Module 1 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Concrete Technology
Cement

Cement: Portland cement- chemical composition, Hydration, Setting of cement, Structure of

hydrate cement, Test on physical properties, Different grades of cement.
Module 1 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Cement

• Cement is a material with adhesive and cohesive properties which make it capable of
bonding mineral fragments into a compact whole. For constructional purposes, the meaning
of the term "cement" is restricted to the binding materials used with stones, sand, bricks,
etc.
• The name "Portland cement" was given originally due to the resemblance of the colour and
quality of the hardened cement to Portland stone (found in Portland Island, England).

Properties of Cement
The important properties of cement are as follows:
➢ It acts as an excellent binding material.
➢ It gives strength to the concrete or masonry.
➢ It offers good resistance to the moisture.
➢ It makes the fresh concrete or mortar easily workable.
➢ It stiffens or hardens in less time.

Manufacturing Process of Portland cement

Raw materials
• Calcareous material – such as limestone or chalk, as a source of lime (CaO).
• Clayey material – such as clay or shale (soft clayey stones), as a source of silica and alumina.

There are four stages in the manufacture of Portland cement:

1. crushing and grinding the raw materials,
2. blending the materials in the correct proportions,
3. burning the prepared mix in a kiln, and
4. grinding the burned product, known as “clinker” (3-25 mm diameter) together with
some 5 per cent of gypsum (to control the time of set of the cement).

Methods of Cement Manufacturing

The three processes of manufacturing cement are:
1. Wet process - raw materials are ground wet and fed to the kiln as a slurry.
2. Dry process - raw materials are ground dry and fed as a dry powder.
3. Semidry process - raw materials are ground dry and then moistened to form nodules
that are fed to the kiln.
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Crushing and grinding of raw materials

• All except soft materials are first crushed, often in two stages, and then are grounded,
usually in rotating, cylindrical ball mills, or tube mills containing steel grinding balls.
• Soft materials are broken down by vigorous stirring with water in wash mills, producing a
fine slurry, which is passed through screens to remove oversized particles.
• This grinding is done wet or dry, depending on the process in use, but for dry grinding the
raw materials first may need to be dried in cylindrical, rotary dryers.
Blending
• In the dry process, these mixes are stored in silos and are mixed thoroughly ensured by
agitation and vigorous circulation induced by compressed air.
• In the wet process, the mixes are stored in slurry tanks. The slurry tanks are stirred by
mechanical means, by compressed air or both. The slurry, which contains 35 to 45 per cent
water, is sometimes filtered, reducing the water content to 20 to 30 per cent, and the filter
cake is then fed to the kiln.
Burning
• The earliest kilns in which cement was burned in batches were bottle kilns, followed by
chamber kilns and then by continuous shaft kilns. The shaft kiln in a modernized form is
still used in some countries.
• The dominant means of burning is the rotary kiln. These kilns (up to 200 metres long and
6 metres in diameter in wet process plants but shorter for the dry process) consist of a steel,
cylindrical shell lined with refractory materials. They rotate slowly on an axis that is
Module 1 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

inclined a few degrees to the horizontal. The raw material feed, introduced at the upper end,
moves slowly down the kiln to the lower, or firing end.
• The fuel for firing may be pulverized coal, oil, or natural gas injected through a pipe. The
temperature at the firing end ranges from about 1,350 to 1,550 °C. The burned product
emerges from the kiln as small nodules of clinker. This process of heating the raw materials
in a controlled environment is called calcination. These pass into coolers, where the heat
is transferred to incoming air and the product is cooled. The clinker may be immediately
ground to cement or stored in stockpiles for later use.
• In the semidry process the raw materials, in the form of nodules containing 10 to 15 percent
water, are fed onto a travelling chain grate before passing to the shorter rotary kiln. Hot
gases coming from the kiln are sucked through the raw nodules on the grate, preheating the
nodules.
• Dust emissions from cement kilns can be a serious nuisance. In populated areas, it is usual
and often compulsory to fit cyclone arrestors, bag-filter systems, or electrostatic dust
precipitators between the kiln exit and the chimney stack.
Grinding and Storage
• The cooled clinker, which is characteristically black and hard, and the required amount of
gypsum are grounded to a fine powder in horizontal ball mills similar to those used for
grinding the raw materials.
• The cement discharged by the mill is pumped pneumatically through a separator to the
storage silo from which it is drawn for packing in paper bags or for dispatch in bulk
containers.
• Fine particles are moved to the silo by an air current, while the coarser particles are passed
through the mill once again.
Chemical Composition of Cement
Ingredient Percentage in cement
Lime (CaO) 60-67
Silica (SiO2) 17-25
Alumina (Al2O3) 3-8
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5-6
Magnesia (MgO) 0.1-4
Sulfur Trioxide (SO3) 1.3-3
Alkalies (K2O, Na2O) 0.4-1.3
Calcium Sulfate 2
Functions of Cement Ingredients
The main features of these cement ingredients along with their functions and usefulness or
harmfulness are given below:
1. Lime: Lime is calcium oxide (CaO) or calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2).
o The presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form silicates and
aluminates of calcium.
o Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of the property to the cement.
o Deficiency in lime causes the cement to set quickly.
o Excess lime makes cement unsound.
o The excessive presence of lime causes the cement to expand and disintegrate.
2. Silica: Silicon dioxide is known as silica, chemical formula SiO2.
o A sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to form dicalcium and
tricalcium silicate.
Module 1 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

o Silica imparts strength to cement.

o Excess of silica increases the strength but the setting time also increases.
3. Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium oxide. The chemical formula is Al2O3.
o Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.
o Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite quantity of
alumina.
o Excess alumina weakens the cement.
4. Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide. The chemical formula is MgO. Provides toughness and
colour.
o Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.
o Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.
o If MgO is more than 5%, it may cause cracks in the hardened concrete or mortar.
5. Iron oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3.
o Iron oxide imparts grey colour to cement.
o It acts as a flux.
6. Calcium Sulfate: Chemical formula is CaSO4
o This is present in cement in the form of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
o It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.
7. Sulfur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3
o It should not be present for more than 2%.
o Excess Sulfur Trioxide causes the cement to unsound.
8. Alkalies: (K2O, Na2O, MgO etc.)
o It should not be present more than 1%.
o Excess Alkaline matter causes efflorescence due to alkali-aggregate reaction.

Indian standard specification for 33 grade cement, IS 269-1989, specifies the following
chemical requirements:
(a) Ratio of percentage of lime to percentage of silica, alumina and iron oxide; known as Lime
Saturation Factor, when calculated by the formula
(CaO - 0.7 SO3)/(2.8 SiO2 +1.2 Al2O3 + 0.65 Fe2O3) - Not greater than 1.02 and not less than
0.66
(b) Ratio of percentage of alumina to that of iron oxide - Not less than 0.66
(c) Weight of insoluble residue - Not more than 4 per cent
(d) Weight of magnesia - Not more than 6 per cent
(e) Total sulphur content, calculated as sulphuric - Not more than 2.5%
when anhydride (SO3) - C3A is 5% or less.
Not more than 3%, when C3A is more than 5%
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(f ) Total loss on ignition - Not more than 5 per cent

Hydration of cement
The chemical reactions that take place between cement and water is referred as hydration of
cement. Hydration is the process by which Portland cement becomes a firm, hardened mass
after the addition of water. As mentioned earlier the oxides persent in the raw materials when
subjected to high clinkering temperature combine with each other to form complex compounds.
The identification of the major compounds is largely based on R.H. Bogue’s work and hence
it is called “Bogue’s Compounds”. The four compounds usually regarded as major compounds
are:
1. Tricalcium silicate (3CaO · SiO2) – C3S – responsible for initial strength
2. Dicalcium silicate (2CaO · SiO2) – C2S – responsible for gradual and final strength
3. Tricalcium aluminate (3CaO · Al2O3) – C3A – responsible for setting of cement, heat
of hydration
4. Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite (4CaO · Al2O3Fe2O3) – C4AF – responsible for colour of
cement, resistant to sulphur
The equations suggested by Bogue for calculating the percentages of major compounds are
given below.

In addition to the four major compounds, there are many minor compounds formed in the kiln.
The influence of these minor compounds on the properties of cement or hydrated compounds
is not significant. Two of the minor oxides namely K2O and Na2O referred to as alkalis in
cement are of some importance.
Calcium Silicate Hydrates
Tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate are the most important compounds responsible for
strength. Together they constitute 70 to 80 per cent of cement. The average C 3S content in
modern cement is about 45 per cent and that of C2S is about 25 per cent.
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Anhydrous cement compounds when mixed with water, react with each other to form hydrated
compounds of very low solubility. The hydration of cement can be visualised in two ways. The
first is “through solution” mechanism. In this the cement compounds dissolve to produce a
supersaturated solution from which different hydrated products get precipitated. The second
possibility is that water attacks cement compounds in the solid state converting the compounds
into hydrated products starting from the surface and proceeding to the interior of the
compounds with time. The calcium silicates (C3S and C2S) react with water molecules to form
calcium silicate hydrate (3CaO · 2SiO2 · 3H2O) or C-S-H gels, which binds cement and
concrete together, and Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). It makes up 50-60 per cent of the volume
of solids in a completely hydrated cement paste.

C3S readily reacts with water and produces more heat of hydration. It is responsible for early
strength of concrete. A cement with more C3S content is better for cold weather concreting.
C2S hydrates rather slowly. It is responsible for the later strength of concrete. It produces less
heat of hydration. The calcium silicate hydrate formed is rather dense and its specific surface
is higher. In general, the quality of the proudct of hydration of C2S is better than that produced
in the hydration of C3S.

Calcium Hydroxide
The other products of hydration of C3S and C2S is calcium hydroxide. It constitutes 20 to 25
per cent of the volume of solids in the hydrated paste. The lack of durability of concrete, is on
account of the presence of calcium hydroxide. The calcium hydroxide also reacts with
sulphates present in soils or water to form calcium sulphate which further reacts with C3A and
cause deterioration of concrete. This is known as sulphate attack. To reduce the quantity of
Ca(OH)2 in concrete and to overcome its bad effects by converting it into cementitious product
is an advancement in concrete technology. The use of blending materials such as fly ash, silica
fume and such other pozzolanic materials are the steps to overcome bad effect of Ca(OH)2 in
concrete.
The only advantage is that Ca(OH)2, being alkaline in nature maintains pH value around 13 in
the concrete which resists the corrosion of reinforcements.

Calcium Aluminate Hydrates

C3A
• Due to the hydration of C3A, a calcium aluminate system CaO – Al2O3 – H2O is formed.
The cubic compound C3AH6 is probably the only stable compound formed which remains
stable upto about 225°C.
• The reaction of pure C3A with water is very fast and this may lead to flash set. To prevent
this flash set, gypsum is added at the time of grinding the cement clinker. The quantity of
gypsum added has a bearing on the quantity of C3A present.
• The hydrated aluminates do not contribute anything to the strength of concrete. On the
other hand, their presence is harmful to the durability of concrete particularly where the
concrete is likely to be attacked by sulphates.
Module 1 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

C4AF
• On hydration, C4AF is believed to form a system of the form CaO – Fe2O3 – H2O. A
hydrated calcium ferrite of the form C3FH6 is comparatively more stable.
• This hydrated product also does not contribute anything to the strength. The hydrates
of C4AF show a comparatively higher resistance to the attack of sulphates than the
hydrates of calcium aluminate.
• From the standpoint of hydration, it is convenient to discuss C3A and C4AF together,
because the products formed in the presence of gypsum are similar.
• Gypsum and alkalies go into solution quickly and the solubility of C3A is depressed
due to formation of either the calcium aluminate trisulphate hydrate (C6AS 3H32) or
calcium aluminate monosulhphate hydrate (C4ASH18). The calcium aluminate
trisulphate hydrate is known as ettringite. Ettringite is usually the first to hydrate and
crystallise as short prismatic needle on account of the high sulphate/aluminate ratio in
solution phase during the first hour of hydration. When sulphate in solution gets
depleted, the aluminate concentration goes up due to renewed hydration of C3A and
C4AF. At this stage ettringite becomes unstable and is gradually converted into mono-
sulphate, which is the final product of hydration of portland cements containing more
than 5 percent C3A.
Heat of Hydration
The reaction of cement with water is exothermic. The reaction liberates a considerable quantity
of heat. This liberation of heat is called heat of hydration. This is clearly seen if freshly mixed
cement is put in a vaccum flask and the temperature of the mass is read at intervals. The study
and control of the heat of hydration becomes important in the construction of concrete dams
and other mass concrete constructions. It has been observed that the temperature in the interior
of large mass concrete is 50°C above the original temperature of the concrete mass at the time
of placing and this high temperature is found to persist for a prolonged period.

Structure of Hydrated Cement

To understand the behaviour of concrete, it is necessary to acquaint ourselves with the structure
of hydrated hardened cement paste. If the concrete is considered as two phase material, namely,
the paste phase and the aggregate phase, the understanding of the paste phase becomes more
important as it influences the behaviour of concrete to a much greater extent. It will be
discussed later that the strength, the permeability, the durability, the drying shrinkage, the
elastic properties, the creep and volume change properties of concrete is greatly influenced by
the paste structure. The aggregate phase though important, has lesser influence on the
properties of concrete than the paste phase. Therefore, in our study to understand concrete, it
is important that we have a deep understanding of the structure of the hydrated hardened cement
paste at a phenomenological level.
Transition Zone
Concrete is generally considered as two phase material i.e., paste phase and aggregates phase.
At macro level it is seen that aggregate particles are dispersed in a matrix of cement paste. At
the microscopic level, the complexities of the concrete begin to show up, particularly in the
Module 1 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

vicinity of large aggregate particles. This area can be considered as a third phase, the transition
zone, which represents the interfacial region between the particles of coarse aggregate and
hardened cement paste. Transition zone is generally a plane of weakness and, therefore, has far
greater influence on the mechanical behaviour of concrete.
Water Requirements for Hydration
It has been brought out earlier that C3S requires 24% of water by weight of cement and C2S
requires 21%. It has also been estimated that on an average 23% of water by weight of cement
is required for chemical reaction with Portland cement compounds. This 23% of water
chemically combines with cement and, therefore, it is called bound water. A certain quantity
of water is imbibed within the gel-pores. This water is known as gel-water. It can be said that
bound water and gel-water are complimentary to each other. If the quantity of water is
inadequate to fill up the gel-pores, the formations of gel itself will stop and if the formation of
gel stops there is no question of gel-pores being present. It has been further estimated that about
15 per cent by weight of cement is required to fill up the gel-pores. Therefore, a total 38 per
cent of water by weight of cement is required for the complete chemical reactions and to occupy
the space within gel-pores. If water equal to 38 per cent by weight of cement is only used it can
be noticed that the resultant paste will undergo full hydration and no extra water will be
available for the formation of undesirable capillary cavities. On the other hand, if more than 38
per cent of water is used, then the excess water will cause undesirable capillary cavities.
Therefore greater the water above the minimum required is used (38 per cent), the more will
be the undesirable capillary cavities.

Various tests on Cement

Basically, two types of tests are undertaken to assess the quality of cement.

Field test:
There are four types of field tests to assess the colour, physical properties, and strength of the
cement as described below.
(i) Colour
• The colour of cement should be uniform.
• It should be a typical cement colour i.e. grey colour with a light greenish shade.
(ii) Physical properties
• Cement should feel smooth when touched between fingers.
• If the hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement, it should feel cool.
(iii) Presence of lumps
• Cement should be free from lumps.
• For a moisture content of about 5 to 8%, this increase of volume may be as much as 20 to 40
%, depending upon the grading of sand.
(iv) Strength
• A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of thick glass and it is kept under water
for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
Take about 100 grams of cement and a small quantity of water and make a stiff paste. From
the stiff paste, pat a cake with sharp edges. Put it on a glass plate and slowly take it under water
in a bucket. See that the shape of the cake is not disturbed while taking it down to the bottom
of the bucket. After 24 hours the cake should retain its original shape and at the same time it
should also set and attain some strength.
(v) Take a handful of cement and throw it on a bucket full of water, the particles should float
for some time before they sink.
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Laboratory tests:
Six laboratory tests are conducted mainly to assess the quality of cement. These are fineness,
compressive strength, consistency, setting time, soundness and tensile strength.

(i) Fineness
• This test is carried out to check the proper grinding of cement.
• The fineness of cement particles may be determined either by a sieve test or a permeability
apparatus test.
• In the Sieve test, the cement weighing 100 grams is taken and it is continuously passed for
15 minutes through a standard 90-micron sieve. The residue is then weighed and this weight
should not be more than 10% of the original weight.
• Air Permeability Method
This method of test covers the procedure for determining the fineness of cement as represented
by specific surface expressed as total surface area in sq. cm/gm. of cement. It is also expressed
in m2/kg.
1. Lea and Nurse Air Permeability Apparatus
2. Blain Air Permeability Apparatus

Lea and Nurse Air Permeability Apparatus

The cement bed in the permeability cell is 1 cm. high and 2.5 cm. in diameter. Knowing the
density of cement the weight required to make a cement bed of porosity of 0.475 can be
calculated.
Weight of cement = porosity × density × volume
This quantity of cement is placed in the permeability cell in a standard manner. Slowly pass on
air through the cement bed at a constant velocity. Adjust the rate of air flow until the flowmeter
shows a difference in level of 30-50 cm. Read the difference in level (h1) of the manometer and
the difference in level (h2) of the flowmeter. Repeat these observations to ensure that steady
conditions have been obtained as shown by a constant value of h1/h2. Specific surface Sw is
calculated from the following formula:
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Blain Air Permeability Apparatus

Procedure:
1. Put a filter paper into the cell then weight 2.84g of cement sample into it.
2. Put another filter paper on it and compress with the plunger.
3. Attach the cell on top of the U-tube manometer.
4. Evacuate the air in the manometer through the side tube using the aspirator bulb until
the oil reaches level 1.
5. Close the side valve and monitor the oil as it start to fall.
6. Using a stop watch, measure the time taken (t) for the oil to fall from level 2 to level 3.
Blaine’s Sw =k√t
k is 523.0547
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(ii) Compressive strength

• The mortar of cement and sand is prepared in a ratio of 1:3 in a non-porous enamel tray and
mix them with a trowel for one minute.
• add water of quantity (P/4 + 3.0) per cent of combined weight of cement and sand (or water-
cement ratio of 0.4 is fixed) and mix the three ingredients thoroughly until the mixture is of
uniform colour.
• The time of mixing should not be less than 3 minutes nor more than 4 minutes.
• The mortar is placed in metal cube moulds (of size 70.6 mm or 76 mm). For 70.6 mm and 76
mm cubes, the cement required is 185 gm and 235 gm, respectively.

• Then the mortar is compacted in a vibrating machine for 2 minutes (to remove the voids) and
the moulds are placed in a damp cabin for 24 hours.
• The specimens are removed from the moulds and they are submerged in clean water for
curing.
• The cubes are then tested in a compression testing machine at the end of 3, 7 and 28 days.
Thus, compressive strength is obtained.

(iii) Consistency
The purpose of this test is to determine the percentage of water required for preparing cement
pastes for other tests.
• Take 300 gm of cement and add 30 per cent by weight or 90 gm of water to it.
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• Mix water and cement thoroughly.

• Fill the mould of the Vicat’s apparatus and the gauging time should be 3.75 to 4.25 minutes.
• Vicat apparatus consists of a movable rod with an indicator attached to it. The movable rod
bears the needles.
• There are three attachments: plunger, square needle, and needle with annular collar.
• The plunger is attached to the movable rod for the consistency test. The plunger is brought
down to touch the surface of the paste in the test block and quickly released allowing it to sink
into the paste by its own weight.
• The settlement of the plunger is noted. If the penetration is between 5 mm to 7 mm from the
bottom of the mould, the water added is correct. If not, the process is repeated with different
percentages of water till the desired penetration is obtained.
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(iv) Setting time

The constituents of cement react chemically with water which results in a sticky paste. The
paste gradually hardens/sets in the course of time. The time taken by the cement to harden is
called the setting time of cement.
The setting time of cement is differentiated on the basis of the time taken by the cement to set.
• Initial setting time
• Final setting time
A Vicat’s apparatus is used to determine the setting time of cement.
Test procedure
Initial Preparation
1. Consistency test to be done before starting the test procedure to find out the water
required to give the paste normal consistency (P).
2. Take 400 g of cement and prepare a neat cement paste with 0.85P of water by the weight
of the cement.
3. Gauge time is kept between 3 to 5 minutes. Start the stopwatch at the instant when the
water is added to the cement. Record this time (T1).
4. Fill the Vicat mould, resting on a glass plate, with the cement paste gauged as above.
Fill the mould completely and smooth off the surface of the paste making it level with
the top of the mould. The cement block thus prepared is called a test block.

Test for Initial Setting Time

1. Place the test block confined in the mould and resting on the non-porous plate, under the
rod bearing the needle with a 1 mm square cross-section.
2. Lower the needle gently until it comes in contact with the surface of the test block and
quickly release, allowing it to penetrate the test block.
3. In the beginning the needle completely pierces the test block. Repeat this procedure i.e.
quickly releasing the needle after every 2 minutes till the needle fails to pierce the block
for about 5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould. Note this time (T2).

Test for Final Setting Time

1. For determining the final setting time, replace the needle of the Vicat’s apparatus with the
needle having an annular hollow metallic attachment with a circular cutting edge of 5 mm
diameter and having a 0.5 mm projection at the end.
2. The cement is considered finally set, when upon applying the final setting needle gently to
the surface of the test block, the 0.5 mm projection of the needle makes an impression
thereon, while the 5 mm diameter attachment fails to do so. Record this time (T3).
Calculations
Initial setting time=T2-T1
Final setting time=T3-T1
Where,
T1 =Time at which water is first added to cement
T2 =Time when needle fails to penetrate 5 mm to 7 mm from the bottom of the mould
T3 =Time when the needle makes an impression but the attachment fails to do so.

• Initial setting time should not be less than 30 minutes for ordinary Portland cement.
• Final setting time should not be more than 10 hours.
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(v) Soundness
• The purpose of this test is to detect the presence of uncombined lime in the cement, which
can cause expansion of cement after setting resulting in disruption of the set and hardened
mass. Soundness means the ability to resist volume expansion.
• The soundness of cement may be determined by the Le-Chatelier method.

Le-Chatelier apparatus
• Prepare a cement paste as in the consistency test with 0.78 times the water required to give a
paste of standard consistency.
• The mould is placed on a glass plate and is filled with cement paste.
• It is covered at the top by another glass plate. A small weight is placed at the top and the
whole assembly is submerged in water for 24 hours.
• The distance between the points of the indicator is noted. The mould is again placed in water
and heat is applied in such a way that the boiling point of water is reached in about 30 minutes.
The boiling of water is continued for 3 hours.
• The mould is removed from water and it is allowed to cool down.
• The distance between the points of the indicator is again measured. The difference between
the two readings indicates the expansion of cement and it should not exceed 10 mm.
(vi) Tensile strength
• The mortar of cement and sand is prepared. The proportion is 1:3 which means that (x) gm
of cement is mixed with 3(x) gm of sand.
• The water is added to the mortar. The quantity of water is (P/5) + 2.5 per cent by weight of
cement and sand.
• The mortar is placed in briquette moulds. A typical briquette is shown in the below figure.
The mould is filled with mortar and then a small heap of mortar is formed at its top. It is beaten
down by a standard spatula till water appears on the surface. The same procedure is repeated
for the other face of the briquette. Such twelve standard briquettes are prepared. The quantity
of cement may be 600 ml for 12 briquettes.
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• The briquettes are kept in a damp cabin for 24 hours.

• The briquettes are carefully removed from the moulds and they are submerged in clean water
for curing.
• The briquettes are tested in the testing machine at the end of 3 days and 7 days. Six briquettes
are tested in each test and the average is found out. During the test, the load is to be applied
uniformly at the rate of 3.50 N/mm2.
• It may be noted that the cross-sectional area of the briquette at its least section is 6.45 cm2.
Hence the ultimate tensile stress of cement paste is obtained from the following relation:
Ultimate tensile stress = failing load/6.45
• The tensile stress at the end of 3 days should not be less than 2 N/mm2 and that at the end of
7 days should not be less than 2.50 N/mm2.

Types of Cement
Many types of cement are available in markets with different compositions and for use in
different environmental conditions and specialized applications. A list of some commonly used
cement is described in this section:
Ordinary Portland Cement
Ordinary Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the world.
This type of cement is used in construction when there is no exposure to sulphates in the soil
or groundwater.
Three different grades of Ordinary Portland cement are available in the Indian market, which
are grade 33, grade 43, and grade 53.
OPC 33 – compressive strength is 33 N/mm2
OPC 43 – compressive strength is 43 N/mm2
OPC 53 – compressive strength is 53 N/mm2

Portland Pozzolana cement (PPC)

• As per Indian standards, maybe 10 to 25 % of Pozzolana by weight is added to OPC to prepare
PPC. e.g. pozzolana are burnt clay, shale, and fly ash.
• This Cement has a higher resistance to chemical agencies and to seawater because of the
absence of lime.
• Its initial strength is less but its final strength is 28 days onward equal to ordinary Portland
cement.
• It possesses less resistance to erosion and weathering action.
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• It imparts a higher degree of water tightness and it is cheap.

Rapid hardening cement

• It is firmer than Ordinary Portland Cement
• It contains more C3S and less C2S than ordinary Portland cement.
• Its 3-day strength is the same as the 7-day strength of ordinary Portland cement.

Extra rapid hardening cement

• Extra-rapid-hardening cement may set and become durable even faster than OPC and rapid-
hardening cement.
• Construction professionals achieve this by adding calcium chloride (which increases the C3A
content) to rapid-hardening cement.
• This cement type may be useful for cold-weather concrete projects due to its fast setting rate.

Quick setting cement

• Similar to extra-rapid-hardening cement, this concrete type may set and become stronger even
quicker than OPC and rapid-hardening cement.
• Its strength rate is similar to OPC, but it hardens faster.
• Quick-setting cement may be beneficial for time-sensitive projects or those located near
stagnant or running water.

Low heat cement

• Heat generated in ordinary Portland cement at the end of 3 days is 80 cal/gm. While in low
heat cement, it is about 50cal/gm of cement.
• It has a low percentage of C3A and relatively more C2S.
• Reduce and delay the heat of hydration.

Sulphate resisting cement

• Increasing the C3A content.
• Firmer than ordinary pot land cement.
• Sulphate forms the sulpha-aluminates which have expansive properties and so cause
disintegration of concrete.

Blast Furnace Slag Cement

• For this cement, the slag obtained from the blast furnace is used.
• The clinkers of cement are ground with about 60 to 65 per cent of slag.
• Its strength in the early days is less and hence it requires a longer curing period.
• It proves to be economical as slag, which is a waste product, is used in its manufacturing.

White cement
• The grey colour of OPC is due to the presence of Iron Oxide. Hence in White Cement, FeO
is limited to 1 %. (reduced C4AF content)
• It is quick-drying, possesses high strength and has superior aesthetic values it also costs less
than OPC because of specific requirements imposed upon the raw materials and the
manufacturing process.
• White Cement are used in swimming pools, for painting garden furniture, moulding
sculptures and statues etc.
Module 1 Concrete Technology Dr Suryamani Behera

Coloured cement
• The Cement of the desired colour may be obtained by mixing mineral pigments with ordinary
cement.
• The amount of colouring material may vary from 5 to 10 percent. If this percentage exceeds
10 per cent, the strength of cement is affected.
• The Iron Oxide in different proportions gives brown, red or yellow colour. The coloured
cement is widely used for finishing floors, window sill slabs, stair treads etc.

Expanding cement
• This type of cement is produced by adding an expanding medium like sulphoaluminate and a
stabilising agent to the ordinary cement.
• The expanding cement is used for the construction of water-retaining structures and for
repairing damaged concrete surfaces.

High alumina cement

• This cement is produced by grilling clinkers formed by calcining bauxite and lime. It can
withstand high temperatures.
• If evolves great heat during setting. It is therefore not affected by frost.

Air entraining cement

• Manufacturers add air-entraining agents like glues, sodium salts and resins to the clinker
during the grinding process to create this cement.
• A common use for this type of cement is for frost resistance in concrete.

Hydrographic cement
• Manufacturers create hydrographic cement by mixing in water-repelling chemicals.
• This cement type has high workability and strength and also repels water to prevent weather
damage.
• Teams can use hydrographic cement for projects such as dams, water tanks, spillways and
water retaining structures.

More types of cements……. From book