air/oxygen. The long
chains of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen compounds in biomass break down
into smaller molecules in the form of gases, condensable vapours (tars and
oils) and solid charcoal under pyrolysis conditions. Rate and extent of
decomposition of each of these components depends on the process
parameters of the reactor temperature, biomass heating rate, pressure,
reactor configuration, feedstock etc
Depending on the thermal environment and the final temperature, pyrolysis

will yield mainly biochar at low temperatures, less than 450 0C, when the
heating rate is quite slow, and mainly gases at high temperatures, greater
than 800 0C, with rapid heating rates. At an intermediate temperature and
under relatively high heating rates, the main product is bio-oil.
Slow and Fast Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis processes can be categorized as slow or fast. Slow pyrolysis takes
several hours to complete and results in biochar as the main product. On
the other hand, fast pyrolysis yields 60% bio-oil and takes seconds for
complete pyrolysis. In addition, it gives 20% biochar and 20% syngas. Fast
pyrolysis is currently the most widely used pyrolysis system.
The essential features of a fast pyrolysis process are:
 Very high heating and heat transfer rates, which require a finely ground
feed.
 Carefully controlled reaction temperature of around 500oC in the vapour
phase
 Residence time of pyrolysis vapours in the reactor less than 1 sec
 Quenching (rapid cooling) of the pyrolysis vapours to give the bio-oil
product.
Advantages of Biomass Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis can be performed at relatively small scale and at remote locations
which enhance energy density of the biomass resource and reduce transport
and handling costs. Heat transfer is a critical area in pyrolysis as the
pyrolysis process is endothermic and sufficient heat transfer surface has to
be provided to meet process heat needs. Biomass pyrolysis offers a flexible
and attractive way of converting organic matter into energy products which
can be successfully used for the production of heat, power and chemicals.
A wide range of biomass feedstocks can be used in pyrolysis processes. The

pyrolysis process is very dependent on the moisture content of the
feedstock, which should be around 10%. At higher moisture contents, high
levels of water are produced and at lower levels there is a risk that the
process only produces dust instead of oil. High-moisture waste streams,
such as sludge and meat processing wastes, require drying before subjecting
to pyrolysis.
Biomass pyrolysis has been garnering much attention due to its high
efficiency and good environmental performance characteristics. It also
provides an opportunity for the processing of agricultural residues, wood
wastes and municipal solid waste into clean energy. In addition, biochar
sequestration could make a big difference in the fossil fuel emissions
worldwide and act as a major player in the global carbon market with its
robust, clean and simple production technology.
Biomass Combustion Technologies

Direct combustion is the best established and most commonly used
technology for converting biomass to heat. During combustion, biomass fuel
is burnt in excess air to produce heat. The first stage of combustion involves
the evolution of combustible vapours from the biomass, which burn as
flames. The residual material, in the form of charcoal, is burnt in a forced
air supply to give more heat. The hot combustion gases are sometimes used
directly for product drying, but more usually they are passed through a heat
exchanger to produce hot air, hot water or steam.
The combustion efficiency depends primarily on good contact between the

oxygen in the air and the biomass fuel. The main products of efficient
biomass combustion are carbon dioxide and water vapor, however tars,
smoke and alkaline ash particles are also emitted. Minimization of these
emissions and accommodation of their possible effects are important
concerns in the design of environmentally acceptable biomass combustion
systems.
Underfeed Stokers Biomass is fed into the combustion zone from
underneath a firing grate. These stoker designs are only suitable for small
scale systems up to a nominal boiler capacity of 6 MWth and for biomass
fuels with low ash content, such as wood chips and sawdust. High ash
content fuels such as bark, straw and cereals need more efficient ash
removal systems. Sintered or molten ash particles covering the upper
surface of the fuel bed can cause problems in underfeed stokers due to
unstable combustion conditions when the fuel and the air are breaking
through the ash covered surface.
Grate Stokers The most common type of biomass boiler is based on a

grate to support a bed of fuel and to mix a controlled amount of
combustion air, which often enters from beneath the grate. Biomass fuel
is added at one end of the grate and is burned in a fuel bed which moves
progressively down the grate, either via gravity or with mechanical
assistance, to an ash removal system at the other end. In more
sophisticated designs this allows the overall combustion process to be
separated into its three main activities:
 Initial fuel drying
 Ignition and combustion of volatile constituents
 Burning out of the char.
Grate stokers are well proven and reliable and can tolerate wide variations
in fuel quality (i.e. variations in moisture content and particle size) as well
as fuels with high ash content. They are also controllable and efficient.
Fluidized Bed Boilers The basis for a fluidized bed combustion system is
a bed of an inert mineral such as sand or limestone through which air is
blown from below. The air is pumped through the bed in sufficient volume
and at a high enough pressure to entrain the small particles of the bed
material so that they behave much like a fluid. The combustion chamber
of a fluidized bed plant is shaped so that above a certain height the air
velocity drops below that necessary to entrain the particles. This helps
retain the bulk of the entrained bed material towards the bottom of the
chamber. Once the bed becomes hot, combustible material introduced
into it will burn, generating heat as in a more conventional furnace. The
proportion of combustible material such as biomass within the bed is
normally only around 5%. The primary driving force for development of
fluidized bed combustion is reduced SO2 and NOx emissions from coal
combustion.
Bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) combustors are of interest for plants with a
nominal boiler capacity greater than 10 MWth. Circulating fluidized bed
(CFB) combustors are more suitable for plants larger than 30 MWth. The
minimum plant size below which CFB and BFB technologies are not
economically competitive is considered to be around 5-10 MWe.
BIOGAS:
Biogas is methane produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of
organic material by anaerobes. It can be produced either from
biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy crops fed into
anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields. The solid byproduct,
digestate, can be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer. Engineered to
produce butanol by hijacking their amino acid metabolism. Biogas can
be recovered from mechanical biological treatment waste processing
systems. Note: Landfill gas, a less clean form of biogas, is produced in
landfills through naturally occurring anaerobic digestion. If it escapes
into the atmosphere, it is a potential greenhouse gas. Farmers can
produce biogas from manure from their cattle by using anaerobic
digesters
Factors affecting Biogas production:

1. Substrate temperature 2. pH level 3. Mixing Ratio 4. Loading Rate
5. Hydraulic Retention time 6. Nitrogen inhibition 7. C/N ratio 8.
Agitation 9. Toxicity 10. Solid concentration 11. Seeding 12. Metal
Cations 13. Particle size 14. Additives 15. Heating
Benefits Of Biogas Technology:
 Production of energy.
 Transformation of organic wastes to very high quality fertilizer.
 Improvement of hygienic conditions through reduction of
pathogens.
 Environmental advantages through protection of soil, water, air
etc. Micro-economical benefits by energy and fertilizer
substitutes. Macro-economical benefits through decentralizes
energy generation and environmental protection.
Main types of simple biogas plants:
 balloon plants,
 fixed-dome plants,
 floating-drum plants
Balloon Plants:
A balloon plant consists of a plastic or rubber digester bag, in the

upper part of which the gas is stored. The inlet and outlet are attached
direct to the skin of the balloon. When the gas space is full,the plant
works like a fixed-dome plant - i.e., the balloon is not inflated; it is not
very elastic. The fermentation slurry is agitated slightly by the
movement of the balloon skin. This is favorable to the digestion
process. Even difficult feed materials, such as water hyacinths, can be
used in a balloon plant. The balloon material must be UV-resistant.
Materials which have been used successfully include RMP (red mud
plastic), Trevira and buty.
Advantages:
Low cost, ease of transportation, low construction (important if the

water table is high), high digester temperatures, uncomplicated
cleaning, emptying and maintenance.
Disadvantages:
Short life (about five years), easily damaged, and does not create
employment locally, little scope for self-help. Balloon plants can be
recommended wherever the balloon skin is not likely to be damaged
and where the temperature is even and high. One variant of the balloon
plant is the channel-type digester with folia and sunshade.
FLOATING GAS HOLDER TYPE BIOGAS PLANT
The floating gas holder type bio gas plant consists of a dome shaped
gas holder made of steel for collecting bio gas. The dome shaped gas holder
is not fixed but is moveable and floats over the slurry present in the digester
tank. Due to this reason, this biogas plant is called floating gas holder type
biogas plant.
Slurry is prepared by mixing water in cattle dung in equal proportion in

mixing tank. The slurry is then injected into a digester tank with the help of
inlet pipe. The digester tank is a closed underground tank made up of
bricks. Inside the digester tank, the complex carbon compounds present in
the cattle dung breaks into simpler substances by the action of anaerobic
microorganisms in the presence of water. This anaerobic decomposition of
complex carbon compounds present in cattle dung produces bio gas and
gets completed in about 60 days. The bio gas so produced starts to collect in
floating gas holder and is supplied to homes through pipes. And the spent
slurry is replaced from time to time with fresh slurry to continue the
production of bio gas.
FIXED DOME TYPE BIOGAS PLANT

The fixed dome type bio gas plant consists of a closed underground digester
tank made up of bricks which has a dome shaped roof also made up of
bricks. This dome shape roof of the digester tank functions as gas holder
and has an outlet pipe at the top to supply gas to homes.
Slurry is prepared by mixing water in cattle dung in equal proportion in

mixing tank. The slurry is then sent into the digester tank with the help of
inlet chamber. It should be noted that slurry is fed into the digester tank up
to the point where the dome of the roof starts. Inside the digester tank, the
complex carbon compounds present in the cattle dung breaks into simpler
substances by the action of anaerobic microorganisms in the presence of
water. This anaerobic decomposition of complex carbon compounds present
in cattle dung produces bio gas and gets completed in about 60 days. The
bio gas so produced starts to collect in dome shaped roof of bio gas plant
and is supplied to homes through pipes. The spent slurry is replaced from
time to time with fresh slurry to continue the production of bio gas.
Size and Site Selection for Biogas plant
Sizing of biogas plant follows based on three parameters namely

 Daily feed, Retention time and Digester volume
The biogas plant size is dependent on the average daily feed stock and expected
hydraulic retention time of the material in the biogas system. Capacity of the
plant should be designed based on the availability of raw materials. Capacity
of the plant indicates the quantity of gas produced in a day. Based on the
study, 1 kg of cow dung along with equal quantity of water (1:1) under
anaerobic conditions in a day produces 0.04 m3 or 40 litres of biogas. Based
on the availability of cow dung, the capacity of biogas plant to be constructed
can be calculated as follows
Example
i. 1 cow will yield an average of 10 kg of cow dung in a day. Assume a house is

having 3 cows. Our objective is to calculate the capacity of the plant to be
constructed.
ii. 3 cow x 10 kg/cow/day = 30 kg of cow dung/day 1 kg of cow dung will yield

0.04 m3 or 40 litres of biogas. So 30 kg will produce 30x 40 = 1200 litres or 1.2
m3 of gas in a day. So the capacity of the plant to be constructed will be 1 m3.
Example
To produced 1 m3 of gas in a day, quantity of cow dung required can be calculated

as
1 m3/ (0.04 m3/kg of cow dung) = 25 kg of dung.
When a biogas plant is underfed the gas production will be low; in this case, the
pressure of the gas might not be sufficient to fully displace the slurry in the outlet
chamber. If too much material is fed into the digester and the volume of gas is
consumed, the slurry may enter the gas pipe and to the appliances.
Table shows the quantity of cow dung required for different plant capacities.
Plant Size Daily dung Quantity of water

(m3) required/day (kg) required (litres)
1 25 25
2 50 50
3 75 75
4 100 100
6 150 150
8 200 200
10 250 250
Scaling of the digester
The size of the digester i.e. the digester volume is determined by the length of
the retention time and by the amount of fermentation slurry supplied daily.
The amount of fermentation slurry consists of the feed material (e.g., cattle
dung) and the mixing water. Example
25 kg of cow dung + 25 l water = 50 l fermentation slurry The digester volume

is calculated by the formula
Digester volume (l) = Daily feed (l/day) x Retention time (days)
Assuming the Retention time to be 40 days, then the digester volume can be
calculated by
Digester volume = 50 (l/day) x 40 (days) = 2000 l or 2 m3
Selection of construction site
Selection of construction sites are mainly governed by the following factors:
 The site should facilitate easy construction works.
 The selected site should be such that the construction cost is minimized
 The selected site should ensure easy operation and maintenance activities like
feeding of plant, use of main gas valve, composing and use of slurry, checking
of gas leakage, draining condensed water from pipeline etc.
 The site should guarantee plant safety.
 To make plant easier to operate and avoid wastage of raw materials, especially
the dung/swine manure, plant must be as close as possible to the cattle shed.
 The site should be in slightly higher elevation than the surrounding. This helps
in avoiding water logging. This also ensures free flow of slurry from overflow
outlet to the composting pit.
 For effective functioning of bio-digesters, right temperature (20-35°C) has to be

maintained inside the digester. Therefore it is better to avoid damp and cool
place
– Sunny site is preferable.
 To mix dung and water or flush swine manure to the digester, considerable
quantity of water is required. If water source is far, the burden of fetching
water becomes more.
 The well or ground water source should be at least 10 meter away from the
biodigester especially the slurry pit to avoid the ground water pollution.
 If longer gas pipe is used the cost will be increased as the conveyance system
becomes costly. Furthermore, longer pipeline increases the risk of gas leakage.
The main gas valve which is fitted just above the gas holder should be opened
and closed before and after the use of biogas. Therefore the plant should be as
near to the point of application as possible.
 The site should be at sufficient distance from trees to avoid damage of bio-
digester from roots.
 Type of soil should have enough bearing capacity to avoid the possibility of
sinking of structure.
Location of biogas plant
A biogas plant should not be

located further than 5 meters
from the field. The digester
chamber must be in an open
area and should not be near
any water source or natural
water as animal excrement
may seep into underground
water. The plant should also be situated on a slope and not on the low land to
avoid the danger of floods. The excess manure from expansion chamber should
flow into the farmer’s field or the storage tank and not into natural water
bodies such as rivers to avoid the risk of pollution
Fuel cells:
Fuel cell, any of a class of devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel directly
into electricity by electrochemical reactions. A fuel cell resembles a battery in many
respects, but it can supply electrical energy over a much longer period of time. This
is because a fuel cell is continuously supplied with fuel and air (or oxygen) from an
external source, whereas a battery contains only a limited amount of fuel material
and oxidant that are depleted with use. For this reason fuel cells have been used for
decades in space probes, satellites, and manned spacecraft. Around the world
thousands of stationary fuel cell systems have been installed in utility power plants,
hospitals, schools, hotels, and office buildings for both primary and backup power;
many waste-treatment plants use fuel cell technology to generate power from the
methane gas produced by decomposing garbage. Numerous municipalities in Japan,
Europe, and the United States lease fuel cell vehicles for public transportation and
for use by service personnel. Personal fuel cell vehicles were first sold in Germany in
2004.
The United States government and several state governments, most notably
California, have launched programs to encourage the development and use
of hydrogen fuel cells in transportation and other applications. While the technology
has proven to be workable, efforts to make it commercially competitive have been
less successful because of concern with the explosive power of hydrogen, the
relatively low energy density of hydrogen, and the high cost of
platinum catalysts used to create an electric current by separating electrons from
hydrogen atoms.
Principles Of Operation :From chemical energy to electrical energy
A fuel cell (actually a group of cells) has essentially the same kinds of components
as a battery. As in the latter, each cell of a fuel cell system has a matching pair of
electrodes. These are the anode, which supplies electrons, and the cathode, which
absorbs electrons. Both electrodes must be immersed in and separated by
an electrolyte, which may be a liquid or a solid but which must in either case
conduct ions between the electrodes in order to complete the chemistry of the
system. A fuel, such as hydrogen, is supplied to the anode, where it is oxidized,
producing hydrogen ions and electrons. An oxidizer, such as oxygen, is supplied to
the cathode, where the hydrogen ions from the anode absorb electrons from the
latter and react with the oxygen to produce water. The difference between the
respective energy levels at the electrodes (electromotive force) is the voltage per unit
cell. The amount of electric current available to the external circuit depends on the
chemical activity and amount of the substances supplied as fuels. The current-
producing process continues for as long as there is a supply of reactants, for the
electrodes and electrolyte of a fuel cell, unlike those in a regular battery, are
designed to remain unchanged by chemical reaction.
A typical fuel cell.
A practical fuel cell is necessarily

a complex system. It must have
features to boost the activity of the
fuel, pumps and blowers, fuel-
storage containers, and a variety
of sophisticated sensors and
controls with which to monitor
and adjust the operation of the
system. The operating capability
and lifetime of each of these
system design features may limit
the performance of the fuel cell.
As in the case of other

electrochemical systems, fuel cell operation is dependent on temperature. The
chemical activity of the fuels and the value of the activity promoters, or catalysts,
are reduced by low temperatures (e.g., 0 °C, or 32 °F). Very high temperatures, on
the other hand, improve the activity factors but may reduce the functioning lifetime
of the electrodes, blowers, construction materials, and sensors. Each type of fuel
cell thus has an operating-temperature design range, and a significant departure
from this range is likely to diminish both capacity and lifetime.
A fuel cell, like a battery, is inherently a high-efficiency device. Unlike internal-
combustion machines, in which a fuel is burned and gas is expanded to do work,
the fuel cell converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy. Because of this
fundamental characteristic, fuel cells may convert fuels to useful energy at an
efficiency as high as 60 percent, whereas the internal-combustion engine is limited
to efficiencies near 40 percent or less. The high efficiency means that much less fuel
and a smaller storage container are needed for a fixed energy requirement. For this
reason, fuel cells are an attractive power supply for space missions of limited
duration and for other situations where fuel is very expensive and difficult to
supply. They also emit no noxious gases such as nitrogen dioxide and produce
virtually no noise during operation, making them contenders for local municipal
power-generation stations.
A fuel cell can be designed to operate reversibly. In other words, a hydrogen-oxygen
cell that produces water as a product can be made to regenerate hydrogen and
oxygen. Such a regenerative fuel cell entails not only a revision of electrode design
but also the introduction of special means for separating the product gases.
Eventually, power modules comprising this type of high-efficiency fuel cell, used in
conjunction with large arrays of thermal collectors for solar heating or other solar
energy systems, may be utilized to keep energy-cycle costs lower in longer-lived
equipment. Major automobile companies and electrical-machinery manufacturing
companies worldwide have announced their intention to produce or use fuel cells
commercially in the next few years.
Types Of Fuel Cells

Various types of fuel cells have been developed. They are generally classified on the
basis of the electrolyte used, because the electrolyte determines the operating
temperature of a system and in part the kind of fuel that can be employed.
Alkaline fuel cells
These are devices that, by definition, have an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide
or potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte. The fuel is almost always hydrogen gas,
with oxygen (or oxygen in air) as the oxidizer. However, zinc or aluminum could be
used as an anode if the by-product oxides were efficiently removed and the metal
fed continuously as a strip or as a powder. Fuel cells generally operate at less than
100 °C (212 °F) and are constructed of metal and certain plastics. Electrodes are
made of carbon and a metal such as nickel. Water, as a reaction product, must be
removed from the system, usually by evaporation from the electrolyte either through
the electrodes or in a separate evaporator. The operating support system presents a
significant design problem. The strong, hot alkaline electrolyte attacks most plastics
and tends to penetrate structural seams and joints. This problem has been
overcome, however, and alkaline fuel cells are used on the U.S. space
shuttle orbiters. Overall efficiencies range from 30 to 80 percent, depending on the
fuel and oxidizer and on the basis for the calculation.
Phosphoric acid fuel cells
Such cells have an orthophosphoric acid electrolyte that allows operation up to
about 200 °C (400 °F). They can use a hydrogen fuel contaminated with carbon
dioxide and an oxidizer of air or oxygen. The electrodes consist of catalyzed carbon
and are arranged in pairs set back-to-back to create a series generation circuit. The
framing structure for this assembly of cells is made of graphite, which markedly
raises the cost. The higher temperature and aggressive hot phosphate create
structural design problems, particularly for joints, supporting pumps, and
sensors. Phosphoric acid fuel cells have been proposed and tested on a limited scale
for local municipal power stations and for remote-site generators.
Molten carbonate fuel cells
Fuel cells of this type operate quite differently from those so far discussed. The fuel
consists of a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide generated from water and
a fossil fuel. The electrolyte is molten potassium lithium carbonate, which requires
an operating temperature of about 650 °C (1,200 °F). Warming up to operational
temperatures may take several hours, making these cells unsuitable for vehicles. In
most cases, the electrodes are metallic-based, and the containment system is made
of metals and special engineering plastics. Such combinations of materials are
anticipated to be relatively inexpensive, perhaps only three times that of the alkaline
fuel cell and less than that of the phosphoric acid variety. The cells combine the
hydrogen and carbon monoxide first with the carbonate electrolyte and then with
oxidizing oxygen to produce a reaction product of water vapour and carbon dioxide.
Molten carbonate fuel cells are expected to be useful in both local and larger power
stations. Efficiencies of 45 percent may be attained where fossil fuels are already
used. Operation at high temperatures creates a design problem for long-lived
system parts and joints, especially if the cells must be heated and cooled frequently.
The toxic fuel and high temperature together make power plant safety an area of
special concern in engineering design and testing as well as in commercial
operation.
Solid oxide fuel cells

In some ways solid oxide fuel cells are similar to molten carbonate devices. Most of
the cell materials, however, are special ceramics with some nickel. The electrolyte is
an ion-conducting oxide such as zirconia treated with yttria. The fuel for these
experimental cells is expected to be hydrogen combined with carbon monoxide, just
as for molten carbonate cells. While internal reactions would be different in terms of
path, the cell products would be water vapour and carbon dioxide. Because of the
high operating temperatures (900 to 1,000 °C, or 1,600 to 1,800 °F),
the electrode reactions proceed very readily. As in the case of the molten carbonate
fuel cell, there are many engineering challenges involved in creating a long-lived
containment system for cells that operate at such a high-temperature range.
Solid oxide fuel cells would be designed for use in central power-generation stations
where temperature variation could be controlled efficiently and where fossil fuels
would be available. The system would in most cases be associated with the so-called
bottoming steam (turbine) cycle—i.e., the hot gas product (at 1,000 °C) of the fuel
cell could be used to generate steam to run a turbine and extract more power from
heat energy. Overall efficiencies of 60 percent might be possible.
Solid polymer electrolyte fuel cells

A cell of this sort is built around an ion-conducting membrane such as Nafion
(trademark for a perfluorosulfonic acid membrane). The electrodes are catalyzed
carbon, and several construction alignments are feasible.
Solid polymer electrolyte cells function well (as attested to by their performance in
Gemini spacecraft), but cost estimates are high for the total system compared with
the types described above. Engineering or electrode design improvements could
change this disadvantage.
Characteristics of Fuel Cells
Reversible fuel cells will deliver to a load a voltage, VL = Vrev, which is independent
of the current generated. Their V-I characteristic is a horizontal line. Such ideal
cells require reaction kinetics fast enough to supply electrons at the rate demanded
by the current drawn. Clearly, reversible cells cannot be realized. In practical fuel
cells, two major deviations from the ideal are observed:
1. The open-circuit voltage, Voc, is smaller than Vrev.
2. The load voltage, VL, decreases as the load current, IL, increases.
Frequently, the V-I characteristics approaches a straight line with some curvature
at low currents as, for example, those of Figure 9.26 (left), while other cells exhibit
characteristics in which the linearity can be seen only in a limited region (right).
To facilitate fuel cell performance calculations, it is useful to express the cell's

characteristics in a
mathematical form, that is,
to describe the load voltage,
VL, as an analytical function
of the load current, IL,
Figure 9.26 The typical

modern fuel cell tends to
have V-I characteristics
consisting of a long stretch
of apparently linear
relationship between current
and voltage, with a small
curvature at the low current
end (left, above). The small
Engelhard liquid-electrolyte
demonstration cell had a limited region in which voltage decreases linearly with current. At
both lower and higher currents, the V V-II characteristic exhibited marked curvature (right,
above).
The typical modern fuel cell tends to have V-I

V characteristics
racteristics consisting of a long stretch of
apparently linear relationship between current and voltage, with a small curvature at the
low current end (left, above). The small Engelhard liquid-electrolyte
liquid electrolyte demonstration cell had
a limited region in which voltage
ltage decreases linearly with current. At both lower and higher
currents, the V-II characteristic exhibited marked curvature (right, above).
One way to accomplish this is to fit, empirically, a curve to the observed data, that is, to
treat the cell as a black
ck box without inquiring what is happening internally. It turns out
that good fits can, in general, be achieved. They describe accurately what the load voltage is
for a given load current, as long as such parameters as temperatures and pressures are the
same
me as those used in obtaining the data. However, such empirically obtained
mathematical expressions fail to provide adequate insight on the workings of the fuel cell,
and, thus, they provided limited guidance as how to improve its design. For that, one mus
must
be able to interpret the relationship between the empirical parameters and the physical
processes inside the cell.
Fuel Cell Efficiency
In contrast to heat engines (gasoline and

diesel engines), the fuel cell does not involve
n of heat to mechanical energy and
conversion
the overall thermodynamic efficiencies can be
very high.
Fuel
uel cells, therefore, are considered as very
efficient electrical energy-producing
producing devices with high power densities at relatively low
temperatures. The possible applications of fuel cells are numerous, from micro fuel cells
producing only a few.
Since fuel cells use materials that are typically burnt to
release their energy, y the fuel cell efficiency is described
as the ratio of the electrical
energy produced to the heat that is produced by burning
the fuel (its enthalpy of formation or Δhf).
From the basic definition of efficiency: η = W / Qin
where W is given by ΔG (or NFE)
Qin is the enthalpy of formation of the reaction taking
place. Since two
wo values can often be computed depending
on the state of the reactant, the larger of the two values (
higher “higher heating value ) ”) is used (HHV).
Maximum Fuel Cell Efficiency

The maximum efficiency occurs under open circuit conditions (reversible) when the highest
cell voltage is obtained

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RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

ENERGY SCENARIO INTRODUCTION

 Primary and Secondary energy

 Commercial and Non commercial energy

 Renewable and Non-Renewable energy

 Conventional and Non-conventional energy

 Primary and Secondary energy

Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy

Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.

Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Conventional and Non-conventional energy resources:

Non-conventional energy: Non-conventional energy resources which are considered for

Advantages & disadvantages of Nonconventional/renewable energy sources:

Types of Non conventional Energy Sources:

Energy Scenario in INDIA:

Global Primary Energy Reserves*

Non conventional energy sources:

Solar energy, a primary energy source, is non-polluting and inexhaustible.

There are three methods to harness solar energy:

5. Bio-mass based energy:

There are three forms of biomass:

(i) Biomass in traditional form:

(ii) Biomass in nontraditional form:

8. Dendrothermal energy (Energy plantation):

10. Energy from urban waste:

In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of

Environmental Impact of solar power

Solar photovoltaic panels may contain hazardous materials that could be

Solar Radiation on Earth’s Surface:

Irradiance may be measured in space or at the Earth's

Solar Radiation Spectrum

Knowing where and how much gives a

Solar Energy is what we’ve always known

It’s composition is: 6 – 7% ultraviolet

1. Feasibility study can be carried

a) Position of the Sun

b) Orientation of the Receiver

G (inclined) = G(horizontal) * Sin (α+β) / Sinα

δ= 23.45° * Sin[ 360/365 (284+d)]

Advantages of Wind Energy:

Global Wind Patterns

The four major

Tropical Easterlies- Tropical Easterlies take direction in an east to west

Prevailing Westerlies- Prevailing Westerlies are located in the 30-60

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)- The Intertropical Convergence

Doldrums- Doldrums is the same thing as the Intertropical Convergence

Main Parts of a Wind Turbine:

Anemometer: device for measuring the speed of

When a rotor blade passes through the air it

Tip Speed Ratio Calculations

Optimum Tip Speed Ratio

Types of Wind Turbines:

1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine:

 Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades,

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT)

It is difficult to mount vertical-axis

Traditional VAWT Advantages

 They can produce electricity in any wind direction.