6.

SOILS, NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE

RESOURCES OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
6.1. Introduction
The past geological process and varied climatic events ensued
Ethiopia to have varied soil and biological diversity.

Distribution of wildlife and natural vegetation in Ethiopia and

the Horn is controlled by many factors: climate, soil types,
drainage are the most important.

Ethiopia also have many unique endemic fauna and flora

resources.
6.2. Ethiopian Soils: Types, Degradation & Conservation
6.2.1. Major Components, Formation & Properties of Soils

Major components of soil: It consists of Weathered Mineral

Materials(45%), Organic Matter(5%), Air(20 - 30%), &
Water(20 - 30%).
Soil Formation: Soil formation is a long-term process.
It could take several thousands of years to form a single
stratum of soil.
Soil formation is also complex due to its complex mixture
of several constituents,
The formation of a particular type of soil depends on:
climatic & topographic factors, parent material (rocks),
living organism, vegetation cover and time.
Weathering- is the breakdown of rocks and minerals into
smaller pieces (into soils) by:
frost action/action of rainwater
fluctuation of extreme temperature, and
biological activity

There are 3 types of weathering involving in soil formation:

A. Mechanical (physical) weathering

B. Biological weathering
C. Chemical weathering
A. Mechanical (physical) weathering
It is the physical disintegration of rock by physical forces
without changing/altering compositions.

Physical disintegration causes decrease in size.

These physical forces include:

Differential stresses due to Extreme temperature fluctuation
Action of Rain water/frost action(Expansion of freezing
water), and
Abrasion(Erosion by friction)
I. Differential stresses: - due to heating & cooling(Extreme
temperature fluctuation) that break the rock.
Temperature fluctuation can cause expansion or contraction
of rocks. That is:-
When the temperature of rock increases, the rock expands.
When the temperature of rock decreases, the rock contracts.
This process of expansion & contraction is a physical stress
that can cause cracking or breaking down rocks.
II. Abrasion (Erosion by friction):-
Abrasion of rock is caused by the friction of water, wind, or ice
carrying debris of sediments upon the rock.

The continuous exposure to process slowly breaks down the

surface of the rock.
II. Action of Rainwater/frost Action:-
Frost action is due to the expansion of freezing water.
Frost action is the repeated cycle of ice formation & ice
melt in the pore spaces and fractures of rocks causing
disintegration of the rock.
When water in rock pores/fractures freezes, its volume
increases. This can create pressure on rocks, and then
causing disintegration of the rock.(See fig. below)

If this cycle of freezing, expansion, & melting continues,

the rock will gradually disintegrate.
B. Biological Weathering
It involves the weakening & subsequent disintegration of rock by:
 Plants (growing of roots of plants)
 Animals (Burrowing Animals)&
 Microbes (Microscopic organisms, such as bacteria & fungi).
I. The growing of roots of plants (which is a biological process)- can
exert pressure on rock  disintegration of rocks.
Biological weathering – by plant roots that fracture rock
II. Burrowing Animals- can gradually cause breaking of
rock materials.
Biological weathering – by Burrowing of Animals
III. Microbial Activity- breaks down rock minerals by altering rock’s
chemical composition, thus making it more susceptible to weathering.
Microorganisms can produce
organic acids which can
dissolve minerals, thus making
it more susceptible to weathering.
An example of microbial activity
is lichen (fungi & algae).
Fungi release chemicals that
break down rock minerals.
As this process continues, holes
& gaps continue to develop on
the rock, exposing the rock
further to physical & chemical
Figure: lichen covered rock
weathering.
C. Chemical weathering
It is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by
chemical reactions.
It involves the modification of the chemical & mineralogical
composition of the weathered material.

Major chemical reactions that cause chemical weathering

include: Carbonation, dissolution/ solution, hydration/
hydrolysis and oxidation reactions.

These processes(reactions) either form or destroy minerals,

thus altering rock’s mineral composition.
Carbonation:- When water reacts with carbon dioxide, it creates
carbonic acid, which can dissolves softer rocks or breaks
down minerals in the rock.

Solution/Dissolution: is the process of dissolving minerals by

water.
Eg - Limestone & rocks high in salt dissolve when exposed to
water.
Oxidation:- It is the reaction of water & rock minerals with
oxygen, thus changing the mineral composition of the rock.
When minerals in rock oxidized, they are rust & become less
resistant to weathering.
Hydrolysis /Hydration - is a chemical reaction caused by water.
E.g: When minerals are hydrolyzed, clay minerals are produced
(clay- the smallest-sized soil particles).
Soil Properties: Soils have two basic properties:

I. Physical properties:
Properties such as texture, structure & porosity are physical
soil properties.

These properties affect air and water movement in the soil.

II. Chemical Properties:

Soil properties like availability of minerals, electrical
conductivity, soil pH, etc. are chemical properties of soils.
6.2.2. Major Soil Types in Ethiopia
Soils of Ethiopia are basically derived from crystalline, volcanic
and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks- are important for Ethiopian soil formation-
since easily weathered.
According to latest classification by FAO there are 18 soil types
in Ethiopia.
Major soils (11 soils) cover about 87.4% of the land area of Ethiopia.
Major types of soils in Ethiopia are discussed in terms of their:
A. Environmental condition i.e. parent material, climatic
conditions, topography & the way they were formed.
B. Characteristic i.e. Significant chemical & physical properties.
C. Agricultural suitability in relation to texture, structure,
topography, moisture-storage capacity, etc.
D. Occurrence: general location of the soil types.
Soil Env’tal Characteristic Agricultural Occurrence
condition suitability
Develop on -Strongly weathered Far more -Parent materials
gently sloping soils. Productive include trap series
ground. -High leaching due to than most volcanics, volcanic
high RF. ash, & metamorphic
Nitosols

Basically -Reddish-brown color

other rocks.
associated - is b/c of high tropical Dominantly found in:
with- concentration of iron soils Wrn highlands
highlands of (ferric) oxides due to (Wellega),
Ethiopia leaching.  SWrn highlands
where RF is -Leaching makes it (Kaffa, Illuababora),
high rich in non-soluble
minerals: Iron,  Srn , Central and
Aluminum & poor in Ern highlands
soluble minerals:
potassium & calcium
Soil Env’tal Characteristic Agricultural Occurrence
condition suitability
Mostly -Lost most of the -The most inherently Found along with
Acrisols

associated base nutrients & infertile soils b/c of nitosols in some

with high RF are characterized chemically & pockets of SWrn
highland by low productive organically degraded highlands where
areas capacity. soil. there is high RF.

Soil Env’tal Characteristic Agricultural Occurrence

condition suitability
Soils of Heavy clay Easily degraded, Developed from volcanic
Vertisols

highlands soils:- swelling but has very basalt, trachyte &

& moderate when wet, & high natural pyroclastic materials,
climates. cracks when fertility, so that sedimentary rocks, colluvial
dry difficult to & alluvial plains.
manage Found in NWrn, Central &
SErn highlands (mainly in
Gojjam, Shewa, Arsi, Bale
and Hararghe).
Soil Env’tal Characteristic Agricultural Occurrence
condition suitability
-Rugged -shallow & -Most areas found in:
Lithosols, topography coarse covered by these -Central
Cambisols & steep textured– soils have limited Highlands, West
& Regosol slopes, & hence have low agricultural use. Hararghe
Areas of water holding highlands).
low RF capacity -Mostly left under -Areas of low
the natural plant RF(Rift Valley)
cover & used for Danakil &
grazing. eastern Ogaden
Soil Env’tal condition Characteristic Agricultura Occurrence
l suitability
Desert soil, -High salt -very Found in:
Available in arid content & fertile if -Ogden&NErn
Solanchaks
Yermosols and

low/poor organic irrigated, escarpments

Xerosols

& semi-arid
areas- so that (humus) content (xerosols)
subjected to due to scanty
vegetation. -Ogaden &
wind erosion,
- Poor humus & Salty Afar
plains
nitrogen, but rich
(Yermosols &
in phosphorus &
Solanchaks)
potash
Soil Env’tal Characteristic Agricultural Occurrence
condition suitability
Associated with Recent alluvial -Fertile & their fertility -Lower regions of
deposits that deposits in is always renewed b/c rivers like- Omo,
take place in depressions of deposition of new Awash, Abay,
depression &
Fluvisols

that are formed soil materials. Akobo, Baro and

lower valleys. by deposition -Much prized for lakes region
Associated with of eroded intensive agriculture (main Ethiopian
fluvial (river), materials from (large scale irrigation rift)
marine (sea), highlands agriculture)
lacustrine (lake)
deposits.

Developed in Leaching is Have good chemical Found in Lake

Luvisols

areas where wet not very high nutrients & are among Tana area, parts
and dry seasons best agricultural soils, of Nrn , Central &
occur in so, they are intensively Ern Highlands &
alternation cultivated. Srn lowlands
6.2.3. Soil Degradation in Ethiopia
Soil degradation is defined as a change in any or all of soil status.

It is the deterioration of the physical & chemical properties of soil, as

well as biological constituents.
There are three major types of soil degradation:
I. Physical Degradation: Refers to the deterioration of the physical
properties of soil. This includes:
A. Compaction: Densification of soil caused by the elimination or
reduction of structural pores – by erosion/ run off.
Soils prone to compaction are susceptible to runoff and erosion.
B. Soil erosion: The process of wearing away &moving down of soil
components due to erosion, leaching and other agents of erosion.
It is a three-phase process consisting of the detachment of soil
particles, transportation and deposition.
II. Biological Degradation:
Major types of biological degradation are:
Reduction in soil organic matter content,
Decline in biomass carbon(an elements which are important
for growth of plant), and
 Decrease in activity and diversity of soil fauna (i.e; decomposers).
Mainly caused by:
 Indiscriminate & excessive use of agro-chemicals, and
 Soil pollutants
III. Chemical Degradation:
Major causes of chemical degradation are:
Nutrient depletion is a major cause of chemical degradation.
Excessive leaching (removal of soil minerals) Iron
concentration in soils can cause a decline in soil pH &
reduction in base saturation.
Buildup of some toxic chemicals that is injurious to plant growth.
 Causes of soil Degradation in Ethiopia:
Soil degradation may result from: Natural & Human-
induced (anthropogenic) causes.
I.Natural causes: Topographic and climatic factors- such
as steep slopes, frequent floods, tornadoes(storm with
strong winds), high-velocity wind and high-intensity rains
are among natural causes of soil degradation.

II. Anthropogenic causes of soil degradation: are some

Major anthropogenic causes of soil degradation are:-
Deforestation and overexploitation of vegetation,
Overgrazing,
Indiscriminate use of agrochemicals, and
Lack of soil conservation practices
6.2.4. Soil Erosion Control Measures
The aim of soil conservation is to reduce erosion to a level
at which the maximum sustainable level of agricultural
production & grazing activity can be obtained from an area
of land without unacceptable environmental damage.

Since erosion is a natural process, it cannot be prevented,

but it can be reduced to a maximum acceptable level or soil
loss tolerance.

There are two major soil erosion control mechanisms:

 Biological Control measures
 Physical control measures
I. Biological Control measures:
It includes:
Vegetative strips: Two or more crops on the same field.
Plantation/Afforestation: planting trees in areas not used
for cultivation.
Reforestation: replanting of trees after cutting forests.

These are used to prevent splash erosion, reduces the

velocity of surface runoff, and increases infiltration, etc.

II. Physical control measures:

Includes Terracing, construction of check dams,
trenches(ditch), contour ploughing, soil bunds(shelter-
belts & windbreaks in desert area).
 6.3. Natural Vegetation of Ethiopia
6.3.1. Introduction
Natural vegetation(NV) refers to a plant cover over area with
little or no human interference/human action.
Distribution of NV in Ethiopia mainly controlled by factors
such as: Altitude, Climate(temperature & RF) & Drainage.

For instance:
Lowlands due to their low RF & high temperature have harsh
environment and are characterized by xerophytic plants (plants
which are adapted to drought and high temperature).

Highlands due to their cooler temperature & adequate

moisture are characterized by afro- alpine & sub-afro-alpine
plants (plants which are adapted to very cold & frost climate).
Ethiopia possesses an estimated number of 6000 species of
plants, of which 10% are endemic.
6.3.2. Major Natural Vegetation Types of Ethiopia

Based on altitude, vegetation in Ethiopia can broadly

classified the into five groups.
1. Afro-alpine and sub-afro alpine Region
2. Forest Region
3. Woodland Savannah Region
4. Steppe Vegetation Region
5. Semi-Desert Vegetation Region
1. Afro-Alpine and Sub Afro-alpine
Ethiopia has the largest extent of Afro-alpine & sub afro-alpine
vegetations in Africa.
I. Afro-Alpine:
It is also known as high mountain vegetation- b/c found on
mountains having an elevation ranging b/n 3,200 & 4,620 m.a.s.l.
Afro-alpine habitat covers nearly 1.3% of the total landmass of Ethiopia.
Annul precipitation ranges b/n 800 & 1,500 mm with sleet or snow.
Experienced Temperature- records of 0oC & below(negative).
Bale & Semein mountains are typical examples of afro-alpine vegs.
Vegetation types in this region consists dominantly of tussock
grasslands, scrub, scattered mosses and lichens.

Giberra (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) is dominant species in the Afro-

alpine.
II. Sub-Afro-Alpine:
Sub-afro-alpine region is found at elevation ranges b/n
3,300 and 4,000 m.a.s.l
This region is dominated by woodland, often degraded to
scrub stages and wet grasslands.

Asta (Erica arborea) is dominant species in the Sub-afro alpine

region.
2. Forests
In Ethiopia, forests are found at different elevations: 450 to
3,500m in humid parts and 2,300 to 3,300 m in arid parts.
Forest region also characterized by variation in mean annual
RF that range b/n 200 mm and 2,200 mm.
Based on variation in RF & altitude two broad classification of
forests: High land forests & low land forests.
Highland forests include: Lowland forests- includes Baphia
 Kosso (Hagenia Abyssinia), (acacia trees).
It also includes Riverine/gallery
 Tid (Juniper procera)
forests- forests that are found along
 Kerkha (Arundinaria Alpina),
river banks like along lower course of
 Zigba (Podocarpus falcatus),
Awash, Wabishebelle & Ghenale
 Keraro (Aningeria adolfi- rivers.
friedericii) Dominant species include Ficus sur
 Weyra (Olea africana) (sholla) and acacia trees.
3. Woodland savanna:
Found at altitude range b/n 250-2300 m & mean annual
RF ranges b/n 200 and 1,400 mm.

Are known for their xeromorphic characteristics- that

shads their leaves during dry season.

Broadly classified into 3 divisions:

 Juniper procera (Tid)
 Acacia woodlands: Grass grow with shrubs and acacia
trees, and Konter.
 Mixed deciduous woodlands: Are Grass mixed with
deciduous trees that shed their leaves during the dry
season.
4. Steppe and Semi Desert Regions:

Found in arid &semiarid parts of Ethiopia where temperature is

very high and RF is very low(100–500 mm for steppe & 50–300 mm
for semiarid areas).

Steppe vegetation found at elevations of 100 to 1,400 m.a.s.l

Semi-deserts vegetation at 130 m.b. s. l to 600 m.a.s.l.

Xerophytic (i.e. drought-resisting plants) such as short

shrubs, scattered tufts of grass species and a variety of
acacias are some of the examples in this region.
 6.3.3. Degradation of Natural vegetation
Over the past century, Ethiopia has dense forest coverage
(40%) but it disappearing at an alarming rate for different
reasons.
Major causes for disappearance of the natural vegetation in
Ethiopia includes:
 Clearing of forests for cultivation
 Timber exploitation practices – For furniture making.
 Charcoal burning and cutting for fuel
 Extensions of coffee and tea production areas
 Overgrazing
 Expansion of settlements both rural and urban, and
 Clearing for construction.
6.3.2. Natural Vegetation Conservation
Three main approaches are used for biodiversity conservation:
1. Protection: Through designation & management of
protected areas (conservational areas) include: National
parks, Sanctuaries & community conservation areas(game
reserve).
2. Sustainable forest management: involving sustainable
harvesting of forest products to provide a source of
financial income.

3. Restoration or rehabilitation: It is an activity of

assisting the recovery of a forest ecosystem that has been
degraded, damaged, or destroyed.
 6.4. Wild Life Resources of Ethiopia
6.4.1. Introduction
Ethiopia has about:
860 avian species (16 endemic species & 2 endemic genera),

279 species of mammals (31 endemic species & 6 endemic

genera).
Among 31 endemic species: Walia Ibex, Gelada Baboon,
Mountain Nyala, Ethiopian Wolf, Starck Hare- require
urgent conservation action.

201 species of reptiles (14 endemic species),

23 species of amphibians (all are endemic species),
150 freshwater fish (6 endemic species).
Wild animals in Ethiopia can be classified into 5 major
groups:
1. Common wild animals (those animals that are found in
many parts of the country (e.g. hyenas, jackals).
2. Game (lowland) animal: Has 2 groups:
Herbivores like giraffes, wild asses, zebras etc.
Carnivores like lions, leopards, and cheetahs
3. Tree Climbing animals or arboreal (which include monkeys,
baboons).
4. Variety of birds in the Rift Valley lakes:
5. Rare animals- gelada baboon, Semien fox, walia- ibex
(in Semien Massifs) and Nyala (in Arsi-Bale massifs).
 Importance of Wildlife
Importance of wildlife can be categorized as ecological,
economic and investigatory importance.

Wild animals can be used for:

Scientific and educational researches (valuable
information for medical purposes).
physical and mental recreation (aesthetic value)
promotion of tourism (economic value)
Domestication -
maintaining ecological balance
 6.4.2. Wildlife Conservation
To prevent the destruction of wildlife:
 National parks,
 Sanctuaries,
 Community conservation areas(game reserve), and
 Others like, botanical gardens, wildlife reserves etc. have
been established in different part of the country.
What is the difference among the three ?
I.National(NP): Are conservational areas for wild animals in which
legal hunting is allowed, with some restrictions.
Restrictions are like killing of endemic animal is not allowed.
II. Community Reservation areas(Game reserve): This is similar
with NP except that – in game reserve legal hunting is allowed only
for tourists with license.
III. Sanctuaries- Are conservational area for wild animals. Here legal
hunting is prohibited(not allowed to kill the wild animals).
Some of the national parks are unique in their wild
animals they have.

E.g.
1.Abiyatta-Shalla lakes National Park is predominantly
bird sanctuary, like flamingos and pelicans.

2.Omo, Mago, and Gambela National Parks have

hippopotamus and crocodiles in rivers and lakes.

3.Semien and Bale Mountains National Parks have rare

animals like Walia ibex, Semien fox, gelada baboon and
Nyala.
 Table: National Parks of Ethiopia
S.No Name Region Year est. Area in sq.km
1 Kafeta Shiraro Tigray 1999 5000
2 Semien Mountains Amhara 1959 412
3 Alatish Amhara - -
4 Bahir Dar Blue Nile River Millennium Amhara 2008 4729
5 Borena Saynt Amhara 2008 4325
6 Yangudi-Rassa Afar 1969 4731
7 Awash Oromiya and Afar 1958 756
8 Dati Wolel Oromiya 2010 1031
9 Bale Mountains Oromiya 1962 2200
10 Yabello Oromiya 1978 1500
11 Abijata Shala Oromiya 1963 887
12 Arsi Mountains Oromiya 2012 -
13 Geralle Somali 1998 3558
14 Gambella Gambella 1966 4650
15 Nechsar SNNPR 1966 514
16 Omo SNNPR 1959 3566
17 Mago SNNPR 1974 1947
18 Maze SNNPR 1997 202
19 Gibe Sheleko SNNPR 2001 248
20 Loka Abaya SNNPR 2001 500
21 Chabra Churchura SNNPR 1997 1190
 Challenges Facing Wildlife of Ethiopia
Here are some of the major challenges that Ethiopian
protected areas are facing;
Limited awareness on the importance of wild life
Expansion of human settlement in protected areas.
Overgrazing
Illegal wildlife trade
Excessive hunting
Tourism and recreational pressure
Mining and construction material extraction
Forest fire – frequent wild fire.
 7. POPULATION OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
7.1. Population Data: Uses and Sources
Uses of Population Data:
Regular and reliable population data are vital for effective
socioeconomic development planning and administration.
For instance: Data needed to plan the provision of services
and infrastructures such as schools, hospitals, roads, water and
sewerage facilities, housing, etc.
Demographic data are also are crucial to administrators,
businessmen, researchers and planners.

Therefore, it vital to have population information as

demography influences production, distribution, consumption,
and administrative services at any administrative or natural unit
considered.
Sources of population data:
There are three conventional sources of population data:

A. Census: It is a process of collecting, compiling &

publishing demographic, economic and social data at a
specified time to all persons in a defined territory.

Major characteristics of census:

Universality: Inclusion of all persons in a given area
during the count,
Periodicity: undertaking at regular time intervals, usually
10 and 5 years.
Simultaneity: undertaking census in a very limited time
duration called the census day/night.
Government sponsorship- being an expensive endeavor,
and publication.
Procedures for collecting Census data.
There are two approaches for collecting census data:
Dejure Approach: Involves recording/counting people
according to their usual place of residence (where he/she lives
most of the time).

Defacto Approach: In this approach each individual is

recorded at the place where he/she was found at the time of
the census.

Eg: College/university students who live away from home are

included at their college/university address rather than being
counted in their parents’ household.
B. Sample Survey:
It is a method selected with a view that information
acquired from sample population would represent the
entire population.
This method is advantageous over census as costs are
reduced; & it is simple to administer & taken much faster.
However, the method have inherent weaknesses related to
sampling errors and inadequate sources.
Data from most censuses and sample surveys include:
Geographic location, age, sex, marital status, citizenship,
and place of birth, relationship to the head of household,
religion, educational characteristics, occupation, fertility,
income, language, ethnic characteristics, disabilities & migration.
C. Vital Registration:
It is a system of continuous, permanent, compulsory and
legal recording of the occurrence of vital events like births,
deaths, marriages, divorces, and adoptions.

Vital registration data is more precise than that of census

and sample survey -b/c the system provides time series
data.
Despite its enormous usefulness, population data could
suffer from inaccuracy resulting from:
 poor and inadequately financed methods of collection;
 poorly trained enumerator;
 suspicion and ignorance of censuses and false
statements specially of age and income;
 constant changes in administrations;
 omission of more inaccessible areas;
 wide difference in connotation of terms like language
and occupation.
7.3. Population Dynamics: Fertility, Mortality & Migration
Introduction:
The population of any region (country) grows/declines as a result
of the combined effect of the 3 demographic variables: Fertility,
Mortality and Migration.
Ethiopia is endowed with a large and fast-growing population
ranking 2nd in Africa after Nigeria, 12th in the world.
The current growth rate is 2.6%.
Based on projected CSA data, Ethiopia had an estimated
population of 112 million in 2019.
Ethiopia has a youthful population where about 65% of the
population is below 24 years of age.

The largest proportion of the population (80%) is rural based.

7.3.1. Demographic Measurements
In Ethiopia, fertility & mortality are the two principal
determinants of population growth as international migration is
insignificant.
Some of Basic Demographic Measurements are:
1. Crude Birth Rate: Refers to the number of live births in a
year from 1000 people alive in a given area.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ
CBR = X 1000
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑖𝑑 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example: P = 70,686,000, B = 270,300. CBR = ?

270,300
CBR = X 1000 = 3.8/1000
70,686,000
2. General Fertility Rate: Refers to the total number of
live births in a year per 1000 women at a reproductive
age(women b/n 15 – 49 years age).

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ

GFR = X 1000
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛 15−49

Example:
B = 50,000
P = 50,000,000,
PI = population of women b/n 15 – 49 years age which accounts
1/5th of total population

50,000
GFR = X 1000 = 50/1000
10,000,000
3. Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Refers to the average number of
children that a woman would have at the end of her
reproductive period.
7
𝐵𝑖
𝑇𝐹𝑅 = 5𝑥 ෍
𝑛=1 𝑊𝑖
Where,
Bi = Total live births in age group i,
Wi =Total number of women in age group i
(i =age group, that is : 15-19, 20-24, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39,
40-44, 45-49).

4. Crude Death Rate: Refers to the number of deaths per

1000 population in a year.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ
CDR = X 1000
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑖𝑑𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
5. Infant Mortality Rate: Refers to the total number of deaths of
infants under age one per 1000 live Birth in a year.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ
IMR = X 1000
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ

6. Maternal Mortality Rate: Refers to death of mothers related to

pregnancy& birth complications per 100,000 live birth.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

MMR = X 100,000
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ

7. Life Expectancy at birth: Refers to the average number of

years that a newly born baby is expected to live.
8. Natural Rate of Increase: is the difference b/n crude birth
rate and crude death rate expressed in percentage.
7.3.2. Levels & Trends in Fertility & Mortality Rates in
Ethiopia
Clear differences in birth and death rates b/n rural and
urban areas of Ethiopia.

Urban areas - have lower birth and death rates compared

to rural areas mainly due to better living & health
conditions, & better implementation of family planning
programme.

Women in rural areas have an average of 5.2 children,

compared to 2.3 children among women in urban areas.
TFR show considerable variation by reigns.
For instance in 2016 fertility was the lowest in Addis Ababa
(1.8 children per woman) followed by Dire Dawa (3.1),
Gambella (3.5), and Amhara (3.7);

Somali (7.2), Afar (5.5), Oromia (5.4), and Tigray (4.7) are
regions that have TFR rates more than the national
average(4.6 - women in Ethiopia have an average of 4.6
children).

Mortality rates also show considerable variation by reigns.

IMR lower in urban areas than rural areas in Ethiopia.
Life expectancy at birth in shows variation b/n male and
female as well as b/n rural and urban in Ethiopia.
Female life expectancy (65.4 years) is higher than male
life expectancy (61.2 years).

Life expectancy at birth -is greater for urban areas than

for rural areas.
It exceeds the national average(62.6 years) in Addis
Ababa(mainly due to relatively easy access to health
services);
while the lowest is in Benishangul- Gumuz (47 years)
followed by SNNPR (49 years).
Comparison of Birth & Death Rates and Life Expectancy of
Ethiopia with Selected Countries.
Country C.B.R C.D.R I.M.R Life Expectancy (Years)
Ethiopia 36.5 7 49.6 62.6
Kenya 23.9 6 37.1 64.3
Somalia 36.6 11 94 52.8
Eritrea 29.6 7 45 65.2
Djibouti 23.4 8 45.8 63.6
Today, in most developing countries as opposed to declining
death rates, birth rates have remained high due to:

Little family planning practices;

Lower status of women
Early marriage, particularly of females;
Parents consideration of children as assets;
The relatively high infant and child mortality rates, that
trigger couples to have more births to compensate for the
lost;
Perhaps religious influences;
Countries of the Horn of Africa have higher population growth
rate that exceeds 2.6 percent.
Some of the consequences of this rapid population growth
under conditions of slowly growing economy include:
low per capita GNP
increased unemployment and under-employment
social ills such as destitution, begging, theft, prostitution;
continuous inflation that erodes purchasing power of the
currency;
shortage of cultivated land and food shortages
overcrowding of infrastructural and social facilities; housing
problems and increase in urban slums and squatter settlements
Environmental problems such as deforestation, soil erosion,
loss of biodiversity and pollution.
7.3.3. Migration in Ethiopia and the Horn
Migration is a geographic mobility which could be permanent
or temporary change of residence.

Implications of Migration:
Migration yields an increased level of urbanization;
It enhances rural-urban linkages in creating an integrated economy
It influences spatial population distribution
It is a means of achieving economic efficiency
It is a cause and consequence of inequality and unequal
development
It is a cause of diversity; and a mechanism of spreading cultures
Create the condition of strengthening, a sense of nationhood and
national unity
Motivating to creativity and open society to new ideas than a
homogenous group of people.
 Types of Migration: Internal & International migration
A. Internal Migration in Ethiopia
Population movement in Ethiopia accelerated in the early
twenty century with the rise in urban centers.
B. International migration:
International Migration in Ethiopia accelerated after the 1974
revolution where many people were attempting to escape
political conflict, persecution and famine.
Today, large numbers of Ethiopian migrants are found in Middle East,
USA, Canada, Europe, Sudan, Kenya, South Africa& Botswana.
Ethiopia’s diaspora, estimated to be about four million-
Ethiopia considered as one of the largest number of emigrants
overseas from all African countries.
The causes of cross-border/International migration:
They migrate for various reasons by looking in to advantages and
disadvantages of staying Vs. moving.
Reasons for international migration are both push and pull factors-
as discussed hereunder:
Lack of employment and livelihood opportunities
Negative attitudes attached with low paying & informal job
and poor work ethics.
Rural underemployment and lack of resources
Unfavorable political context and insecurity, civil war
Existence of large number of local brokers with networks
extending to countries of destination;
Misinformation and false promises by brokers/traffickers;
Demand-side factors of migration (shortage of labor in low-
paying, informal, and perilous jobs, such as domestic work,
construction, agriculture in destination countries).
International Labour Organization/ILO/ in 2016 identified
the following migration source areas of Ethiopia with high
and growing incidence of emigration:
7.4. Age and Sex Structure of Ethiopian Population
1.Age Structure(age ratio):- refers to population distribution by age
groups.
The most used age groups are:
 Five-year age interval (0-4, 5-9, 10-14, ..., 60-64, 65 and above) &
 Broad age groups (0-14, 15-64, 65 & above).
Age groups 0-14 – are known as young age
Age groups 15-64 - working age
Age group 65 and above- are old age
In Ethiopia young age population is very large/high percentage,
about half of the population, While the old age population is very
small.

On the contrary most developed countries have working age

population of about 60% or more, and old age population of
about 10% or more.
 Measures of Age Structure(Ratio):
I. Young to Old Ratio:
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ (15 −64)
YDR = X 100
𝑂𝑙𝑑>65
II. Age Dependency Ratio (ADR): Shows the magnitude of the
young and old ages dependency on the working/ economically
active age population.
It is expressed as:
Po − 14 +P65 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒
ADR =
𝑃15 −64
X 100
𝑃65+
III. Old age index (OI) = X 100
𝑃15 −64
Dependency of old age population on economically active age group
population.
2. Sex Structure(Sex Ratio): refers to the ratio of male
population to female population at different age groups.
It is usually expressed as:
𝑴𝒂𝒍𝒆
Sex Ratio(SR) = X 100
𝑭𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒆
In the interpretation of the result, if a sex ratio is:
Equal to 100 – It implies that there are equal numbers of males
& females
> 100 -Indicates the presence of more males than females
< 100 – Implies there are less numbers of males than females.

Sex ratios are generally lower for urban areas, and higher for
rural areas primarily due to larger female migration to urban
areas.
Population pyramid: A graphical illustration of population
by sex and age.
Population pyramids
of developing
countries like
Ethiopia have very
broad bases showing
the dominancy of
young age
population, and small
percentage of old age
groups.

Population pyramid of Ethiopia, 2017

The age distribution of population in Ethiopia shows that

country’s population is dominated by youthful population
resulting in heavy youth dependency.
7.5. Population Distribution in Ethiopia
The spatial distribution of population in Ethiopia
characterized by very uneven as a result of physical and
human factors.
7.5.1. Measures of Population Distribution
Population distribution is measured in terms of population
density- which is is the average number of people per unit
area.
The most common ways of measuring population density
are:
 Crude Density,
 Physiological Density &
 Agricultural Density.
A. Crude Density: Total population divided by total area
(people per kilometer square).
It is known as crude because it does not show variations in
population distribution within a given area.

Low density regions are Gambella, Somali, Afar and Benishangul-

Gumuz.
The largest population density regions are SNNPR, Amhara and
Harari.
For instance: Wanago, Damot Gale, Aleta Wendo, Yirga Chefe, Dara,
Kacha Bira, Angacha, Sodo Zuria, Shebedino and Kedida Gamela
have crude densities of exceeding 500 people/km2;
Extremely low densities include Guba of less than 10 people/km2)
include Gog, Vaso, Dolo Bay and Liben.
B. Physiological Density: The number of people per unit of
area of arable land (Land which is suitable for agriculture).
It is the ratio of total population to arable land of a country.
Ethiopia has very low physiological density.

C. Agricultural Density: It is the proportion b/n rural

population actually engaged in agriculture and the area of
cultivated land.

This density measure more meaningful than both crude and

physiological density measures as it gives a better indication of
population pressure on land resources.
7.5.2. Factors Affecting population Distribution
in Ethiopia
Physical and human factors makes uneven
population distribution in Ethiopia.

A. Physical Factors – The most important physical

factors affecting population distribution in Ethiopia
are: climate (mainly RF & Temp.), nature of soil
(fertility) and vegetation cover.

The other physical factors include drainage and

slope.
High temperatures combined with low RF diminish habitability
in the lowlands of Ethiopia.  Spares population distribution.
In contrary, the highland plateaus of Ethiopia with adequate
RF & moderate temperature tend to be densely settled.

Steep slopes and surface ruggedness also restrict human

access, habitation and cultivation.

Attractiveness of a region for human occupation may

depend partly on the nature of the soil.

The fertile highland soils of Ethiopia offer high concentration

of population in the plateaus.
In Ethiopia most of the above physical factors are
influenced by “altitude”- which is the most crucial factor
influencing population distribution.

In general, Lowlands are characterized by:

Scarcity of rainfall, high temperature, and poor vegetation
and soil conditions;
Prevalence of tropical diseases like malaria and yellow
fever.  sparse population distribution.
In contrary, high population concentration along the valleys of
major rivers like the Nile and on high plateau areas of
Ethiopia which is characterized better soil fertility and rich
vegetation cover.
B. Human Factors: Human factors which have influenced
population distribution in Ethiopia are two:

I. The Historical Pattern of Population Movement

Decline of Axumite & establishment of central highlands
kingdom is among human factors affecting population
distribution.
Historically there was two waves of population movements:
Northward movement of the Oromos during the 16th and
17th centuries.
Southward movement of the Tigre, Amhara, Agew and
Guraghe during 7th century.
These two waves of population movements resulted in denser
population distribution in & around the central highlands.
 II. Types of Economic Activities
Carrying capacity of cultivated lands, dev’t of commercial
farms, expansion of urban areas, industrial growths,
transportation routes are important factors for population
re-distribution over time.

1. The arid and semi-arid lowlands of Ethiopia that are

inhabited by pastoral herding are the low population
density areas.

Compared to areas of pastoral herding, cultivated lands

have greater carrying capacity thereby supporting higher
population densities.
2. The type of crop cultivated could also result in varying
densities.
E.g: northern and north central Ethiopia that grow cereal
crops have relatively low yield per unit area; and hence they
have relatively low carrying capacity and moderate density.
On the contrary the Enset and Coffee regions of Ethiopia have
greater yield per unit area, and hence have high density
population in some South-central Zones and weredas.

3. Development of commercial farms like in Awash valley is

also a significant factor in causing population movements &
changes in the population concentration.
4. Urban and industrial growths & transportation routes are
also important factors that cause population re-distribution
over time & explaining density variation.
7.6. Socio-cultural Aspects of Ethiopian Population:
Education, Health and Languages
7.6.1. Education
Education in Ethiopia characterized by: gender parity, regional
differences, urban-rural differences and access differences.
There is wide regional variation, with Dire Dawa and Afar having the
lowest Gross Enrolment Rate (GER), whereas Gambella and Addis
Ababa have very high GERs.
With regard to gender parity, in Addis Ababa more females are
attending school than males whereas lower female participation in
Somali and Harari regions.
Nationally GER for males is higher compared to females, though in
Tigray, Amhara and Addis Ababa more females are attending
secondary education.
Afar & Somali regions have the lowest GER in secondary education.
7.6.2. Health
Root causes for poor health status in Ethiopia are:
1. Lack of access to clean water: rivers and lakes remain the
most important sources of water- which are largely unsafe.
2. Lack of adequate nutrition: About half of children under the
age of five are malnourished, stunted or wasted. Malnutrition
still remains high as the country has not attained food security.
3. Beliefs, behaviors and traditional practices have a negative
effect on health status include circumcision, early marriage and
low value of girls and children.
4. Lack of health services: The health care infrastructure of the
country had suffered from under funding; and health service
coverage is less than 50% of the population.
The services tend to be urban biased.
7.6.3. Languages Families and Languages of Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a country where about 80 languages are spoken.

Afan Oromo and Amharic are the major mother tounges

accounting 33.8% sand 29.3% respectively.

Somaligna (6.2%), Tigrigna (5.9%), Sidamigna (4.0%),

Wolaytigna (2.2%), Guragigna (2%), Afarigna (1.7%),
Hadyiyagna (1.7%), and Gamogna (1.5%).

The Ethiopian languages belong to two Supper Families:

Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.
 A. Afro-Asiatic Supper Family:
Most Ethiopian languages belong to Afro-Asiatic Supper
Family.
This supper family is divided into 3 families: Semitic, Cushitic
& Omotic.
Semitic languages: include Amarigna, Tigrigna,
Guragigna, Siltigna, Aderigna, and Argobigna.

Cushitic languages: has the largest number of speakers.

It consists of languages such as Oromigna, Somaligna,
Sidamigna, Afarigna, Kembatigna, Hadiyigna, Alabigna,
Gedeogna, and others.
Omotic languages: Include Wolaitigna, Gamogna, Kullogna,
Kefigna & Kontigna.
Relatively has small number of speakers.
B. Nilo Saharan: Are languages spoken in the western
lowlands of Ethiopia along the border with Sudan, in
Gambella & Benishangul Gumuz Regional States.

This language Supper Family include Kunamigna, Bejigna,

Gumuzigna, Maogna, Kewamigna, Nuerigna, Annukigna, &
others.
7.7. Settlement Types and Patterns

7.7.1. Types of Settlement

Rural Settlements:-
 Can be temporary or permanent depending on whether.

Temporary / Mobile Settlements:

The lowlands in Rift Valley & peripheral areas, being
generally hot and dry, are characterized by pastoral herding
and mobile settlements- where pastoralists have always been
searching for new sites for water and pasture for their
livestock.
 Permanent Settlements:
Settlements are considered as permanent if there are no
frequent changes in their locations.
Most Ethiopian rural highland settlements where crop
cultivation is practiced are permanent.
Permanent settlements are of two types:
I. Scattered/Diffused / Dispersed): Are settlements
characterized by dispersed homesteads & households.

II. Grouped/ clustered or nucleated:- Are settlements

characterized by concentration of large number of homesteads
and households at one place.
7.7.2. Urban Settlements and Urbanization in Ethiopia
Urbanization refers to the increase in the percentage of the
population living in urban centers.
It entails the process of becoming urban, changing from
agricultural/rural economy, culture and lifestyle to being of urban.
Today, the urban population is about 20% of the country’s
population.
The major criteria used to classify settlements as urban in
Ethiopia are:
I. Minimum of 2,000 people;
II. Chartered municipality;
III. 2/3rd of the population engaged in non-agricultural activities;
IV.The presence of social services and amenities
 An overview of the History of Urbanization in
Ethiopia

Before the foundation of Addis Ababa as a capital city, only

prominent urban centers were Axum, Lalibela and Gonder.

Modern urbanization was associated with establishment of

Addis Ababa as a capital by Emperor Menelik II in the late
19th century.
Low level of urbanization can be attributed to:
The self-sufficiency of agriculture which reinforced rural
peasant life;

Low level of industrialization, low level structural

transformation and economic development;

Continual warfare for centuries b/n kingdoms in to which the

country is divided; and the frequent changes of the royal
residence.

Lack of employment, and housing shortage in urban areas

that discourage in migration;

Political instability, ethnic conflict and social unrest during

the late 1970s and 1980s;
Hierarchy of Urban centers in Ethiopia:
i. The Addis Ababa Metropolitan cluster includes Addis Ababa and
its surrounding towns; and Adama and its surrounding towns
ii. Secondary city clusters consist of:
Lake Tana Urban Cluster: Bahir Dar, Gondar Debre Tabour, Debre
Markos
South Rift Valley Urban Cluster: Hawassa-Shashemene-Dila; and
Hosana-Sodo-Arba Minch
Eastern Urban Cluster: Dire Dawa, Harar, Jigjiga
Mekelle Urban Cluster: Mekelle, Adigrat, Shire, Axum
Dessie- Kombolcha Urban Cluster.
Jima Urban Cluster: Jima, Agaro, Mizan, Tepi, Gambella
iii. Tertiary urban clusters include:
Nekemte Urban Cluster: Nekemte, Dembidolo, Gimbi, Metu,
Assosa
 Gode - Kebri Dar oasis city network
 Semera-Mille – Asaita oasis city network
 Growth Rate of Urban Centers
Ethiopia’s towns are classified in to three categories based
on growth rates:
i.Declining Towns: Includes towns whose populations are
declining in absolute numbers because net out migration is
greater than natural increase.
This could be due to lack of employment opportunities and
worsening living conditions.
Example: Axum, Goba and Maichew.

ii. Slow Growing Towns: towns that grow at the rate

which is less than the rate of natural increase.

Example: Towns such as Holeta, Harar and Gore.

iii. Fast Growing Towns: towns with growth rates of
greater than the natural rate of increase.

These towns pull large numbers of people from the

declining or slowly growing towns and rural areas due to
the opportunities they offer associated with expansion in
industries, social services or a change in their
administrative status as zonal or regional capitals.
8. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN ETHIOPIA
8.1. Introduction
Nation’s economic activity can be classified as:
I. Primary Sector:
Involves production of raw material and basic foods.
Includes agriculture (both subsistence & commercial), mining,
forestry, hunting & gathering, and fishing.
II. Secondary Sector:
Involves manufacturing(finished & semi-finished goods),
construction and power production.
III. Tertiary Sector(Service Sector):
Involves retail and wholesales, transportation and distribution,
entertainment, restaurants, tourism, insurance, banking,
healthcare, education and legal sectors.
IV. Quaternary Sectors: Information, research, defense and top
managements.
V. Quinary Sectors: Executive decision makers.
 8.2. Mining Activity in Ethiopia
8.2.1. Introduction
Search and extraction of minerals from the crust of the earth.
Mining contributes 1.5 % of GDP (USD 32 billion) to country’s
economy.
The oldest (Precambrian) rocks and the sedimentary (Mesozoic) rocks
host most of the metallic & nonmetallic mineral deposits in Ethiopia.

Large scale gold mine in Ethiopia is the Lege-dembi gold mine- is

largest gold mine owned by MEDROC, located in Shakiso, Guji zone.

There is also small-scale open pit mine of tantalum at Kenticha in the

Adola belt.
Tantalum is highly demanded.
It is used for making electronic devices such as mobile phones, cameras
and computers.
Ethiopia presently supplies close to 10% of the World production of
tantalum.
 8.2.2. Status of the mineral sector investment in Ethiopia
The Mining laws of Ethiopia have been issued in 1993 and amended
recently, to attract private sector investment.
Presently a number of world class mining companies are operating in
Ethiopia in different mineral commodities:
Ethiopian Mineral Development Share Company(EMDSC), a
Gov’t organization, engaging in all mining activities in the country;
 Ezana Mining Development, a privately owned Ethiopian
enterprise in consulting in all aspects of mining;
MEDROC Gold, operating in Shakiso, involved in gold mining;
National Mining Corporation, a private company involved in all
aspects of mineral and petroleum product production.
Allana Potash, a Canadian mining company operating potash
mining in Afar Regional State;
Indian Sainik Potash - working in the Dallol depression.
8.2.3. The Importance of Mining Sector in Ethiopia
A. Economic Benefits:
1.Generates Revenue From Sales, Taxes, Royalty:
Federal gov’t has been collecting royalty of about 4.4 million USD
from the large-scale gold production every year.
Regional gov’t also collect royalty from the small scale and artisanal
production of precious minerals, industrial &construction materials.
2. Generates Foreign Currency Earnings:
About 135 million dollars every year from the export of gold, tantalite
concentrate platinum, decorative dimension stones and gemstones.
Such export contributes up to 7-10 % of the total export foreign
currency earnings of the country.

3.Employment opportunity: Small employment contribution b/c the

mining sector is not a labor-intensive industry.
Artisanal mining on the other hand is likely to involve several
hundred thousand workers.
B. Social Benefits:
Expansion of infrastructures (roads, electric power,
telecommunication) and social services (health facilities,
schools & school equipment, water facilities & airstrips for
the local communities.

Train local communities to engage in other form of

business such as plantation of coffee and other trees,
irrigation agriculture.

Promote small entrepreneur’s engagement in the local

community services such as hotel, mini- markets,
stationeries, etc.
8.3. Forestry
It is related to exploiting forest products, which include
gathering of fuel wood, production of timber and charcoal, and
building and construction materials.
Economic Significance of Forest:
 Contribution to the national economy(2.5% of total GDP).
 Fuel wood,
 Timber for furniture
 Building and construction
The commercial exploitation of forest resources in Ethiopia is
still in its infancy stage, mainly b/c of the following factors:
 Rapid deforestation
 Low demand for timber
 Lack of modern lumbering technology
 Inaccessibility of natural forest
 8.4. Fishery
8.4.1. Introduction
Involves harvesting of fish resources from water bodies.
Ethiopia has great potential for fishing due to the presence
of numerous lakes, river and reservoirs rich in fish
resources.

In Ethiopia, more than hundred local fish species have

been identified.
Main fish species in Ethiopia are: Tilapia, Bargus, Clarias
and Labeo- from which the bulk of the production is made.
In the two Rift Valley lakes, Chamo & Abaya, Nile Perch
is caught in significant quantity(See Table 8.1).
 8.4.2. Fishing Grounds in Ethiopia
In Ethiopia fishing grounds could be classified as Lakes & Rivers.
1. Lake Fishery:
Ethiopian lakes supplies about 79 % of the total yearly fish
production of the country.
The most important lakes from which much of the fish
production comes include Tana, Ziway, Langano, Hawassa,
Abaya and Chamo.
Among 101 species of fish available in the country 25 of them
are commercial fish species and are found in the lakes.
2. River Fishery:
Most rivers of Ethiopia have high fish resources. E.g. river Baro
alone supplies a maximum sustainable yield of 2,500 tons per year.
Most fish production from river is only for local consumption by
villagers living near and around river banks.
Table 8.1: Estimated fish Resource potential of
Ethiopian lakes
Lakes Annual Potential Main Fish Species
(1000 kg live weight)
Tana 15,000 Barbus, Clarius, Tilapia
Abaya 7,000 Nile perch, Bagrus, Barbus
Clarious, Labeo
Ziway 3,000 Tilapia, Barbus
Chamo 3,000 Nile perch, Bagrus, Barbus,
Clarious, Cyprinus
Koka 2,000 Tilapia, barbus Clarious,
Cyprinus
Langano 3,000 Tilapia, barbus Clarious
Awassa 1,000 Tilapia, Barbus Clarious
Metahara Beseka 2,500
 8.4.3. Demand and Consumption of fish
The domestic fish market (local fish consumption)is low.
The factors which account for this low level of local fish
consumption are:
Fish has not been integrated into the diet of food.
Religious influences on consumption patterns and demand
for fish is seasonal. The demand for fish is higher than
supply during fasting seasons.
Limited supply of the product and its high price.
Long distance of the fish production sites from densely
populated areas and its perishability.
Socio-economic contribution of the fishery sector
Its role in national economy: Contribution to the GDP (0.1%)
Trade: Contributed to Ethiopian cross-border fish trade
(export and import).
Food security: An important sector that contribute in
achieving food security for the growing population.
Employment: A considerable workforce is employed, both
directly and indirectly.
Fish meal as animal feed source: It is an excellent source
of protein for animals.
Sport fishing as a recreational value: Recreational fishing
(port fishing) is common in southern part of Lake Tana.
 8.4.4. Constraints and opportunities of the fishing sector
A. Extraction of minerals and Factories are the sources of major
pollutants affecting water bodies &their fisheries:
Extraction of minerals from Lake Abijata could have negative effect
on fish stocks,
Effluents from the tannery at Koka Reservoir and textile industries at
Hawassa and Arba Minch can affect the fisheries.
B. Increasing rate of deforestation  drying up of water bodies.
C. Inadequate legal and policy frameworks- Though there are
fishery laws and regulations, they are inadequately implemented  Resulting
in overfishing of some important species.
D. Limited human resource availability: The sector suffers from limited
human resource availability, with an acute shortage of trained personnel.
This poses serious constraints on fishery management, technical and
extension support services.
E. Public and private investment in fishery and aquaculture is low
F. Traditional method of fishing: Traditional fishing techniques.
G. Poor transportation and facilitating services.
 8.5. Agriculture in Ethiopia
8.5.1. Introduction
Cultivating of crops and rearing of animals for local
consumption or commercial purpose.

The sector is dominated by:

 small-scale farmers that practice rain-fed mixed
farming,
 employing traditional technology,
 adopting low input,
 low output production system.
8.2.1. Contributions, Potential & Characteristics of
agriculture in Ethiopia

The Contributions of agriculture in Ethiopia:

Backbone of country’s economy- accounts for 30- 42%
of GDP.
Agricultural products account for more than 90 % of
foreign exchange earnings of the country.

It provides raw materials for the processing industries.

More than 80% of Ethiopian population derives its

livelihood directly from agriculture.
 The Agricultural Resource Base/potentials of Ethiopia
Ethiopia has abundant agricultural resource base due to its
varied agro-ecological zones.

Has also vast grazing land and livestock population

standing first in Africa and 10th In the world.

Land Use In Ethiopia

Ethiopia has a total land area of about 113,000,000 hectares.
Land use pattern in Ethiopia:
 12.6 million hectares(10.3%) of the total area is intensively
cultivated,
 15.3 million hectares (12.5%) is moderately cultivated.
 6.9% - High forest and wood land areas
 30.5% -of the total area is grassland
Agricultural Land Use in Ethiopia
Agricultural land refers to the share of land area that is
arable, under permanent crops and permanent pastures.
Land under permanent crops: Land cultivated with crops
that occupy the land for long periods & not replaced after
each harvest, like land under flowering shrubs, fruit trees,
nut trees, coffee and vines.

Permanent pasture: Land used for five or more years for

forage, including natural and cultivated crops.
 Cropping seasons & Cropping Patterns in Ethiopia
There are two main cropping seasons in Ethiopia: Belg and
Meher.
I. Belg crop season is officially defined as any crop
harvested b/n March and August,
This season receive RF from February to June

II. Meher crop season is defined as any crop harvested b/n

September and February.
This season receive RF from June to October
The meher crop season is the main season and produces
90-95% of the nation’s total cereals output, and the belg
crop season harvest provides 5-10% of cereal output.
 Animal Husbandry
Ethiopia has a large livestock population (1st in Africa).

The distribution of livestock production in terms of agro-

ecological zones and administrative regions is very uneven.
 About 75% of the cattle & sheep population are found in the
highland zone,
 70% of the goat and 100% of the camel population are found in
the lowlands.
 More than 90% of the livestock population is found in Oromia,
Amhara and SNNPR.
 Most of the total value of livestock output (70%) is contributed
by cattle.
 The average number of cattle per HH (per capital holdings)
for the less densely populated Afar region and Somali is the
highest.
 Characteristics of Ethiopian Agriculture
1. Subsistence Orientation: Farmers in Ethiopia produce/cultivate d/t
corps mainly for their own household consumption (80%) & only a
limited proportion for market.
2. Fragmentation of farm plots & Small size of Holdings: B/c of
ever-increasing population and continuous division of farmland among
members of families in the form of inheritance, the land holdings
become smaller & smaller.
3. Low level/ use of input & Traditional farming Method:
Agriculture in Ethiopia is characterized by low use of natural and
chemical fertilizers.
 Less than 60% of farmers used chemical fertilizers;
 only 10% used organic fertilizers.

Lack of modern inputs, such as fertilizers, and backward technology

are the major characteristics of agriculture in Ethiopia.
4. Susceptibility to Disasters (drought & soil degradation):
Vulnerability to natural disasters, like periodic severe
droughts.
Traditional methods of farming practices combined with
heavy summer rains, the sector is exposed to soil erosion.

5. Limited practice of irrigation & dependence on rainfed

agriculture
Although Ethiopia has vast area of irrigable land, the
proportion of cultivated land using irrigation so small.
 8.5.3. Agriculture Systems in Ethiopia
Agricultural system is a practice & ways of life carried by rural people
who are confined to relatively similar agro-physical resource basis
and share more related socio-cultural, economic and livelihood
structures and patterns.
The agricultural systems of Ethiopia can be classified based on:
Agro-ecological patterns
Dominant types of crops or animals reared or combinations
Farming methods and tools used for cultivation
Level of technological input and the disposal of output
Based on the dominant corps cultivated or animals reared & main
implements used in cultivation, farming systems are classified as:
1. Highland mixed farming system
2. Lowland mixed farming system
3. Pastoral system
4. Shifting cultivation
5. Commercial agriculture
1. Highland Mixed Farming System
Involves integration of cultivation of crops and livestock
production/animal rearing.
A dominant farming system practiced in high land parts of
Ethiopia, where elevation is above 1500m(in dega and Woina
dega agro-ecological zones).
Farmers mainly depend on:
Cereal crops (Barely & wheat, teff) with pulses and oil crops
for subsistence.
 Cash crops such as Enset, coffee, chat & various horticulture crops.

2. Lowland Mixed Agriculture

Practiced in areas below 1500 meters
Common in the hot and dry mountain foothills, Rift Valley and
northern areas of Awash River.
Dominant crops grown are: Different oil crops, lowland pulses &
drought-tolerant varieties such as sorghum, maize, wheat and teff.
3. Pastoral Complex:
Animal Husbandry/ Pastoral system practiced by nomadic and
semi-nomadic community of Afar, Somali, Borena zone &
lowlands of southern Omo & Lake Turkana area.
Livestock rearing is the main economic activity in sparsely
populated dry and vast areas.
90% of the live animals exported come from pastoral areas.
4. Shifting Cultivation
It is the cut-and- burn cultivation system whereby a given plot
of land is cultivated after clearing and until its natural fertility
is exhausted and then shift for another clearing.
In Ethiopia it is practiced in Wrn & SWrn highlands &lowlands
in Benishangul-Gumuz and Gambella regions.
Currently declining due to gov’t intervention of settlement/
sedentary farming.
5. Commercial Agriculture-
Modern farming practice involving the production of
crops or animal for market using mechanization.

Introduced in the 1960s by Haile Selassie Government

with the aim to meet the growing demand for food in the
urban areas and agricultural raw materials for industry.

Concentrated in the Awash valley, Arsi, Sourthern Shoa

and Humera.
 8.2.4. Major problems of Ethiopian Agriculture
The major obstacles to the development of agricultural
sector include:
1. Land Degradation: Because of the rugged topography,
the cultivable land is exposed to soil erosion.

2. Variable Rainfall: Agriculture is heavily dependent upon

unreliable rainfall.
Rain sometimes comes early or late; and at other times it
falls for short period with insufficient amount.

3. Land Fragmentation: Declining per capita landholding

due to increasing rural population size.
4. Land Tenure Insecurity: Land remains under the state control in
EPDRF.
Lack of effective land property right is among major problems that
erodes the incentive to invest in permanent conservation & improvement
on individual holdings.
5. Backward Technology: Dependence on traditional tools
and farming practices, low application of modern inputs(
fertilizer, pesticides, and improved seeds, poor animal
breeds etc) are among common problems of Ethiopian
farming.

6. Poor Rural Infrastructure: Agricultural outputs are

usually carried long distance by traditional transport means
like pack animals or by humans, to sale place.
 8.6. Manufacturing Industry in Ethiopia
8.6.1. Introduction
Industrial development in Ethiopia is extremely backward
which is an indication of the low-level development of the
Ethiopian economy.
The contribution of the industrial sector to the GDP is
only 11.7%.

Manufacturing is a process of changing commodities to

consumable forms. In this process there is an addition of
value.
Meaning, the value of commodities is more after processing.
Employment in Industries:
The number of persons engaged in machinery &
equipment grew tremendously from 2012/2013.
The employment distribution of the different firm size
within the manufacturing sector indicated that:
Micro enterprise employ(51%)
Small enterprise employ(3.9%)
Medium enterprise employ(5.4%), and
Large enterprise(39.7%)
The value of Industrial Production:
The Ethiopian large and medium size manufacturing
sector is dominated by food and beverages.
It accounted the largest proportion of the overall manufacturing
value added.
8.6.2. Types and characteristics of manufacturing

Two types of industries identified in Ethiopia: Traditional or

cottage industries and manufacturing industries.

I. Cottage (traditional)industries:
Includes Weaving, woodcarving, pottery, metal works & basketry.

The cottage industries in Ethiopia were remain static; i.e., they

existed with little changes and refinement.

Major factors were:

Negative traditional attitudes towards such activities- that were
considered of low social cast activities.

People engaged in such activities were despised & were given

various pejoratives such as "buda" "faki" etc.
II. Manufacturing Industries:
The development of manufacturing industry is measure of
development stage of country’s economy.

Light Industries:
Most of the manufacturing industries are light industries i.e.
industries that process consumer goods like textiles, food,
tobacco etc.

Heavy Industries:
Heavy industries that manufacture capital goods(machineries
and constriction materials) E.g: Chemical, Vehicles, etc are
very small.
 Industrial parks/zones in Ethiopia
Today, the agro-processing industries, like leather & textile
products, and related sectors have been given top priority
manufacturing industries in Ethiopia.
The main reasons include:
I. Strong linkages with the agricultural sector as they use
inputs from the livestock and cotton sectors.
II. Are labour intensive, thus absorbing labor from the
agricultural sector.
III. Have major export potential & low entry barriers.

Considering such facts, the government begun to establish

industrial parks across the country since 2014.
Three mechanisms are in place for the establishment of
IPs/SEZs:
A. Fully developed by the federal or regional government;
B. Developed by PPPs with Industrial Parks Development
Corporation (IPDC)
C. Private developers only.

Industrial parks in Ethiopia can also be categorized based

on their focus sector:
Textile and garment;
Leather and shoes
Agro-processing,
Pharmaceutical and IT park.
Contributions of Industrial Parks in Ethiopia
Stimulating investment and creating employment.
Facilitating export growth and foreign exchange earning.
Developing industrial clusters through forward/backward
linkages.
Eliciting knowledge transfer and technology spillover.
Establishing connections to global value chain
Fostering Sustainable Growth and social equality.
Enforcing implementation of national industrialization
strategy.
8.6.4. Industrial Dev’t in Ethiopia: Challenges & Opportunities
Challenges Opportunities
High logistics & transportation costRelatively cheap electricity charge in
comparison to other African countries
Limited research/study and action Macroeconomic stability and rapidly growing
on export incentives and market economy
Relatively cheap labor force & increasing
Low labor productivity number of trained employees
Access to wide market ( large domestic
High cost of imported raw materials market, COMESA, AGOA, EBA
opportunities, China market etc.)
Limited compliance to the Competitive incentive packages which include
international requirements & market export incentives
Integrated Agro-Industrial Parks (one stop
Underdeveloped rural infrastructure shopping for all the services, economies of
in the potential areas scale, extension services, development of
common infrastructure)
Weak supply chain integration, Global attention due to its remarkable
market institutions and information economic growth and credit worthiness
system
Low level of technology
 8.7. The Service Sector in Ethiopia
8.7.1. Introduction
Tertiary economic activity involves the distribution and
provision of goods and rendering services.

Tertiary institutions include wholesale and retail outlets,

banking and other financial services, governmental and
educational services, medical facilities, Security services,
transportation, information and telecommunication
services, tourism, health services, education institutions
and research centers all are vital tertiary economic
activities.
 8.7.2. Transportation and communication in Ethiopia
8.7.2.1. Transportation
There are five different types of transport in Ethiopia:
1. Traditional Transport: Includes the use of pack animals
(donkeys, mules, horses, camel) and goods carried by humans.
2. Road Transport: The most dominant means of transport in
Ethiopia.
3.Railway:
4.Airways: Domestic and International
5.Waterways: seaways and Inland waterways
Seaways: Currently, Ethiopia is using Red Sea through
Djibouti port for external trade.
Inland waterways: on rivers and lakes.
8.7.2.2. Communications
It is the process of conveying messages.

An effective communication system plays a vital role to:

 accelerate the pace of development,
 enhance closer social integration, and
 promote the basic aim of economic activities

Some of the communication services that are commonly

used in Ethiopia include radio, television, internet, satellite,
print publications, fixed and mobile telephones, and post
offices.
Contribution of Transportation to Socio-Economic Dev’t
Transportation plays the following important economic, social
and political roles:
It creates job opportunity
It promotes investment opportunities
Plays a big role for both national and international trade
(Particularly Transportation).
It serves as a source of income generation both for gov’t and
the public;
It contributes to the maintaining a country’s peace, political
wellbeing and stability;
Plays a role in rural-urban interconnecting;
Contribute to the development of tourism, entertainment,
sports and peaceful relationship among people.
8.7.3. Trade in Ethiopia
Trade is a process of exchange of products/ commodities.
Trade is the result of uneven distribution of resource.
A country could carries out two types of trade: Internal
trade and external trade.

Internal trade: Refers to the exchange of goods & services

within the country(can be done b/n regions or within a
region).
External Trade: Refers to the exchange conducted b/n
countries.
Concerned with import-export trade.
 The Structure of Export and Import
Ethiopian economy is an agrarian economy, so that its
export is determined by agricultural products.

The most dominant merchandise export item of the country

are coffee, oil seeds, pulses and chat.

Coffee dominates the total merchandise export item of the

country, accounts for 29.5% of export earnings.
Oilseeds account for 14.9 %
pulses account for 9.5 %
chat account for 9.5 %
The major export destinations for Ethiopian
goods are:
I. Continental destination
Asia account for 39.8%
Europe account for 28.7%
Others account for 20.9%

II. Individual Countries

 Five countries(China, USA, Netherlands, Saudi
Arabia and Djibouti are important.
8.7.4. Tourism in Ethiopia: Types, major tourist
attraction sites and challenges
According to UNWTO (2002)
"Tourism comprises the activities of persons traveling to
and staying in places outside their usual environment for
not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business&
other purposes.“

Tourism is one of the largest and most important smokeless

industries in the world in terms of employment creation and
generation of foreign revenue.
Types of Tourism &Major Tourist attraction sites in Ethiopia
Major Tourist attraction sites of Ethiopia
Historic Attraction sites: Natural Attraction sites
i.The Obelisk of Axum i. The Blue Nile Falls-
ii. The Churches of Lalibela ii. Simien Mountains-
iii. The Castles of Gondar- iii. The Rift Valley Lakes-
iv. The Walls of Harar- iv. The National Parks:

The Role of Tourism in the Economy of Ethiopia:

 Tourism is the 3rd source of export revenue after
agriculture & industry, so that it is an important
economic sector in the country
 Important source of employment that account for 2.4%.
Challenges of the sector to be addressed
The following major challenges are also confronting the sector:
Weak institutional framework, skilled human resources and
financing.
Very limited accommodating capacity of international
standards for leisure tourism, with investment concentrated in
main cities and business-type hotels
Lack of basic and IT infrastructure
Narrow product range offered to the market by incoming
operators
Weak private sector associations
Unplanned destination development
Poor visitor management in natural &heritage sites
Poor tourism statistics