Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Concrete Technology
Module 3

Testing of hardened concrete: Compression tests, tension tests, factors affecting strength,
flexure tests, splitting tests, pull-out rest, non-destructive testing methods - codal provisions
for NDT.
Elasticity, creep & shrinkage: modulus of elasticity, dynamic modulus of elasticity, poisson's
ratio, creep of concrete, factors influencing creep, relation between creep & time, nature of
creep, effects of creep, shrinkage, types of shrinkage.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Compressive Strength
Compressive strength is the ability of material or structure to carry the loads on its surface
without any crack or deflection.
A material under compression tends to reduce the size, while in tension, size elongates.

Compressive Strength Formula

Compressive strength formula for any material is the load applied at the point of failure to the
cross-section area of the face on which load was applied.
Compressive Strength = Load / Cross-sectional Area

Procedure: Compressive Strength Test of Concrete Cubes (IS: 516)

• For cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 15cm × 15cm × 15cm or 10cm × 10cm
× 10cm depending upon the size of the aggregate are used. For most of the works, cubical
moulds of size 15cm × 15cm × 15cm are commonly used.
• This concrete is poured into the mould and appropriately tempered so as not to have any
voids.
• The top surface of these specimens should be made even and smooth. This is done by
placing cement paste and spreading it smoothly on the whole area of the specimen.
• After 24 hours, moulds are removed, and test specimens are put in water for curing.
• These specimens are tested by a compression testing machine after 7 days of curing or 28
days curing. Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the
specimens fail. Load at the failure divided by the area of the specimen gives the
compressive strength of concrete.

Steps Followed for testing the Compressive strength of Concrete Cubes

Apparatus for Concrete Cube Test - Compression testing machine
Preparation of Concrete Cube Specimen - The proportion and material for making these test
specimens are from the same concrete used in the field.
Specimen - 6 cubes of 15 cm size. Mix: M15 or above
Mixing of Concrete for Cube Test - Mix the concrete either by hand or in a laboratory batch
mixer
Hand Mixing
1. Mix the cement and fine aggregate on a watertight none-absorbent platform until the
mixture is thoroughly blended and is of uniform colour.
2. Add the coarse aggregate and mix with cement and fine aggregate until the coarse
aggregate is uniformly distributed throughout the batch.
3. Add water and mix it until the concrete appears to be homogeneous and of the desired
consistency.
Sampling of Cubes for Test
1. Clean the mounds and apply oil.
2. Fill the concrete in the moulds in layers approximately 5 cm thick.
3. Compact each layer with not less than 35 strokes per layer using a tamping rod (steel
bar 16mm diameter and 60cm long, bullet-pointed at the lower end).
4. Level the top surface and smoothen it with a trowel.
Curing of Cubes
The test specimens are stored in moist air for 24 hours and after this period the specimens
are marked and removed from the moulds and kept submerged in clear freshwater until taken
out prior to the test.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Precautions for Tests

The water for curing should be tested every 7 days and the temperature of the water must be at
27+-2oC.

Procedure for Concrete Cube Test

1. Remove the specimen from the water after the specified curing time and wipe out excess
water from the surface.
2. Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m
3. Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine
4. Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to the
opposite sides of the cube cast.
5. Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.
6. Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the
specimen.
7. Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of 140 kg/cm2/minute
till the specimen fails
8. Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.
Note:
Minimum three specimens should be tested at each selected age. If the strength of any specimen
varies by more than 15 percent of average strength, the results of such specimens should be
rejected. The average of three specimens gives the crushing strength of concrete. The strength
requirements of concrete.

Calculations of Compressive Strength

Size of the cube =15cm×15cm×15cm
Area of the specimen (calculated from the mean size of the specimen) = 225 cm2
Characteristic compressive strength (fck) = Load in N/Area in mm2 =...............N/mm2
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Compressive Strength of Different Grades of Concrete at 7 and 28 Days

Grade of Minimum compressive Specified characteristic compressive
Concrete strength N/mm2 at 7 days strength (N/mm2) at 28 days
M15 10 15
M20 13.5 20
M25 17 25
M30 20 30
M35 23.5 35
M40 27 40
M45 30 45

Compressive Strength of the Concrete Cylinder

Apparatus for Concrete Cylinder Test
The sample cylinder prepared can be any of the two dimensions as mentioned below. The
diameter of the cylinder cast must be at least 3 times the nominal maximum size of the coarse
aggregate employed in the concrete manufacture. The apparatus required is mentioned below:
1. Compression testing machine
2. Cylinder mould of 150mm diameter and 300mm height or 100 × 200mm

Procedure for Concrete Cylinder Test

Sample Preparation
• The cylinder specimens are cast in steel, cast iron or any mould made of non-absorbent
material. The mould must hold the concrete without any leakage.
• Before placing the concrete mix within the mould, the interior of the mould must be
properly greased to facilitate easy removal of the hardened cylinder.
• The mixed concrete is placed into the moulds in layers not less than 5cm deep. The strokes
per layer during the compaction must not be less than 30 in number.
• The specimens are stored undisturbed in a place with at least 90% relative humidity at a
temperature of 27° ± 2°C for 24 hours. After this period, the samples are taken and
submerged in clean and fresh water until the testing age is reached.

Test Procedure
1. The concrete cylinder is cast for standard size and allowed to cure for 28 days. Three
specimens of the same dimension are cast for testing.
2. Take out the specimen from the curing tank.
3. Wipe out the excess water from the surface of the specimen.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

4. Place the specimen vertically on the platform of the compression testing machine.
Uniform load application and distribution are facilitated by having pad caps at the ends
of the cylinders.
5. Before starting to apply the load, make sure that the loading platforms touch the top of
the cylinder.
6. Apply the load continuously and uniformly without shock at the rate of 315 kN/min.
And continue the loading until the specimen fails.
7. Record the maximum load taken.
8. The test is repeated for the remaining two specimens.

Calculations for Compressive Strength of Concrete Cylinder

Compressive strength = (Maximum load/Cross-sectional area)
Result of Cylinder Test
The 28th day compressive strength of cylinder =.........................N/mm2

Splitting Tensile Test of Concrete

Apparatus for Splitting Tensile Test of Concrete
Testing Machine – Compression testing machine
Plate or Supplementary Bearing Bar
• It is employed when the diameter or the largest dimension of the upper bearing face or
the lower bearing block is less than the length of the cylinder to be tested.
• Plate width is 50mm
• It shall be used in such a manner that the load will be applied over the entire length of
the specimen.
Bearing Strips
• Two bearing strips are used.
• bearing strip size is 3.2 mm thick, 25 mm wide, and of a length equal to, or slightly
longer than, that of the specimen
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Sampling of Concrete Cylinders

Concrete specimen moulds
• It shall be made of steel, and 3 mm thick.
• The mould shall be capable of being opened longitudinally to facilitate the removal of
the specimen and is provided with a means of keeping it closed while in use.
• The mean internal diameter of the mould is 15 cm ± 0.2 mm and the height is 30 +/-
0.1 cm.
• The moulds are provided with a metal base plate mould.
• Moulds need to be coated with a thin film of mould oil before use, in order to prevent
adhesion of concrete.

Concrete pouring and compaction

• After the mixture is prepared, it is poured into the oiled mould in layers approximately
5 cm deep.
• Then, each layer is compacted either by hand or by vibration.
• For manual compaction, use tamping bar.
• Distributed bar stroke uniformly in order to compact it properly.
• Minimum tamping bar stroke for each layer is 30.
• Penetrate strikes in to the underlying layer
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

• Apply the rode for the entire depth of the bottom layer
• complete top layer compaction
• Lastly, the surface of the concrete should be finished level with the top of the mould,
using a trowel and covered with a glass or metal plate to prevent evaporation.
Curing of Specimen
• Cast specimens should be stored in a place at a temperature of 27° +/- 2°C for 24 +/- 0.5
hrs from the time of addition of water to the dry ingredients.
• After that, the specimen should be marked and removed from the mould and
immediately submerged in clean fresh water or saturated lime solution and kept there
until taken out just prior to the test.
• The water or solution in which the specimens are kept should be renewed every seven
days and should be maintained at a temperature of 27° +/- 2°c.
• For design purposes, the specimen cured for 28 days.
• At last, for each reading, three specimens shall be cast and tested. Then, the average
tensile strength will be taken.
Procedure of Splitting Tensile Test
• Initially, take the wet specimen from the water after 7, 28 of curing; or any desired age
at which tensile strength is to be estimated.
• Then, wipe out water from the surface of the specimen
• After that, draw diametrical lines on the two ends of the specimen to ensure that they
are on the same axial plane.
• Next, record the weight and dimension of the specimen.
• Set the compression testing machine for the required range.
• Place the plywood strip on the lower plate and place the specimen.
• Align the specimen so that the lines marked on the ends are vertical and centred over
the bottom plate.
• Place the other plywood strip above the specimen.
• Bring down the upper plate so that it just touches the plywood strip.
• Apply the load continuously without shock at a rate within the range of 0.7 to 1.4
MPa/min.

Calculations
Calculate the splitting tensile strength of the specimen as follows:
T= (2P)/(π LD)
Where: T = splitting tensile strength, MPa
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

P: maximum applied load indicated by the testing machine, N

D: diameter of the specimen, mm
L: length of the specimen, mm

Flexural Strength of Concrete

Flexural test evaluates the tensile strength of concrete indirectly. It tests the ability of
unreinforced concrete beams or slabs to withstand failure in bending. The results of the flexural
test on concrete expressed as a modulus of rupture which denotes as (MR) in MPa. The flexural
test on concrete can be conducted using either a three-point load test or a center-point load test.

It should be noticed that the modulus of rupture value obtained by the centre-point load test
arrangement is smaller than the three-point load test configuration by around 15 per cent.
Moreover, it is observed that a low modulus of rupture is achieved when a larger size concrete
specimen is considered.
Furthermore, the modulus of rupture is about 10 to 15 per cent of the compressive strength of
concrete.
Finally, the following equation can be used to compute the modulus of rupture, but it must be
determined through laboratory tests if it is significant for the design:
fr = 7.5 √fc
Where: fr: Modulus of rupture fc: concrete compressive strength
Apparatus for Flexural Test on Concrete
Steel, iron cast, or other non-absorbent material moulds with the size of
(150mm×150mm×750mm).

Sample Preparation of Concrete

• Determine proportions of materials including cement, sand, aggregate and water.
• Mix the materials using either by hand or using suitable mixing machine in batches
with size of 10 percent greater than moulding test specimen.
• Measure the slump of each concrete batch after blending.
• Place moulds on horizontal surface and lubricate inside surface with proper lubricant
material and excessive lubrication should be prevented.
• Pour fresh concrete into the moulds in three layers.
• Compact each layer with 16 mm rod and apply 25 strokes for each layer or fill the
mould completely and compact the concrete using a vibration table.
• Remove excess concrete from the top of the mould and smoothen it without imposing
pressure on it.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

• Cover top of specimens in the moulds and store them in a temperature room for 24
hours.
• Remove the moulds and moist cure specimens at 23+/-2 o C till the time of testing.
• The age of the test is 14 days and 28 days and three specimens for each test should be
prepared (according to Indian Code, the specimen is stored in water at 24-30oC for
48hours and then tested)
Procedure of Flexural Test on Concrete
• The test should be conducted on the specimen immediately after taken out of the curing
condition so as to prevent surface drying which declines flexural strength.
• Place the specimen on the loading points. The hand-finished surface of the specimen
should not be in contact with loading points. This will ensure an acceptable contact
between the specimen and loading points.
• Center the loading system in relation to the applied force.
• Bring the block applying force in contact with the specimen surface at the loading
points.
• Applying loads between 2 to 6 per cent of the computed ultimate load.
• Employing 0.10 mm and 0.38 mm leaf-type feeler gages, specify whether any space
between the specimen and the load-applying or support blocks is greater or less than
each of the gages over a length of 25 mm or more.
• Eliminate any gap greater than 0.10mm using leather shims (6.4mm thick and 25 to
50mm long) and it should extend the full width of the specimen.
• Capping or grinding should be considered to remove gaps in excess of 0.38mm.
• Load the specimen continuously without shock till the point of failure at a constant rate
(Indian standard specified loading rate of 400 Kg/min.
• Finally, measure the cross-section of the tested specimen at each end and at center to
calculate average depth and height.
Computation of Modulus of Rupture
The following expression is used for the estimation of the modulus of rupture:
MR = (3PL)/(2bd2)
Where: MR: modulus of rupture
P: ultimate applied load indicated by the testing machine
L: span length
b: average width of the specimen at the fracture
d: average depth of the specimen at the fracture

Non-Destructive Testing Methods

Non-destructive methods have been in use for about four decades. In this period, the
development has taken place to such an extent that it is now considered a powerful method for
evaluating existing concrete structures with regard to their strength and durability apart from
assessment and control of the quality of hardened concrete. In certain cases, the investigation
of crack depth, microcracks, and progressive deterioration are also studied by this method.
In the non-destructive methods of testing, the specimen is not loaded to failure and as such the
strength inferred or estimated cannot be expected to yield absolute values of strength. These
methods, therefore, attempt to measure some other properties of concrete from which an
estimate of its strength, durability and elastic parameters are obtained. Some such properties of
concrete are hardness, resistance to penetration of projectiles, rebound number, resonant
frequency and ability to allow ultrasonic pulse velocity to propagate through it. The electrical
properties of concrete, its ability to absorb, scatter and transmit X-rays and Gamma-rays, its
response to nuclear activation and its acoustic emission allow us to estimate its moisture
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

content, density, thickness and its cement content. Based on the above, various non-destructive
methods of testing concrete have been developed:
1. Surface hardness tests: These are of indentation type, include the Williams testing pistol
and impact hammers, and are used only for estimation of concrete strength.
2. Rebound test: The rebound hammer test measures the elastic rebound of concrete and is
primarily used for the estimation of concrete strength and for comparative investigations.
3. Penetration and Pull out techniques: These include the use of the Simbi hammer, Spit
pins, the Windsor probe, and the pullout test. These measure the penetration and pullout
resistance of concrete and are used for strength estimations, but they can also be used for
comparative studies.
4. Dynamic or vibration tests: These include resonant frequency and mechanical sonic and
ultrasonic pulse velocity methods. These are used to evaluate the durability and uniformity of
concrete and to estimate its strength and elastic properties.
5. Combined methods: The combined methods involving ultrasonic pulse velocity and
rebound hammer have been used to estimate strength of concrete.
6. Radioactive and nuclear methods: These include the X-ray and Gamma-ray penetration
tests for measurement of density and thickness of concrete. Also, the neutron scattering and
neutron activation methods are used for moisture and cement content determination.
7. Magnetic and electrical methods: The magnetic methods are primarily concerned with
determining the cover of reinforcement in concrete, whereas electrical methods, including
microwave absorption techniques, have been used to measure moisture content and thickness
of concrete.
8. Acoustic emission techniques: These have been used to study the initiation and growth of
cracks in concrete.
Etc………..

Pull-Out Test of Concrete

The fundamental principle behind pull-out testing is that the test equipment designed to a
specific geometry will produce results (pull-out forces) that closely correlate to the
compressive strength of concrete. This correlation is achieved by measuring the force required
to pull a steel disc or ring, embedded in concrete, against a circular counter pressure placed on
the concrete surface concentric with the disc/ring.
The steel probe or disc is either cast into fresh concrete or installed in hardened concrete,
against a circular counter pressure placed on the concrete surface concentric with the disc/ring.

Use of Concrete Pull-Out Test:

Concrete pull-out test is used to estimate the in-situ strength of concrete for the determination
of the following point.
• To determine Whether the reinforced concrete structure may be placed into service or
• To determine the strength of concrete for carrying out post-tensioning operations or
• To Measure the time for removal of forms and shores based on the actual strength of
the in-situ concrete; or
• To terminate the curing of concrete based on the targeted strength achievement.
• Furthermore, a post-installed pull-out test may be used to estimate the strength of
concrete in existing construction.

Types of Pull-Out Tests:

Depending upon the placement of the disc/ring in the fresh concrete, pull-out tests can be
divided into 2 types,
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

1. LOK test
2. CAPO test

LOK Test
• The correlation is achieved by measuring the force required to pull a 25 mm diameter cast
in steel disc.
• Steel disc is embedded 25 mm in depth in fresh concrete at a time of concreting. The
steel disc should be precisely embedded in concrete so that air voids are not formed below
the steel disc.
• Pull bolt is attached to the steel disc and after the curing period, the 25 mm steel disc is
pulled until failure of the concrete occurs.
• As the LOK Test insert (steel disc) is pulled out, a roughly cone-shaped fragment of the
concrete is extracted and the pull-out force is measured.
• This test is carried out for early age strength estimation, to find out the compressive strength
with the help of a calibration curve. It is prepared based on laboratory and field tests
conducted on concrete cubes and pull-out samples cast with various grades of concrete.
LOK test is one of the famous concrete pull-out tests, which is used to evaluate structure
early age strength of the structure.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

CAPO test
• CAPO Test is also known as the “Cut And Pull Out Test”.
In the cut and pull-out test, a steel ring is used and expanded into a recessed groove at a
depth of 25 mm and is pulled against a counter pressure as with the LOK test.
• A ring is split by sideward cutting at one location, compressed and governed through a
centre hole into a 25 mm groove, 25 mm deep, where it is expanded.
• The groove is recessed in CAPO Test through a centre hole by a diamond drill with the
drill bit which is large at the tip.
• Measure the pull force from equipment and find out the compressive strength with the help
of a typical pull force calibration chart.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Schmidt’s Rebound Hammer test

Currently, the non-destructive and most commonly used test is the rebound hammer test. This
method is based on measuring the surface hardness of the concrete and, as the response
variable, has an index that can be used to estimate the resistance from correlation curves. The
rebound hammer is portable, simple and inexpensive. This equipment enables the fast
acquisition of a large amount of data.
The equipment consists of a cylindrical tube in whose interior there is a spring, a plunger and
a hammer. The plunger is put in contact with the concrete surface so as to move the hammer
inside the cylindrical tube and the spring is extended. When the hammer comes to the end of
the tube, a device releases the equipment so that, by action of the spring, it strikes the piston
and rebounds to a given extent. Because of the impact effect, the mass returns by a certain
magnitude generating an index pointed by a cursor that moves along a graduated scale. The
rebound number is proportional to the distance travelled by the mass on the rebound and the
resistance of concrete is directly proportional to the distance that the mass is reflected inside
the unit after the impact.

Preparing Test Surface

Inspectors should pay attention to the following considerations prior to conducting a rebound
hammer test:
• The testing surface must be at least 150 mm diameter.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

• Ground concrete surface (until its flat) if it is heavily textured or contains loose
mortar. Note: It is essential to know that the results from prepared surface are generally
not comparable to those obtained from unprepared surfaces.
• If there is any free moisture or water on the concrete surface, it must be removed prior
to testing.
• Do not test frozen concrete. Note: Concrete should only be tested after it has thawed,
since frozen concrete tends to have high rebound numbers.
• Avoid direct testing over steel reinforcement when cover thickness is less than 20 mm.
It is recommended to use a rebar locator to avoid testing on shallow depth
reinforcement.

Rebound Hammer Direction

In order to perform the rebound hammer test, the inspector should start by holding the
instrument firmly, and ensuring that the plunger is perpendicular to the test surface. It is also
important to record the orientation of the instrument with respect to horizontal to the nearest
45 degree increment. If the instrument is pointing upwards, a positive angle should be used &
if the instrument points downward a negative angle must be recorded.

Taking Measurements
Once the device is lined up, and the angle has been recorded, the inspector then gradually
pushes the instrument toward the test surface until the hammer impacts. After impact, maintain
pressure on the instrument and, depress the side button of the instrument to lock the plunger in
its retracted position. The rebound number is then recorded to the nearest whole number.
In order to ensure accuracy, 10 readings should be taken from each test area. In addition, the
distances between impact points should be at least 25 mm, and the distance between impact
points and edges of the member should be at least 50 mm. It is also important to note that if the
impact crushes or breaks through a near surface air void the reading must be disregarded and
another reading should be taken.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

As previously mentioned, due to different effects of gravity on the rebound as the test angle is
changed, the rebound number will be different for the same concrete and will require separate
calibration or correction charts.
How to Calculate Rebound Number
The following example shows how to rebound number is calculated and reported. Let’s assume
that the following 10 readings are obtained from one test location:
36 | 34 | 36 | 34 | 37 | 35 | 36 | 36 | 43 | 35
The average of these 10 readings is calculated:
Average 1 = (36+34+36+34+37+35+36+36+43+35)/10 = 36.2  36
Now, discard the readings that differ from the average of 10 readings by more than 6 units and
determine the average of the remaining readings.
Upper limit: 36+6 = 42
Lower limit: 36-6 = 30
By looking into the original readings, we can see that 43 (larger than the upper limit of 42)
should be discarded from the list, and the average of the remaining readings should be
calculated and reported as the average rebound number:
Average Modified = (36+34+36+34+37+35+36+36+35)/9 = 35.4  35
Note: If more than 2 readings differ from the average by 6 units, discard the entire set of
readings and determine rebound numbers at 10 new locations within the test area.
Note: Therefore, the range of ten readings should not exceed 12.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Influence of Test Conditions:

The rebound numbers are influenced by a number of factors like types of cement and aggregate,
surface condition and moisture content, age of concrete and extent of carbonation of concrete.
• Influence of Type of Cement
Concretes made with high alumina cement can give strengths 100 percent higher than that with
ordinary Portland cement. Concretes made with super sulphated cement can give 50 percent
lower strength than that with ordinary Portland cement.
• Influence of Type of Aggregate
Different types of aggregate used in concrete give different correlations between compressive
strength and rebound numbers. Normal aggregates such as gravels and crushed rock aggregates
give similar correlations, but concrete made with light weight aggregates require special
calibration.
• Influence of Surface Condition and Moisture Content of Concrete
The rebound hammer method is suitable only for close texture concrete. Open texture concrete
typical of masonry blocks, honeycombed concrete or no-fines concrete are unsuitable for this
test. All correlations assume full compaction, as the strength of partially compacted concrete
bears no unique relationship to the rebound numbers. Trowelled and floated surfaces are harder
than moulded surfaces, and tend to over estimate the strength of concrete.
A wet surface will give rise to under estimation of the strength of concrete calibrated under dry
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

conditions. In structural concrete, this can be about 20 percent lower than in an equivalent dry
concrete.
• Influence of Curing and Age of Concrete
The relationship between hardness and strength varies as a function of time. Variations in initial
rate of hardening, subsequent curing and conditions of exposure also influence the relationship.
Separate calibration curves are required for different curing regimes but the effect of age can
generally be ignored for concrete above 14 days old.
• Influence of Carbonation of Concrete Surface
The influence of carbonation of concrete surface on the rebound number is very significant.
Carbonated concrete gives an overestimate of strength which in extreme cases can be up to 50
percent. It is possible to establish correction factors by removing the carbonated layer and
testing the concrete with the rebound hammer on the uncarbonated concrete.
• Influence of Vertical distance from the bottom of concrete placement
The influence of vertical distance from the bottom of concrete placement on the rebound
number is very significant. Generally, a higher rebound number is observed near the bottom of
concrete placement. During compaction, the concentration of aggregates will be higher at the
bottom.
• Influence of Surface condition used in development of Correlation between
Compressive Strength and Rebound Number.
The direct correlation between rebound numbers and the strength of wet-cured and wet-tested
cubes is not recommended. It is necessary to establish a correlation between the strength of
wet-tested cubes and the strength of dry-tested cubes on which rebound readings are taken.

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

The ultrasonic pulse velocity method could be used to establish:
(i) the homogeneity of the concrete,
(ii) the presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections,
(iii) changes in the structure of the concrete which may occur with time,
(iv) the quality of the concrete in relation to standard requirements,
(v) the quality of one element of concrete in relation to another, and
(vi) the values of dynamic elastic modulus of the concrete.

Principle
The ultrasonic pulse is generated by an electro-acoustical transducer. When the pulse is induced
into the concrete from a transducer, it undergoes multiple reflections at the boundaries of the
different material phases within the concrete. A complex system of stress waves is developed
which includes longitudinal (compressional), shear (transverse) and surface (rayleigh) waves.
The receiving transducer detects the onset of the longitudinal waves, which is the fastest.
Because the velocity of the pulses is almost independent of the geometry of the material
through which they pass and depends only on its elastic properties, the pulse velocity method
is a convenient technique for investigating structural concrete.
The underlying principle of assessing the quality of concrete is that comparatively higher
velocities are obtained when the quality of concrete in terms of density, homogeneity and
uniformity is good. In case of poorer quality, lower velocities are obtained. If there is a crack,
void or flaw inside the concrete which comes in the way of transmission of the pulses, the pulse
strength is attenuated and it passes around the discontinuity, thereby making the path length
longer. Consequently, lower velocities are obtained. The actual pulse velocity obtained
depends primarily upon the materials and mix proportions of concrete. Density and modulus
of elasticity of aggregate also significantly affect the pulse velocity.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Procedure
1. In this test method, the ultrasonic pulse is produced by the transducer which is held in contact
with one surface of the concrete member under test. After traversing a known path length L in
the concrete, the pulse of vibrations is converted into an electrical signal by the second
transducer held in contact with the other surface of the concrete member and an electronic
timing circuit enables the transit time (T) of the pulse to be measured. The pulse velocity (V)
is given by:
V = L/T
2. Once the ultrasonic pulse impinges on the surface of the material, the maximum energy is
propagated at right angles to the face of the transmitting transducer and best results are,
therefore, obtained when the receiving transducer is placed on the opposite face of the concrete
member (direct transmission or cross probing). However, in many situations two opposite
faces of the structural member may not be accessible for measurements. In such cases, the
receiving transducer is also placed on the same face of the concrete members (surface
probing). Surface probing is not so efficient as cross probing, because the signal produced at
the receiving transducer has an amplitude of only 2 to 3 percent of that produced by cross
probing and the test results are greatly influenced by the surface layers of concrete which may
have different properties from that of concrete inside the structural member. The indirect
velocity is invariably lower than the direct velocity on the same concrete element. This
difference may vary from 5 to 20 percent depending largely on the quality of the concrete under
test. For good quality concrete, a difference of about 0.5 km/ sec may generally be encountered.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

3. To ensure that the ultrasonic pulses generated at the transmitting transducer pass into the
concrete and are then detected by the receiving transducer, it is essential that there be adequate
acoustical coupling between the concrete and the face of each transducer. Typical couplants
are petroleum jelly, grease, liquid soap and kaolin glycerol paste. If there is very rough concrete
surface, it is required to smoothen and level an area of the surface where the transducer is to be
placed. If it is necessary to work on concrete surfaces formed by other means, -for example
trowelling, it is desirable to measure pulse velocity over a longer path length than would
normally be used. A minimum path length of 150 mm is recommended for the direct
transmission method involving one unmoulded surface and a minimum of 400 mm for the
surface probing method along an unmoulded surface.
4. The natural frequency of transducers should preferably be within the range of 20 to 150 kHz.
Generally, high frequency transducers are preferable for short path lengths and low frequency
transducers for long path lengths. Transducers with a frequency of 50 to 60 kHz are useful for
most all-round applications.
5. Since size of aggregates influences the pulse velocity measurement, it is recommended that
the minimum path length should be 100 mm for concrete in which the nominal maximum size
of aggregate is 20 mm or less and 150 mm for concrete in which the nominal maximum size
of aggregate is between 20 to 40 mm.
6. In view of the inherent variability in the test results, sufficient number of readings are taken
by dividing the entire structure in suitable grid markings of 30 x 30 cm or even smaller. Each
junction point of the grid becomes a point of observation.
7. Transducers are held on corresponding points of observation on opposite faces of a structural
element to measure the ultrasonic pulse velocity by direct transmission, i.e., cross probing. If
one of the faces is not- accessible, ultrasonic pulse velocity is measured on one face of the
structural member by surface probing.
8. Surface, probing in general gives lower pulse velocity than in case of cross probing and
depending on number of parameters, the difference could be of the order of about 1 km/sec.

Influence of Test Conditions

• Influence of Surface Conditions and Moisture Content of Concrete
Smoothness of contact surface under test affects the measurement of ultrasonic pulse velocity.
For most concrete surfaces, the finish is usually sufficiently smooth to ensure good acoustical
contact by the use of a coupling medium and by pressing the transducer against the concrete
surface. When the concrete surface is rough and uneven, it is necessary to smoothen the surface
to make the pulse velocity measurement possible.
In general, pulse velocity through concrete increases with increased moisture content of
concrete. This influence is more for low strength concrete than high-strength concrete. The
pulse velocity of saturated concrete may be up to 2 per cent higher than that of similar dry
concrete. In general, drying of concrete may result in somewhat lower pulse velocity.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

• Influence of Path Length, Shape and Size of the Concrete Member

As concrete is inherently heterogeneous, it is essential that path lengths be sufficiently long so
as to avoid any error introduced due to its heterogeneity. In field work, this does not pose any
difficulty as the pulse velocity measurements are carried out on thick structural concrete
members. However, in the laboratory where generally small specimens are used, the path
length can affect the pulse velocity readings. The shape and size of the concrete member do
not influence the pulse velocity unless the least lateral dimension is less than a certain minimum
value, for example the minimum lateral dimension of about 80 mm for 50 kHz natural
frequency of the transducer.
• Influence of Temperature of Concrete
Variations of the concrete temperature between 5 and 30°C do not significantly affect the pulse
velocity measurements in concrete. At temperatures between 30 to 60°C there can be reduction
in pulse velocity up to 5 percent. Below freezing temperature, the free water freezes within
concrete, resulting in an increase .in pulse velocity up to 7.5 percent.
• Influence of Stress
When concrete is subjected to a stress which is abnormally high for the quality of the concrete,
the pulse velocity may be reduced due to the development of micro-cracks. This influence is
likely to be the greatest when the pulse path is normal to the predominant direction of the planes
of such micro-cracks. This occurs when the pulse path is perpendicular to the direction of a
uniaxial compressive stress in a member. This influence is generally insignificant unless the
stress is greater than about 60 percent of the ultimate strength of the concrete.
• Effect of Reinforcing Bars
The pulse velocity measured in reinforced concrete in the vicinity of reinforcing bars is usually
higher than in plain concrete of the same composition. This is because, the pulse velocity in
steel is 1.2 to 1.9 times the velocity in plain concrete and, under certain conditions, the first
pulse to arrive at the receiving transducer travels partly in concrete and partly in steel. The
apparent increase in pulse velocity depends upon the proximity of the measurements to the
reinforcing bar, the diameter and number of the bars and their orientation with respect to the
path of propagation.

Interpretation of Result
1. The ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete is mainly related to its density and modulus of
elasticity. This, in turn, depends upon the materials and mix proportions used in making
concrete as well as the method of placing, compaction and curing of concrete.
For example, if the concrete is not compacted as thoroughly as possible, or if there is
segregation of concrete during placing or there are internal cracks or flaws, the pulse velocity
will be lower, although the same materials and mix proportions are used.
2. The quality of concrete in terms of uniformity, incidence or absence of internal flaws, cracks
and segregation, etc, indicative of the level of workmanship employed; can thus be assessed
using the guidelines given in Tables, which have been evolved for characterising the quality of
concrete in structures in terms of the ultrasonic pulse velocity.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

3. The assessment of compressive strength of concrete from ultrasonic pulse velocity values is
not adequate because the statistical confidence of the correlation between ultrasonic pulse
velocity and the compressive strength of concrete is not very high. The reason is that a large
number of parameters are involved, which influence the pulse velocity and compressive
strength of concrete to different extents. However, if actual concrete materials and mix
proportions adopted in a particular structure are available, then estimate of concrete strength
can be made by establishing suitable correlation between the pulse velocity and the
compressive strength of concrete specimens made with such materials and mix proportions,
under environmental conditions similar to that in the structure. The estimated strength may
vary from the actual strength by 20 percent.

Estimation of strength of concrete: Various researchers have attempted to correlate the

compressive and flexural strength of concrete with pulse velocity. The figure shows the
relationship between pulse velocity and compressive strength for various aggregate/cement
ratio.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete

Elastic properties of concrete:
• In the theory of reinforced concrete, it is assumed that concrete is elastic, isotropic, and
homogenous and that it conforms to Hooke’s law. Actually, none of these assumptions are
strictly true and concrete is not a perfectly elastic material. Concrete deforms when load is
applied but this deformation does not follow any simple set rule.
• When reinforced concrete is designed by elastic theory it is assumed that a perfect bond
exists between concrete and steel. The stress in steel is “m” times the stress in concrete
where “m” is the ratio between modulus of elasticity of steel and concrete, known as the
modular ratio.
• The accuracy of design will naturally be dependent upon the value of the modulus of
elasticity of concrete, because the modulus of elasticity of steel is more or less a definite
quantity.

Stress vs Strain curve

• The modulus of elasticity is determined by subjecting a cube or cylinder specimen to
uniaxial compression and measuring the deformations by means of dial gauges fixed
between certain gauge length.
• Dial gauge reading divided by gauge length will give the strain and load applied divided
by area of cross section will give the stress.
• A series of readings are taken and the stress-strain relationship is established.
• The stress-strain curve for hardened cement paste is almost linear as shown in the figure.
The aggregate is more rigid than the cement paste and will therefore deform less (i.e. have
a lower strain) under the same applied stress. The stress-strain curve of concrete lies
between those of the aggregate and the cement paste. However, this relationship is non-
linear over most of the range. The reason for this non-linear behaviour is that micro-cracks
are formed- At the interface between aggregate particles and cement paste as a result of the
differential movement between the two phases, and within the cement paste itself.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

• The modulus of elasticity so found from actual loading is called static modulus of
elasticity. It is seen that even under short-term loading concrete does not behave as an
elastic material. However, up to about 10-15% of the ultimate strength of concrete, the
stress-strain graph is not very much curved and hence can give a more accurate value. For
higher stresses, the stress-strain relationship will be greatly curved and as such it will be
inaccurate.

• The term Young’s modulus of elasticity can strictly be applied only to the straight part of
the stress-strain curve. In the case of concrete, since no part of the graph is straight, the
modulus of elasticity is found with reference to the tangent drawn to the curve at the origin.
The modulus found from this tangent is referred to as the initial tangent modulus. This
gives satisfactory results only at low-stress values. For higher stress values it gives a
misleading picture.
• Tangent can also be drawn at any other point on the stress-strain curve. The modulus of
elasticity calculated with reference to this tangent is then called tangent modulus. The
tangent modulus also does not give a realistic value of the modulus of elasticity for the
stress level much above or much below the point at which the tangent is drawn. The value
of the modulus of elasticity will be satisfactory only for stress levels in the vicinity of the
point considered.
• A line can be drawn connecting a specified point on the stress-strain curve to the origin of
the curve. If the modulus of elasticity is calculated with reference to the slope of this line,
the modulus of elasticity is referred to as the secant modulus. If the modulus of elasticity
is found out with reference to the chord drawn between two specified points on the stress-
strain curve then such value of the modulus of elasticity is known as chord modulus.

Relation between Modulus of Elasticity and Strength

At the same stress-strength ratio, stronger concrete has higher strain. On the contrary, the
stronger the concrete higher the modulus of elasticity. This can be explained because the
stronger the concrete the stronger the gel and hence less strain for a given load. Because of the
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

lower the strain, the higher the modulus of elasticity. The Table presented gives the values of
the modulus of elasticity for various strengths of concrete.

The modulus of elasticity of concrete increases approximately with the square root of the
strength. The IS 456 of 2000 gives the Modulus of elasticity as

where EC is the short-term static modulus of elasticity in N/mm2, fck represents the characteristic
strength of the concrete.

Characteristic and design stress-strain curve (According to IS: 456 - 2000)

For design purposes, the compressive strength of concrete in the structure shall be assumed to
be 0.67 times the characteristic strength. The partial safety factor γm = 1.5 shall be applied in
addition to this.

Factors Affecting Modulus of Elasticity

• As explained earlier, one of the important factors affecting the modulus of elasticity of
concrete is the strength of concrete. The higher the strength, the higher is the modulus
of elasticity.
• Older concrete which again is supposed to have become stronger shows a higher modulus
of elasticity, thereby confirming that the stronger the concrete higher the modulus of
elasticity.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

• The modulus of elasticity also depends upon the state of wetness of concrete when other
conditions are the same. Wet concrete will show a higher modulus of elasticity than dry
concrete. This is in contrast to the strength property that dry concrete has higher strength
than wet concrete. The possible reason is that wet concrete being saturated with water,
experiences less strain for a given stress and, therefore, gives a higher modulus of elasticity,
whereas dry concrete shows higher strain for given stress on account of less gel water and
inter-crystal adsorbed water.
• The quality and quantity of aggregate will have a significant effect on the modulus of
elasticity. It is to be remembered that the strength of aggregate will not have a significant
effect on the strength of concrete, whereas, the modulus of elasticity of aggregate
influences the modulus of elasticity of concrete. It has been seen that if the modulus of
elasticity of aggregate is Ea and that of the paste Ep then the modulus of elasticity of
concrete E is found to be:

where Vp and Va are the volume of paste and aggregate respectively in the concrete.

Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity

The dynamic modulus of elasticity can be determined by subjecting the concrete member to
longitudinal vibration at their natural frequency. This method involves the determination of
either resonant frequency through a specimen of concrete or pulse velocity travelling through
the concrete. By making use of the above parameters modulus of elasticity can be calculated,
using the resonant frequency, from the following relationship.

where Ed is the dynamic modulus of elasticity; K is a constant, n is the resonant frequency; L

is the length of specimen; and ρ is the density of concrete.
A formula is presented that uses a pulse velocity (from UPV test), Poisson’s ratio and concrete
unit weight to obtain the modulus of the dynamic elasticity of the concrete is as follows:

where v is the pulse velocity and μ is the Poisson’s ratio.

An approximate relationship between the two moduli expressed in GN/m2 is given by

where Ec and Ed are the static and dynamic modulus of elasticity.

Poisson’s Ratio
• Sometimes in the design and analysis of structures, the knowledge of Poisson’s ratio is
required. Poisson’s ratio is the ratio between lateral strain to the longitudinal strain.
• It is generally denoted by the letter μ.
• For normal concrete, the value of Poisson’s ratio lies in the range of 0.15 to 0.20 when
actually determined from strain measurements.
• As an alternative method, Poisson’s ratio can be determined from the ultrasonic pulse
velocity method and by finding out the fundamental resonant frequency of longitudinal
vibration of the concrete beam. The Poisson’s ratio μ can be calculated from the following
equation.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Creep
• Concrete creep is defined as the deformation of a structure under sustained load.
• Basically, long-term pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape.
• This deformation usually occurs in the direction the force is being applied. Like a concrete
column getting more compressed, or a beam bending.
• Creep does not necessarily cause concrete to fail or break apart.
• When a load is applied to concrete, it experiences an instantaneous elastic strain which
develops into creep strain if the load is sustained.
• Creep can be defined as “the time-dependent” part of the strain resulting from stress. We
have discussed earlier that the stress-strain relationship of concrete is not a straight-line
relationship but a curved one. The degree of curvature of the stress-strain relationship
depends upon many factors amongst which the intensity of stress and time for which the
load is acting are of significant interest. Therefore, it clearly shows that the relation
between stress and strain for concrete is a function of time. The gradual increase in
strain, without an increase in stress, with time is due to creep. From this explanation,
creep can also be defined as the increase in strain under sustained stress.

The values from creep strain are used in the deflection calculation. The creep strain in concrete,
Єcc can be predicted from:

where:
• Et: is the modulus of elasticity of concrete at the age of loading t
• ϕ is the creep coefficient
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Factors Affecting Creep

1. Aggregate
2. Mix Proportions
3. Age of concrete
The magnitude of creep strain is one to three times the value of the instantaneous elastic strain,
it is proportional to cement-paste content and, thus, inversely proportional to aggregate
volumetric content. The magnitude of creep is dependent upon the magnitude of the applied
stress, the age and strength of the concrete, properties of aggregates and cementitious materials,
amount of cement paste, size and shape of the concrete specimen, volume to surface ratio,
amount of steel reinforcement, curing conditions, and environmental conditions.
1. Influence of Aggregate:
Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is really the paste which is responsible for the creep.
However, the aggregate influences the creep of concrete through a restraining effect on the
magnitude of creep. The paste which is creeping under load is restrained by aggregate which
do not creep. The stronger the aggregate the more is the restraining effect and hence the less is
the magnitude of creep. An increase from 65 to 75 % of the volumetric content of the aggregate
will decrease the creep by 10 %.
The modulus of elasticity of aggregate is one of the important factors influencing creep. It can
be easily imagined that the higher the modulus of elasticity the less the creep. Light-weight
aggregate shows substantially higher creep than normal weight aggregate.
2. Influence of Mix Proportions:
The amount of paste content and its quality is one of the most important factors influencing
creep. A poorer paste structure undergoes higher creep. Therefore, it can be said that creep
increases with an increase in the water/cement ratio. In other words, it can also be said that
creep is inversely proportional to the strength of concrete. Broadly speaking, all other factors
which are affecting the water/cement ratio are also affecting the creep.
3. Influence of Age:
The age at which a concrete member is loaded will have a predominant effect on the magnitude
of creep. This can be easily understood from the fact that the quality of the gel improves with
time, such gel creeps less. Whereas a young gel under load being not so strong creeps more.
What is said above is not a very accurate statement because the moisture content of the concrete
is different at different ages and also influences the magnitude of creep.

Effects of Creep on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

• In reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection with time and may be a critical
consideration in design.
• In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can load to buckling.
• In the case of statically indeterminate structures and column and beam junctions creep may
relieve the stress concentration induced by shrinkage, temperature changes or movement
of support. Creep property of concrete will be useful in all concrete structures to reduce the
internal stresses due to non-uniform load or restrained shrinkage.
• In mass concrete structures such as dams, on account of differential temperature conditions
at the interior and surface, creep is harmful and by itself may be a cause of cracking in the
interior of dams. Therefore, all precautions and steps must be taken to see that an increase
in temperature does not take place in the interior of the mass concrete structure.
• Loss of prestress due to creep of concrete in the prestressed concrete structure.
• Because of rapid construction techniques, concrete members will experience loads that can
be as large as the design loads at very early age; these can cause deflections due to cracking
and early age low elastic modulus. So, creep has a significant effect on both the structural
integrity and the economic impact that it will produce if predicted wrong.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Shrinkage
Shrinkage of the concrete is the short-term deformation of the concrete. It will occur when the
entrapped air is expelled out, or swelling occurs for any reason. Due to the expulsion of the air,
shrinkage of concrete occurs, and the volume reduces of the concrete material.
Shrinkage is caused by decrease in either concrete length or volume resulting from changes in
moisture content or chemical changes. The need to facilitate placement and consolidation of
concrete often results in the decision to use a greater amount of mixing water than is needed
for the hydration process. The used water content creates movement and generates tensile
stresses that pull the cement paste closer causing shrinkage. Concrete shrinkage can lead to
cracking, curling of slabs, and dimensional instability of concrete members.

Causes of concrete shrinkage

The are many causes for concrete shrinkage, they can be listed as;
• High cementitious materials content
• Water evaporation
• Addition of excessive water in concrete
• Contraction of the hydration products
• The surface-area-to-volume ratio of concrete
• Environmental factors
• Low water-cement ratio
• Cement hydration
• High air temperature
• Low humidity
• Instability of concrete drying
• Type of Coarse Aggregates
• Shape of Aggregates
• Moisture Movement in Concrete

Different types of concrete shrinkage and their preventions

1. Plastic shrinkage
Plastic shrinkage develops on the surface of the fresh concrete. It is a consequence of water
evaporation from the surface of fresh concrete or absorption in the concrete form or bedding.
It is a contraction in volume due to water movement from the concrete while still in the plastic
state, or before it sets. This movement of water can be during the hydration process or from the
environmental conditions leading to evaporation of water that resides on the surface on the wet
concrete. So, the more the concrete bleeds, the greater the plastic shrinkage should be. It is
proportional to cement content and, therefore, inversely proportional to the w/c ratio.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Prevention of plastic shrinkage

• Preventing the rapid loss of water from the surface.
• The surface covering with the help of polyethylene sheeting
• Proper vibration of the concrete
• Use of expansive cement or shrinkage compensating cement
• Use of aluminum powder
• Reducing the temperature of a concrete mixture
• The use of micro-synthetic fibers
• The use of an evaporation reducer

2. Drying shrinkage
Most of the building materials having pores in their structure in the form of intermolecular
space, expand on absorbing moisture from the atmosphere and shrink on drying. These
movements are reversible, causing cracks in buildings in the form of Drying shrinkage.
Drying shrinkage occurs when water starts evaporating from the exposed surface and the
moisture differential along the depth of the slab causes strain which induces tensile stresses.

Prevention of drying shrinkage

• Using a concrete with a lower water content
• Selection quality ingredients for the concrete mix
• Maintaining the water /cement ratio of the concrete mix
• Reduction of cement paste volume
• Good curing
• Providing movement joints and sufficient crack control reinforcement.

3. Autogenous shrinkage
Autogenous shrinkage occurs after the initial setting of concrete due to hydration, since this
process requires water and therefore reduces the internal free water. It is caused because of a
self-desiccation process in the pores of cement stone, it is the use of water in the cement
hydration processes. The process of self-desiccation begins in these pores because of the
process of hydration i.e. inside the cement stone structure all water is used for hydration and
humidity cannot reach fast enough from the outside due to density structure.
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Prevention of autogenous shrinkage

• Levelling the cement content in the mix
• The use of low-heat cement
• Use of shrinkage-reducing admixture
• Application steel fibres and polypropylene fibres
• Addition of pre-soaked lightweight aggregate

4. Carbonation shrinkage
Carbonation shrinkage occurs in hardened concrete. CO2 (carbon dioxide) from the
environment on cement stone causes chemical reactions. This leads to the formation of calcium
carbonate and water and, consequently, a reduction in volume. It is observed in areas that have
intermediate humidity conditions.

Prevention of carbonation shrinkage

• Suitable joints can be provided in the structure during its casting
• Providing regular contraction joints in the concrete
• Use of higher the modulus of the aggregate
• Use of lower cement content
Module 3 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

5. Thermal shrinkage
Thermal shrinkage is caused by the contraction of the movement of concrete. Seasonal
variation of temperature could lead to cracking of concrete that can cause as a result of the
thermal contraction in the concrete. These types of shrinkages can be prevented by controlled
by the use of shrinkage compensating admixture and reducing agents.