Controlling Workplace Hazards

Unit GC2 International

Element 7: Chemical and Biological
Health Hazards and Risk Control

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 Learning Outcomes
• Outline the forms of, the classification of, and health risks
from exposure to, hazardous substances
• Explain the factors to be considered when undertaking an
assessment of the health risks from substances commonly
encountered in the workplace
• Explain the use and limitations of occupational exposure
limits, including the purpose of long-term and short-term
exposure limits
• Outline control measures that should be used to reduce
the risk of ill health from exposure to hazardous
substances
• Outline the hazards, risks and controls associated with
specific agents
• Outline the basic requirements related to the safe
handling and storage of waste
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 Unit GC2: Element 7.1
FORMS OF, CLASSIFICATION OF AND
HEALTH RISKS FROM HAZARDOUS
SUBSTANCES

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 Forms of Chemical Agent

• The physical form greatly affects the hazard

presented and the route of entry into the
body:
− Dust
− Fume
− Gas
− Mist
− Vapour
− Liquids
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 Biological Agents
• Fungi
e.g. Far er s lu g
• Bacteria
e.g. legio aire s disease, leptospirosis
• Viruses
e.g. HIV, Hepatitis B

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 Classification of Chemicals
The Globally Harmonised System
(GHS)
• Physico-chemical
− e.g. highly flammable, explosive, oxidising
• Toxicological
− e.g. toxic, carcinogenic
• Environmental
− e.g. harmful to aquatic life

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 Classification of Chemicals
Hazardous to Health

Toxic Harmful (Xn)

Carcinogenic Respiratory Sensitiser

Irritant (Xi)
Corrosive
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 Classification of Chemicals
Hazardous to Health
Toxic
− Small doses cause death or serious illness
Harmful
− Larger doses cause death or serious illness
Corrosive
− Destroys living tissue
Irritant
− Inflames skin or mucous membranes

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 Classification of Chemicals
Hazardous to Health
Carcinogens
− Cause cancer
Respiratory sensitisers
− Cause asthma, e.g. flour dust, isocyanates
Skin sensitisers
− Cause allergic dermatitis, e.g. epoxy resin
Mutagens
− Causes hereditary genetic mutation
Toxic for reproduction
− Causes sterility, or is harmful to unborn child
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 Acute and Chronic Health Effects
Acute
− High levels of exposure
− Short exposure time
− Quick effect
e.g. high concentration of chlorine gas
Chronic
− Lower levels of exposure
− Longer exposure time
− Long-term effect
e.g. repeated exposure to solvents
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 End-of-Section Quiz

1. What are the different physical forms of

chemicals?
2. What are the different types of biological
agent?
3. What does to i ea i relatio to
chemicals?
4. What is a orrosi e he i al?

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 Unit GC2: Element 7.2
ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH RISKS

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 Group Syndicate Exercise
How can a chemical or biological organism
enter the body?

Which is the most harmful route of entry and

why?

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 Routes of Entry
• Inhalation
– inhalable dust
– respirable dust (<7microns)
• Ingestion
• Absorption through the skin
• Injection through the skin
– needlestick
– cuts and grazes
– bites

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 Defence Mechanisms
The body has two main defence mechanisms to
combat attack by biological agents and damage by
chemicals. These are:
• Cellular defence (internal defence), which allows
cells to fight bacteria and other toxins mostly
from blood, respiratory and ingestion entry
routes
• Superficial defence (external defence), which
protects against toxins that enter through the
skin and contaminants in the nose and throat
(via collection by the hairs and mucus)

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 Defence Mechanisms
Respiratory Defences
• Sneezing and coughing
• Nasal hair/mucus
• Ciliary escalator
• Macrophages
• Inflammatory
response

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 Defence Mechanisms
Skin Defences
• Waterproof barrier comprising:
− Outer layer of dead cells (epidermis)
− Sebum – biocidal properties
− Inflammatory response

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 Assessment of Health Risk
• Identify the hazardous
substances present and the
people who might potentially be
exposed
• Gather information about the
substance
• Evaluate the health risk
• Identify any controls needed and
implement them
• Record the assessment and
action taken
• Review
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 Factors to Consider When Assessing
Health Risk
• Hazardous nature of
substance
• Potential ill-health effects
• Physical forms
• Routes of entry
• Quantity
• Concentration
• Number of people
• Frequency of exposure
• Duration of exposure
• Existing control measures
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 Sources of Information
• Product Labels
• Guidance Documents
• Ma ufa turers Safet Data Sheets

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 Sources of Information
Product Labels
• Name of substance
• Hazardous components
• Risk phrases indicating
danger
• Precautions
• Details of supplier

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 Sources of Information
Guidance Documents
• In the UK, Workplace Exposure Limits are
published by the Health and Safety Executive
(HSE) in Guidance Note EH40
• In the USA, Threshold Limit Values are published
by the American Conference of Government
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH )
• In the EU, Indicative Limit Values are published by
the EU

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 Occupational Exposure Limit
Documents
• The maximum concentration of an airborne
substance, averaged over a reference period, to
which employees can be exposed by inhalation
• Legal limits differ around the world
− UK has WELs, US has TLVs, EU has OELs
CAS LTEL (8-Hour TWA STEL (15-Minute
Substance Formula
Number Reference Period) Reference Period)

ppm mg/m3 ppm mg/m3

Carbon
CO 630-08-0 30 35 200 232
Monoxide

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 Group Syndicate Exercise
Manufacturers’ Safety Data Sheets
Outline the type of information you would expect to
see on a safety data sheet for a domestic weedkiller
in order to assess the risks

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 Safety Data Sheet Contents
1. Details of substance and
supplier
2. Composition of
substance
3. Hazard identification
4. First-aid measures
5. Fire-fighting measures
6. Accidental release
measures
7. Handling and storage
8. Exposure controls/PPE
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9. Physical/chemical
properties
10. Stability and reactivity
11. Toxicological information
12. Ecological information
13. Disposal requirements
14. Transport information
15. Regulatory information
16. Other information
 Limitations of Information
• Information sources provide general information
only
• Do t o sider the spe ifi o ditio s of use
• Individual susceptibility
• Mixed exposures
• Based on current knowledge

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 Hazardous-Substance Monitoring
When:
• Failure or deterioration of
the controls can result in
serious health effects
• To ensure an OEL is not
exceeded
• To check effectiveness of
control measures
• After any change occurs that
could affect control

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 Dust-Monitoring Equipment
• Worn by worker while
working
• Indicates personal
exposure
• Pre-weighed filter
• Pumped air
• Filter re-weighed
• Gives average value over
time

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 Limitations of Monitoring

• Accuracy of results
• Variations in personal
exposure
• Absence of a standard
• Other exposure routes

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 End-of-Section Quiz

1. What are the four main routes of entry

chemicals can take into the body?
2. How is the respiratory system defended?
3. Name 3 different types of monitoring
equipment

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 Unit GC2: Element 7.3
OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMITS

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 Occupational Exposure Limits (OELs)
The maximum concentration of an airborne
substance, averaged over a reference period, to
which employees may be exposed by inhalation.
Legal status in national law

Time
Combat ill-health effects of:
period
Short-term
15 • Acute effects
exposure
limits (STEL) minutes • Very high exposure for a short time
Long-term • Chronic effects
exposure 8 hours
limits (LTEL) • Lower exposure over longer period

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 Significance of Time-Weighted
Averages
• A worker can be exposed to different levels of
inhalation of a hazardous substance throughout
the working day
• At some times they may be exposed to high levels
of contaminant
• At other times the exposure level may be low. In
many cases, it will not be practical to measure an
i di idual s e posure for all of the orki g period

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 Significance of Time-Weighted
Averages
• A time-weighted average is equal to the sum of
the part of each time period which is multiplied by
the exposure level of the contaminant in that time
period
• It is then divided by the hours in the working day
(usually eight hours) and the level indicated as a
time-weighted average (as seen above)
• That is, the average of all the total exposures in
the working day. This can be significant where the
concentration of the chemical changes through
the day, or the time exposure varies
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 Limitations of Exposure Limits
Being below a limit does not prove
it is safe:
• Only concerned with inhalation
• No account of individual
sensitivity or susceptibility
• Many developed on male
physiology
• No account of synergistic or
combined effects
• Invalid if normal environmental
conditions change

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 Application of Relevant Limits
• UK
− OELs are known as Workplace Exposure
Limits (WELs)
− Published by HSE, full legal status
• USA
− OELs know as Threshold Limit Values (TLVs)
− Published by American Conference of
Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
− Guidelines, no legal status
• No global standard as yet
− EU Indicative limit values
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 End-of-Section Quiz

1. What are OELs?

2. What is the difference between:
• An 8-hour TWA
• A 15-minute STEL

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 Unit GC2: Element 7.4
CONTROL MEASURES

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 Prevention of Exposure

• Prevention of exposure is best

• If not possible to prevent exposure,
adequately control it
• Ensure OELs are not exceeded

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 The Principles of Good Practice
1. Minimise emission, release and spread of
hazardous substances
2. Account for relevant routes of entry
3. Use control measures proportionate to the risk
4. Ensure effectiveness and reliability of controls
5. Use PPE where control cannot be achieved by
other means
6. Regular checks and review of control measures
7. Provide information and training
8. Ensure controls do not increase overall risks

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 Group Syndicate Exercise
• A gardener is spraying a weed-killer in a domestic
garden in windy conditions
• The gardener has no means of washing his hands,
etc. and the house-owners have children and a
dog
• The weed-killer is an organophosphate, labelled
to i
• Using the hierarchy of control, discuss how the
risk may be reduced

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 Implementing the Principles of
Good Practice
• Elimination or substitution
• Process change
• Reduce exposure times
• Enclosure or segregation
• Local Exhaust Ventilation
• PPE
• Personal hygiene and protection
• Health surveillance/monitoring

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 Elimination and Substitution

• Eliminate process
− e.g. outsource painting
• Change work
− e.g. screw rather than glue
• Dispose of unwanted stock
• Substitute hazardous for non-hazardous
− e.g. irritant to non-hazardous floor
cleaner, or corrosive to irritant

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 Change the Process

• Do the job differently, e.g.

− Applying solvent by brush rather than
spraying
− Vacuuming rather than sweeping to keep
dust levels down

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 Reduce Exposure Times

• Job rotation
• Exclude non-essential personnel
• Link to WELs

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 Enclosure or Segregation
Enclosure
− Totally enclose the substance
− Prevent access to it
Segregation
− Keep people away
− Designated areas

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 Local Exhaust Ventilation

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 Group Syndicate Exercise

Discuss the reasons why the effectiveness of

LEV may be reduced

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 The Effectiveness of LEV
• Poorly-positioned intake hoods
• Damaged ducts
• Excessive amounts of contamination
• Ineffective fan
• Blocked filters
• Build-up of contaminant in the ducts
• Sharp bends in ducts
• Unauthorised additions to the system

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 Inspection of LEV Systems
• Routine visual inspection
− Integrity checks, e.g. filters, contaminant
build-up, etc.
• Planned preventive maintenance
− e.g. replacing filters, lubricating fan bearings,
etc.
• Periodic testing
− Ensure air velocities are adequate

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 Dilution Ventilation
• Diluting the contaminant
• Changes the air
• Passive dilution - vents
• Active dilution - powered fans
• Used where:
− WEL is high
− formation of gas or vapour is slow
− operators are not close to contamination
• Important to know whether contaminant is
lighter or heavier than air

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 Limitations of Dilution Ventilation
• Not suitable for highly toxic substances
• Compromised by sudden release of large
quantities of contaminant
• Do not work well
– for dust
– where the contaminant is
released at a point of source
• Dead areas may exist

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 Respiratory Protective Equipment
(RPE)
Two types:
• Respirators
− filter contaminated air
• Breathing Apparatus (BA)
− oxygen-depleted atmospheres
− provide clean source of air

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 Filtering Face-Piece Respirators

Use and benefits Limitations

Cheap Low level of protection
Easy to use Seal not effective
Disposable Uncomfortable

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 Half Mask or Ori-Nasal Respirator

Use and benefits Limitations

Good level of filtration No built-in eye protection
Good fit Negative pressure inside
face-piece
Easy to use Uncomfortable

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 Full-Face Respirator

Use and benefits Limitations

Good level of filtration Restricts vision
Good fit Negative pressure inside
face-piece
Protects the eyes Uncomfortable

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 Powered Respirator

Use and benefits Limitations

Intermediate level of Heavy to wear
filtration
Air movement cools No tight face seal
wearer
Air stream prevents Limited battery life
inward leak

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 Fresh-Air Hose BA

Air demanded by user or pumped

Use and benefits Limitations

Air from outside the work Hose must be tethered
room
Supply not time Bends or kinks make
restricted breathing difficult
User restricted by limited
hose length

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 Compressed-Air BA

Air under pressure

Use and benefits Limitations

Supply of air is not time- Hose can be long, but not
restricted endless
Positive pressure inside face-
piece
Wearer not burdened with
cylinder

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 Self-contained BA

Pressurised cylinder

Use and benefits Limitations

Complete freedom of Supply is time-restricted
movement
Positive pressure inside face- Equipment bulky and heavy
piece
More technical training required

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 Group Discussion Point

Selection of RPE
• What factors do you think should be taken
into account when selecting RPE for use by
workers?

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 The Suitability of RPE
Factors to consider:
• Concentration of the contaminant and
its hazards
• Physical form of the substance
• Level of protection offered by the RPE
• Presence or absence of oxygen
• Duration of time that it must be worn
• Compatibility with other items of PPE
• Shape of the user s fa e
• Facial hair
• Physical requirements of the job
• Physical fitness of the wearer
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 RPE Information, Instruction and
Training
Users should understand:
• How to fit the RPE
• How to test it to ensure that it is working
effectively
• The limitations of the item
• Any cleaning requirements
• Any maintenance requirements (e.g. how to
change filter)

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 Other PPE
Hand protection
– gloves, gauntlets
Eye protection
– spectacles, goggles, visors
Body protection
– overalls, aprons, whole body
protection

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 Personal Hygiene and Protection
• Hand-washing routines
• Careful removal and disposal
of PPE to prevent cross-
contamination to normal
clothes
• Prohibition of eating, drinking
and smoking in work areas
• Washing facilities
• Changing facilities
• Rest areas

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 Personal Hygiene and Protection
Vaccination
Against biological agents, e.g.
– Hepatitis B
– Tetanus
– Typhoid
Worker consent required
Immunity not always achieved
False sense of security

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 Health Surveillance
Health monitoring:
– signs of disease
– symptoms of chronic conditions, e.g. flour
workers have lung-function tests to check for
asthma
Biological monitoring:
– checks for contaminants
within the body, e.g. lead
Pre-employment screening:
– esta lishes a aseli e
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 Group Syndicate Exercise

Consider the types of health surveillance that

may be required for the following
occupations:
• Call-centre operator
• Chemical-plant worker handling solvents
• Tree surgeon exposed to wood dusts

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 Control of Carcinogens, Mutagens and
Asthmagens
In addition to standard control
measures:
• Total enclosure of process or
handling systems
• Prohibition of eating, drinking
and smoking
• Regular cleaning
• Warning signs
• Safe storage, handling and
disposal

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 End-of-Section Quiz

1. What is the first step in the hierarchy of

control?
2. What are the basic components of an LEV
system?
3. Why is PPE the last line of defence in the
hierarchy of control?

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 Unit GC2: Element 7.5
SPECIFIC AGENTS

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 Group Syndicate Exercise

• What is asbestos?
• Why was asbestos used in industry and
buildings?
• Where might it be found?

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 Asbestos
Naturally-occurring mineral fibres used for fire-
resistant building and lagging materials
• Blue (crocidolite)
• Brown (amosite)
• White (chrysotile)

• Health risks:
– asbestosis
– lung cancer
– mesothelioma
– diffuse pleural thickening
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 Asbestos
Use:
• asbestos cement
roofs
• ceiling tiles
• fire-break walls
• floor tiles
• down-pipes
• pipe lagging
• gaskets Damaged lagging on a pipe

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 Work with Asbestos - Controls
In general:
• Work must be notified to the enforcement agency
• Work area sealed
• PPE and RPE
• Negative-pressure ventilation system with efficient filters
• Asbestos waste
– securely double bagged, labelled, disposed as
hazardous waste
• Dust levels monitored inside and outside sealed work area
• Worker exposure must not exceed control limit
• Health surveillance provided

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 Managing Asbestos in Buildings
• Occupiers/owners must be aware of presence of
asbestos
• Need an asbestos management plan
• Maintain asbestos register – identify locations
• Record of regular inspections
• Monitoring condition

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 Blood-Borne Viruses
• HIV/AIDS
• Hepatitis A
– contracted orally by cross contamination
of faecal matter, e.g. sewage workers
• Hepatitis B
– transmitted in body fluids, e.g. blood
– health-care workers, fire-fighters, police

• Symptoms
– jaundice, liver damage
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 Blood-Borne Viruses
Typical controls:
• PPE: gloves, eye protection
• Disposal of material as clinical
waste
• Prevention of needlestick injuries
• Decontamination and disinfection
• Vaccination
• Accident procedures, e.g.
needlestick injuries

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 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• Colourless, odourless gas
• By-product of combustion, e.g. poorly maintained
boilers
• Inhalation hazard
• Prevents red blood cells from absorbing oxygen
• Chemical asphyxiation
– Low levels – worsening headaches
– High levels – rapid unconsciousness and
death

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 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Typical controls:
• Competent engineers for gas systems
• Maintenance and testing of boilers and flues
• Good ventilation
• LEV for workshop vehicle exhausts
• Siting of equipment containing combustion
engines
• CO alarms
• Confined-space entry controls
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 Cement
Typical controls:
• Eliminating or reducing exposure
• PPE – gloves, dust masks, eye protection
• Removal of contaminated clothing
• Good hygiene and washing skin on contact
Harmful effects:
• Irritation of the eyes, respiratory tract, skin
• Allergic dermatitis and corrosive burns to skin
on repeated/prolonged contact

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 Legionella Bacteria

Legionnaire’s disease
• Water-loving soil bacteria
• Inhalation hazard
• Mists particularly high risk
• Flu-like fever, pneumonia

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 Legionella Bacteria - Controls
Typical controls
• Enclosing water systems
• Water treatment, e.g. chlorination
• Hot water >60oC
• Biocides (treatment chemicals)
• Prevention of limescale
• Routine cleaning of cooling towers
• Water sampling and analysis

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 Leptospira Bacteria
Leptospirosis
• Infected urine from: rats, mice, cattle and horses
• Contaminated water in contact with cuts, grazes,
etc.
• Dairy farmers, sewage workers, water-sports
instructors
• Flu-like s pto s, jau di e, li er da age (Weil s
disease)

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 Leptospira Bacteria
Typical controls
• Preventing rat infestation – good
housekeeping, pest control
• Good personal hygiene
• PPE, especially gloves
• Covering cuts and grazes
• Issui g at-risk ards to orkers

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 Silica
• Component of rock
• Quarries, pottery and construction industry
• Inhalation hazard
• Causes scar tissue to form in lungs

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 Silica
Typical controls
• Alternative work methods
• Dust suppression by water
• LEV
• RPE
• Health surveillance

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 Wood Dust
• Inhalation hazard
• Causes asthma
• Hard woods can cause cancer

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 Wood Dust
Typical controls
• LEV
• Vacuuming rather than
sweeping
• RPE
• Health surveillance

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 End-of-Section Quiz

1. What diseases are caused by exposure to

asbestos?
2. What controls could be implemented to
reduce the risk of needlestick injuries in
the health service?
3. Which occupations could be at risk of
leptospirosis infections?

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 Unit GC2: Element 7.6
SAFE HANDLING AND STORAGE OF
WASTES

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 Duty of Care
Waste is:
So ethi g that is dis arded or is goi g to e
dis arded
Local legislation will apply:
Duty of care to control waste
Normally applies to all people who:
• generate,
• import,
• transport and
• dispose of waste
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 Classification of Waste

• Hazardous wastes may include many

household products which, although not
immediately hazardous, may cause longer-
term problems

• Non-hazardous waste refers to materials

which are not covered by the above
description of hazardous waste

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 Group Syndicate Exercise
Co sider the aste produ ed our o pa s
service or process, or by a hospital or factory
• Discuss what are the main things that can go
wrong with the handling and storage of waste
• Suggest suitable control measures

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 Safe Handling and Storage
Factors to consider – solid wastes:
• The hazardous nature of the waste
• Manual handling risks
• Safe access to skips, bins, etc.
• Do t store o u ade grou d
• Moving parts of compactors
• Vehicle hazards, e.g. skip lorries
• Security of the waste
• Segregation
• Documentation

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 Safe Handling and Storage
Factors to consider – liquid wastes:
• Containers located in bund, away from walls
• Bunds have 110% capacity of
largest container
• Provision for rainwater
• Transfer points, e.g. pumps bunded
• Protect bund from damage
• Bunds checked and maintained

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 Spill Containment

Whenever liquid wastes are present

Measures include:
• Spill kits
• Drain covers
• Training

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 End-of-Section Quiz

1. What controls should be implemented to

ensure the safe storage of liquid waste?

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