Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Biomolecules
Biomolecules
BEST STUDY
NOTES
JE
ES
an
ka
lp
SAVE YOUR TIME!
NO NEED OF
TAKING FULL NOTES
JE
NOW!
ES
an
ka
EXAM
ka
lp
lp
ka
an
ES
JE
Chapter - 2
BIOMOLECULES, BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES &
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION
Introduction
Biochemistry may be defined as the study of the chemical composition and structure of living
matter and the chemical changes that take place in them during the life processes.
Complex organic molecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids) which govern the
common activitites of a living organism are called as biomolecules.
2.1 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates is defined as hydrates of carbon is which the ratio of hydrogen and oxygen in these
compounds is the same as present in water.
JE
Carbohydrates are also defined as optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones
and other large molecules, like starch, glycogen or cellulose, which produce these compounds on
hydrolysis.
ES
Classification of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are classified into two major groups on the basis of their physical properties.
an
(a) Sugars: Sugars are crystalline substances, sweet in taste, and readily soluble in water. These
ka
have a fixed molecular weight and thus have a sharp melting point. Examples are glucose,
fructose, sucrose and lactose etc.
lp
Monosaccharides: These are the simplest carbohydrates which do not undergo further
hydrolysis, i.e., glucose, fructose, arabinose, ribose, etc.
Classification of monosaccharides
Molecular Common Number of Nature of Classification
formula name carbon atom carbonyl group and nomenclature
[ 31 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Disaccharides : Disaccharides are sugars which on hydrolysis produce two molecules of the
same or different monosaccharides. These are sucrose, maltose and lactose. They have the
same chemical formula C12H22O11.
(b) Nonsugar or polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are tasteless, amorphous solids. These are
either insoluble in water or form colloidal Solution (suspension). Polysaccharides or nonsugars
are naturally occuring polymeric compounds and produce a large number of monosaccharides
ES
(C 6 H10 O 5 ) n nH 2 O H n C 6 H12 O 6
Starch Glucose
an
1. These are sweet in taste These are generally These are tasteless
sweet in taste
2. Soluble in water Soluble in water Either less soluble insoluble in
lp
water
3. They have general These are formed from These are polymers of
moecular formula as two monosaccharides monosaccharides and formed
CnH2nOn where n=3 to 7 by the condensation of large
number of monosaccharides
4. They can not be further These are hydrolysed to These on hydrolysis produce 100
hydrolysed form a mixture of two to 3000 monosaccharides
similar or different molecules
monosaccharides
5. These have hemiacetal These have acetal linkage These do not have acetal or
or hemiketal linkage in their constitution hemiacetal structure because of
in their structure polymeric nature
6. No glycosidic linkage is They have on ( or ) These have large number of
glycosidic linkage per glycosidic linkage per molecule
[ 32 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Reducing nature: All monosaccharides are strong reducing sugars as evident from their reaction
with Tollen’s reagent or Fehling solution.
CHO
H OH H OH HO H
H OH
ES
H OH HO H
HO H O H OH HO H O
H OH H OH H OH
H CH2OH H
an
CH2OH CH2OH
-D-Glucose D-Glucose -D-Glucose
(pyranose structure) (Open structure) (pyranose structure)
ka
Ordinary -D-glucose has specific rotation of +111° in aqueous solution which gradually change
until it reaches a constant value of +52.7°. This phenomenon is known as mutarotation. Similar
lp
the case with -D-glucose. Mutarotation is observed because of equilibrium between open chain
structure and cyclic structures of monosaccharides in solutions. The specific rotation of -D-
glucose is +19° and equilibrium mixture contains 36.2% and 63.8% -D-glucose and -D-glucose
respectively.
These two anomers of glucose, i.e., -D glucose and -D glucose have different melting points
and exist in different crystalline forms. They also give different optical rotations. These anomers
in pyranose ring structure are best written by Haworth projection formula as follows.
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
H 5 O H 5 O
H OH
H H
4 1 4 1
OH H OH H
HO OH HO H
3 2 3 2
H OH H OH
-D-Glucopyranose -D-Glucopyranose
[ 33 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
6 6
O 1 O
HOCH2 CH2OH HOCH2 OH
5 2 5 2
H HO H HO
H OH H CH2OH
4 3 4 3 1
OH H OH H
-D-Fructofuranose -D-Fructofuranose
Disaccharides
A glycosidic bond is developed when hydroxyl group of the hemiacetal carbon of one
monosaccharide condenses with a hydroxyl group of the second monosaccharide molecule just as
hemiacetal reacts with alcohol to give acetal and water.
H H
C O H + H O R C OR + H2O
Alcohol
OR OR
Hemiacetal Acetal
JE
The three important naturally occuring disaccharides are Sucrose, Maltose, and Lactose.
(i) Sucrose : Sucrose is a disaccharide obtained from sugar-cane. Its molecule is composed of
ES
two monosaccharides namely -D (+) glucose and -D (–) fructose. During formation of
sucrose, –OH group at C1 at -D-glucose unit is involved in condensation with –OH group
at C2 of -D-fructose. Thus sucrose have 1, 2 linkage between two monosaccharides and
acquires the given structure.
an
CH2OH
H O H
H O CH2OH
H
OH H O OH H
HO H
CH2
ka
H OH H OH
-D (+) Glucose -(–) Fructose.
(ii) Maltose : Maltose is malt sugar and one molecule of it is formed by condensation of two
lp
molecules of -D (+) glucose in which –OH group at C1 of one -D-glucose unit is
condensed with –OH group at C4 of second -D-glucose unit. So in maltose molecule, two
-D-glucose molecules are linked together by -C1 –C4 glucosidic bond as depicted below.
Since in maltose one of the -(D)+glucose units has a free hemi acetal group, it is a reducing
disaccharide.
-glycosidic linkage
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
H 5 O H H 5 O H H O H H O H
H H –H2O H H
4 1 4 1
OH H OH H OH H OH H
HO OH HO OH HO O OH
3 2 3 2
H OH H OH H OH H OH
(iii) Lactose : It consists of two monosaccharides [-D (+) glucose and -D(+) galactose]
linked together by C1 – C4 O-glycosidic linkage.
[ 34 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are naturally occuring, colourless, tasteless, amorphous powders. These have the
general formula (C6H10O5)n where value of n varies between 12 to 200.
(i) Starch : Starch is the most abundant carbohydrate found in vegetable kingdom. On hydrolysis,
starch is initially converted to disaccharide (maltose) and subsequently to monosaccharide
(glucose). Therefore, starch is made up of -D-(+)glucose units joined through o-glycosidic
linkage. Starch consists of two derivatives: Amylose and Amylopectin.
(a) Structure of amylose : Amylose is a straight chain polysaccharide composed entirely of
JE
H O H O H H O H H O
H
H H H H
O OH H OH H O OH H O OH H O
O
an
H OH H OH H OH H OH
Amylose
-glycosidic linkage
Structure of amylose
ka
First carbon atom, C1, of terminal glucose unit in each amylose chain is linked to the C4-of
the other glucose unit is linear or chain and branched in the next chain through C1– C6
linkage by O-glycosidic bond. The structure of amlylopectin is given below.
CH2OH CH2OH
H O O H
H H
H H -1, 6 glycosidic
OH H OH H linkage
O O
H OH H OH
n
CH2 CH2
O H H O H
-1, 4 glycosidic H
linkage H H
OH H O OH H
HO
H OH H OH n
Structure of amylopectin.
[ 35 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
–6
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
H O H 5 O H O
H 4
H H
O O 1 O O
OH H OH H OH H
ka
H H H
3 2
H OH H OH H OH
n–2
lp
-linkage
Cellulose is the most important natural polymer whose chemical treatment gives various useful
derivatives e.g.,
a) Rayon: Cellulose acetate and cellulose xanthate are used as a fibre.
b) Celluloid: Cellulose dinitrate also known as pyroxylin, mixed with plasticizer and alcohol,
is used for the manufacturing of photographic film, spectacle frames, piano keys, etc. It
is known as artificial ivory.
c) Explosive: Cellulose trinitrate is used extensively as a blasting and propellant explosive.
d) Lacquer: Collodion is used for manufacturing washable cellulose paints.
e ) Water proofing : Solution of cellulose acetate is used to provide antishrink property to
textile fabric.
f) Methyl cellulose is used in fabric sizing, paste and cosmetics. Ethyl cellulose is used for
manufacturing of rain coats and plastic films.
[ 36 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
(iii) Glycogens : It is known as animal starch (reserve polysaccharide) and has the same
molecular formula (C 6H10O5)n. This carbohydrate is stored in the cells of the liver and
muscles of the animal. Glycogen is a linear polymeric molecule in which the average chain
length consists of about 10 – 14 glucose units, contrary to vegetable starch in which
amylopectin is having 20 – 25 glucose units. This shows that glycogen is more branched
polysaccharide than starch. It is hydrolysed by -amylase to maltose.
(iv) Gums: Gums are complex polysaccharides excreted by trees or shrubs to seal wounds in
the bark. These on hydrolysis yield a number of monosaccharides such as arabinose,
rhamnose, galactose, etc. This differentiate gums from starch, cellulose and glycogen which
gives only D-glucose on hydrolysis. Gums swell in water to form gels and are employed as
thickening material for improving the texture in food industry. Gum arabic is completely soluble
in water and thus finds its extensive use in pharmacy and as adhesive.
(v) Pectins: Pectins are polysaccharides which are mainly present in the fruit skins. It is obtained
by boiling fruit skins or stems with aqueous alcohol. Pectins are methyl esters
of polygalacturonic acid and on hydrolysis gives pectic acid. Solutions of pectins in fruit juice
have the power of setting to a jelly and thus responsible for the setting of jams. Pectins
JE
find their applications in drug preparation where they are used as inert agents to
suspend an active drug.
Functions of carbohydrates
ES
(i) They act as biofuels and provide energy for the normal functioning of the living systems. In
this unit we have studied that polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, etc.) and disaccharides
(maltose, lactose and sucrose) are hydrolysed to glucose by enzymes responsible for digestive
systems. Glucose is then transported from cell to cell by the blood in human body and by cell
an
sap in plants. Oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and water and is catalysed by enzymes
and provides necessary energy for the functioning of the living cells.
Enzyme
C 6 H12 O 6
6CO2 + 6H2O + 2868 kJ/mol
ka
Glucose
(ii) Carbohydrates are the structural material for the cell walls e.g., cellulose acts as the chief
constituent of the plant cell walls.
lp
(iii) Carbohydrate is also stored in the liver as glycogen known as animal starch. It serves as
instant food, quickely digested and readily converted into the required fuel for producing energy.
Solution: (c) Iodine forms amylum starch molecule which is blue black in colour.
[ 37 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Problem 4: -D-Glucose and -D Glucose differ from each other due to difference in one of carbon
with respect to its
(a) Size of hemiacetal ring (b) Number of—OH groups
(c) Configuration (d) Conformation
Solution: (c) In -D-Glucose –OH group is axial position and In b-D-Glucose –OH is present in
equitorial position
CHO CHO
HO — — H HO — — H
an
(a) H — — OH (b) HO — — H
H — — OH H — — OH
CH2OH CH2OH
CHO CHO
ka
H — — OH H — — OH
(c) HO — — H (d) H — — OH
H — — OH H — — OH
CH2OH CH2OH
lp
Problem 7: Glucose gives the silver mirror test with ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate because it
contains the group
(a) Aldehyde (b) Ester
(c) Ketone (d) Amide
Problem 8: It is best to carry out reactions with sugars in neutral or acidic medium not in alkaline
medium. This is because in alkaline medium sugar undergoes one of the following changes.
(a) Decomposition (b) Inversion
(c) Rearrangement (d) Racemization
Solution: (b) Conversion of d-form of sugar into l form on hydrolysis is called inversion.
[ 38 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Problem 9: The calorific values of fats, carbohydrates and proteins vary in the order
(a) Fats > carbohydrates > proteins (b) Fats > proteins > carbohydrates
(c) Carbohydrates > proteins > fats (d) None of these
Solution: (b) Amount of energy liberated by the combursion of one mole of molecule.
Solution: (b) When few drops of alcoholic solution of alpha nephthol is added to 2 ml of Glucose
solution and 1 ml of conc. H2SO4 a violet ring is formed is called Molich’s test.
2.2 Proteins
Proteins are complex, nitrogenous organic substance which occur in all animals and plants. They
are so named because proteins are the most vital chemical substances of primary importance
neccessary for the normal growth and maintenance of life. Protein serves following functions in
JE
our body.
a) To promote growth.
ES
Milk 5 Meat 24 – 26
Wheat 14 Egg yolk 16
lp
Classification of Proteins
Proteins are classified by two different methods. According to first mode of classification proteins
are of two types depending upon their shape and functions.
(a) Fibrous proteins: These have thread like molecules which lie side by side to form fibres.
The various molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds. These are insoluble in water but
soluble in concentrated acids and alkalis e.g., hair, nails, wood, feathers and horn, etc, are made
up of keratin. Muscles have myosin. Silk is composed of fibroin. Bones and cartilage have
collagen.
[ 39 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
(b) Globular proteins: This type of protein has molecule folded into compact units which often
acquire spheroidal shape. Such proteins are soluble in water, dilute acids and alkalis e.g., insulin,
haemoglobin, albumin, etc.
-Amino acids
-Amino acids are substituted carboxylic acids in which one -hydrogen atom of alkyl group is
substituted by amino (–NH2) group. These may be represented by the general formula.
R CH COOH
where R = H or alkyl group
NH2
Zwitter ion
However, the neutral zwitter ion (dipolar ions) changes to cation in acidic solution and exist as
anion in alkaline medium. Thus amino acids exhibit amphoteric character.
an
Alkali Acid
H2N CH COO– H 3N+ CH COO– H 3N+ CH COOH
Acid Alkali
R R R
Zwitter ion
ka
Anion Cation
I II III
Therefore, amino acid exist as zwitter ion when the solution is neutral or its pH ~ 7. The pH
lp
at which the structure of an amino acid has no net charge is called its isoelectric point. At this
pH, the concentration of cationic form (III) and anionic form (I) will become equal and hence
there is no net migration of the -amino acids under the influence of an electric field.
-Amino acids are broadly classified in three main groups based on the relative number of
–NH2 and –COOH group:
(i) Neutral amino acids : Amino acids containing one –NH2 group and one –COOH group
are called neutral amino acids, e.g., glycine, valine, alanine, etc.
(ii) Basic amino acids: Amino acids which contain one –COOH group and two –NH 2
groups are called basic amino acids, e.g., lysine and arginine.
(iii) Acidic amino acids : Amino acids containing two –COOH groups and one –NH2 group
are classified as acidic amino acids, e.g., aspartic acid and glutamic acid, etc.
[ 40 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
JE
ES
an
ka
lp
-Amino acids have also been classified as Essential and Non-Essential amino acids.
Out of 20 -Amino acids required for protein synthesis, human body can synthesize only 10 out of
them (e.g., Gly, Ala, Ser, Cys, Gln, Tyr, Pro, Asp, Asn, Glu) and are called as non-essential amino
acids. The other 10 amino acids (e.g. Val, Leu, Ile, Phe, Met, Trp, Thr, Lys, Arg and His) which
cannot be synthesized by human body are called as essential amino acids.
[ 41 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Structure of Proteins
The structure of proteins is quite complex. Study of its structure is carried out under the following
headings.
Primary structure of protein : The primary structure of protein refers to its covalent structure,
i.e., the sequence in which various -amino acids are arranged in protein or in the polypeptide
structure of protein.
The dipeptide still has free amino and carboxyl groups through which it can react with other
JE
O H R O H R
C N CH C N CH
ES
CH C N CH C N
R O R R O H
C-terminal N-terminal
an
Linear polypeptide chain
In polypeptide chain, the free amino end is termed as N-terminal and the free carboxyl end is
said to be C-terminal end.
ka
C N
chains into a definite three dimensional structure which protein assumes
O.
. O. H
as a result of hydrogen bonding. Depending upon the size of the R-group CH . N
H
C O.
. N C
of the amino acids in polypeptides, two different types of secondary N
O.
. H O.
structure are possible as discussed below H N C H
C N C O.. N
(a) -Helical structure (b) -Pleated sheets O. O. H
. .
H H N
-Helical structure : This type of secondary structure is acquired when C N
N
O.
the R groups in amino acids are large and involve in coiling of the .
polypeptide chains. The helical pattern in right handed coil and the shape
is stabilised by the intra molecular hydrogen bond between the >C = O group of one amino
acid and –NH group of the fourth amino acid.
-Pleated structure: This type of secondary structure is acquired when the R groups of amino
acids are small. In this structure the linear polypeptide chains are arranged side by side and held
together by intermolecular hydrogen bond between the C = O and –NH group.
[ 42 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
H R O H R
H
C C N C
C N C C N
O H H R O H
H O H R H O
N C C N C
C N C C
H R O H R
H
7.2Å
The tertiary structure of protein is the most stable shape that a protein assumes under the normal
conditions of temperature and pH. During acquiring of tertiary structure, various types of attractive
forces between the polypeptide chains are involved. These attractive forces, are hydrogen bond,
disulphide bonds, ionic, chemical and hydrophobic bonds, result in a complex and compact structure
JE
of protein. The two important tertiary structures of proteins are fibrous structures and globular
structure. Fribrous proteins have largely helical structure and are rigid molecules of rod like
shape. Globular proteins, on the other hand, have a polypeptide chain which consist partly of helical
ES
sections and partly -pleated structure and remaining in random coil form. These different segment
of secondary structure then fold up to give protein a spherical shape.
The quaternary structure of protein is developed when the polypeptide chains, which may or may
not be identical are held together by hydrogen bonds. It results in the increase of molecular mass
of protein greater than 50,000 amu. For example, haemoglobin contains four submits, two identical
ka
-chains containing 141 amino acids each and the other two identical -chains containing 161
amino acids each.
Denaturation of proteins
lp
When the proteins are subjected to the action of heat, mineral acids or alkali, the water soluble
form of globular protein changes to water insoluble fibrous protein resulting in the
precipitation or coagulation of protein. This is called denaturation of proteins.
As Structural materials: (e.g., Keratin in skin, hair, nails, wool, etc. Collagen in tendons. Myosin
in muscles and Fibroin in silk).
[ 43 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts and are chemically globular proteins.
Co-factors: Certains enzymes are associated with some non-protein components for its biological
activity and are called as co-factors. e.g., Inorganic ions like Na+, K+, Fe2+, Cu2+, Co2+, Mg2+, Zn2+,
Mn2+, etc.
The protein co-factor complex is usually called as holoenzyme while the inactive proteins part left
after the removal of co-factor is called as apoenzyme.
Deficiency diseases:
Hormones
Hormones are biomolecules produced in the endocrine glands and are circulated through the blood
ES
Steroid hormones
(ii) Estrogens: Estrone, Estradial and Estriol are female sex hormones.
lp
Cortisone, Aldosterone, etc. regulate the metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates.
Vitamins
Vitamins are the biomolecules which are required in small amounts for the normal metabolic processes
and for the life, growth and health of human beings. Vitamins neither supply energy nor help in
building tissue structures. They are just needed for keeping good health of human beings and animals.
Their deficiency causes many diseases.
[ 44 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Vitamins cannot be synthesized in the body and hence must be supplied in the food. Vitamin-D,
however may be either supplied in food or may be produced in the skin by the irradiation of steroids
(present in the oils and fats) with sunlight.
There are about 25 vitamins known. They are broadly divided into two categories:
1. Vitamin-A (Retinol) Milk, cod liver oil, butter, eggs, Night blindness, xerophthalmia
carrots, green leaves, tomatoes, etc. and xerosis.
2. Vitamin -B1 Pulses, nuts, green vegetables, Beriberi and loss of apetite
or Thiamine polished rice, whole cereals, yeast
JE
4. Vitamin - B6 Rice, bran, yeast, meat, fish, egg, Specific dermatitis called
or Pyridoxine yolk, maize, spinach and lettuce acrodynia, pellagra (shrivelled
an
5. Vitamin - B12 Milk, liver, kidney and eggs, Inflammation of tongue, mouth,
or Cyanocobalamine etc., and pernicious anaemia
ka
7. Vitamin-D Fish liver oil, cod liver oil, milk Rickets (softening and bending of
Ergocalciferol and eggs bones) in children, controls Ca and
or antirachtic vitamin P metabolism
or sunshine vitamin
[ 45 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Solution: (a) A secondary structure protein is formed due to inter or intra molecular hydrogen bonding
and by the formation of sulphide bridge.
Solution: (b) On heating hydrogen bonds and sulphide bridge clived in the protein molecule.
Problem 3: Insulin production and its action in human body are responsible for the level of diabetes.
ES
Problem 4: At the isoelectric point of an amino acid, the species present are
ka
| |
NH2 +NH
3
Solution: (d) The pH at which is no net migration of amino acid during electrolysis is called isoelectric
point.
[ 46 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
OH
OH
ES
O
Problem 9: Which of the following statements is true of proteins?
(a) They catalyse the biochemical reactions (b) They act as antibodies
an
(c) They act as hormones (d) They perform all these functions
Solution: (d) Factual
Problem 10: An example of a water soluble vitamin is
ka
[ 47 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Nucleic acid
Hydrolysis
Nucleotides
Hydrolysis
N-containing bases
The main points of difference between the two types of nucleic acids are given in the table.
5. It is a very large molecule and the molecular It is a much smaller molecule and its
weight vary from 6 million to 16 million amu. molecular weight ranges from 20
thousand to 40 thousand.
6. It has a characteristic property of replication It does not replicate.
7. DNA controls the heredity character. RNA only governs the biosynthesis of
proteins.
Ribonucleic acids
2. Purine bases of RNA are represented by adenine and guanine, the pyrimidine bases are uracil
and cytosine.
[ 48 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
4. RNA is single stranded, but double stranded RNA is present in Rheovirus and wound tumour
virus.
5. There are three major classes of RNA; each with specific functions in protein synthesis
mRNA
7. Messenger RNA encodes the amino acid sequence of a protein in their nucleotide base sequence.
8. A group of three of nitrogenous bases specifying an amino acid in mRNA is called as triplet
codon.
tRNA
9. tRNA is also known as soluble RNA (sRNA). It is soluble in 1 molar solution of sodium chloride.
10. tRNA identifies amino acids in the cytoplasm and transports them to the ribosome.
JE
12. Anticodon is a three-base sequence in a tRNA molecule that forms complementary base pairs
with a codon of mRNA.
ES
13. All transfer RNA possess the sequence CCA at their 3 ends; the amino acid is attached to the
terminal residue.
an
rRNA
14. Ribosomal RNA is found in ribosomes of cells and is also called insoluble RNA.
15. The main function of rRNA is to attract and provide large surface for spreading m-RNA over
ka
Genetic Code
16. The relationship between the sequence of amino acids in polypeptide with base sequence of
DNA or mRNA is genetic code.
18. A triplet would code for a given amino acid as long as three bases are present in a particular
sequence.
[ 49 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
19. Later in a cell-free system, Marshall Nirenberg and Philip Leder (1964) were able to show that
GUU codes for the amino acid Valine.
20. The spellings of further codons were discovered by R. Holley, H. Khorana and M. Nirenberg.
They have been awarded the Nobel Prize in 1968 for researches in genetic code.
(i) Transcription, (ii) Activation of amino acids, (iii) Attachment of activated amino acids with tRNA
and (iv) Translation.
22. The mode by which DNA passes its genetic information to mRNA is known as transcription.
Transcription
23. Transcription is the process by which a RNA molecule is synthesised on a DNA strand.
24. The molecules tRNA and rRNA are also transcribed from DNA templates.
JE
25. Wherever A,. T, G or C is present in the DNA template. U, A, C or G is incorporated into the
mRNA molecule.
26. A segment of the DNA helix unwinds and unzips and complementary RNA nucoeotides pair
ES
27. Transcription begins when RNA polymerase attaches to a region of DNA called a promoter.
28. A promotor defines the start of a gene, the direction of transcription and the strand to be copied.
an
29. Finally RNA polymerase comes to a terminator sequence at the end of the gene being transcribed.
30. The terminator causes RNA polymerase to stop transcription and to release to stop transcription
and to release the mRNA molecule, now called as RNA transcript.
ka
31. Transcription copy of mRNA from DNA–AGT CCT TGG AAT will be UCA GGA ACC UUA.
32. Base sequence of DNA strand is CAT TAG CAT CAT GAC. The base sequence on RNA
lp
33. The process of inhibition of RNA synthesis on a DNA template is called repression.
Lipids
The term lipids represent a group of biomolecules which are insoluble in water but
soluble in organic solvents of low polarity such as chloroform, toluene, ether, carbon
tetrachloride, etc. Lipids are the constituent of all cell membranes and thus regulate the activities
of cells and tissues. They also serve as the energy reserve for living cells.
(i) Triglyceride esters of higher fatty acids or oils and fats: The lipids which are triesters
of glycerol with long chain monocarboxylic acid are called triglycerides. In nature, oils and
fats most abundantly present as triglycerides in plants and animals.
Oils are the triglyceride esters of glycerol with longchain unsaturated monocarboxylic acids.
They are liquid at ordinary temperature. The most widely observed unsaturated fatty acids
in oils are
Contrary to oils, the fats are solid at room temperature and have long chain saturated fatty
acids, e.g.,
Oils or fats on hydrolysis with NaOH produces glycerol and the sodium salt of long chain fatty
ES
acids (soap). This process is known as saponification. Soaps are generally manufactured by
heating oil or fat with NaOH.
CH2 – O CO – R CH2 – OH
an
(ii) Phospholipids : Phospholipids are the major constituents of cell membrane. These are mixed
glycerides of higher fatty acids and phosphoric acid. In this, two –OH groups of glycerol are
esterified with long chain fatty acids while the third –OH group is esterified with some
lp
derivatives of pshosphoric acid. The phosphoric acid derivative contains a nitrogen containing
alcohol. e.g., ethanol amine, choline, serine of inositol. The simplest example of phospholipid
is lecithin which is found in egg yolk, brain and nerve tissue
(iii) Waxes: Structurally waxes are the esters of long chain fatty acids with long chain monohydric
alcohols, e.g.,
O
Supermaceti (Cetyl palmitate) CH3 – (CH2)14 – C – O – (CH2)15CH3
O
Bee wax (Myricyl palmitate) CH3 – (CH2)14 – C – O – (CH2 )29 – CH3
O
Carnauba wax (Myricyl cerotate) CH3 – (CH2)24 – C – O – (CH2 )29 – CH3
[ 51 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Metabolism
Metabolism is the combination of sum total of catabolism and Anabolism. One of these aspects
concerns the degradation of nutrients and various components of cells and tissues,
e.g., carbohydrates., proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
The degradative processes are called as catabolism, and the synthetic as anabolism. A third
consideration, which involves both anabolism and catabolism,, is the derivation and utilisation of
energy.
Catabolism. The degradation of complex organic molecules (e.g. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
vitamins, steroids, steroids, etc.) into smaller ones (e.g. CO2, NH3, urea, lactic acid, etc.) by a
series of enzymatic reactions within body is known as catabolism.
Anabolism. The synthesis of complex organic molecules (like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
nucleic acid, etc.) from simpler molecules in living organisms by a series of enzymatic reactions
is called anabolism.
JE
Digestion
Digestion may be defined as the process which converts relatively large organic molecules into
smaller molecules capable of absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract (GIT).
ES
Role of enzymes in digestion of foods: The three important constituents of food, viz.
carbohydratres, fats (lipids) and proteins are subjected to the action of various enzymes to form
simple constituents capable of being absorbed by the small intestine (digestion).
an
Lipases
(b) Fats bile
ka
Emulsified fat Fatty acids Glycerol
salts
Solution: (a) In DNA, molecule, on ribose sugar’s second carbon a deficient of oxygen.
Problem 2: If one strand of DNA has the sequence ATGCTTGA, the sequence in the complementary
strand would be
(a) TAGGAACT (b) TCCGAACT
(c) TACGTACT (d) TACGTAGT
Solution: (a) Adenine pairs with tymine and cytosine with guanine.
[ 52 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Problem 3: Which of the following statements about “Denaturation” given below are correct?
Statements:
(i) Denaturation of proteins causes loss of secondary and tertiary structures of the proteon.
(ii) Denaturation leads to the conversion of double strand of DNA into single strand/
(iii) Denaturation affects primary structure which gets distorted.
(a) (i) and (iii) (b) (ii) and (iii)
(c) (i) and (ii) (d) (i), (ii), (iii)
Solution: (b) Linkage always established either at poisition 3 or position 5 whichever –OH group is
free.
(a) amount of adenine (A) is equal to that of thymine (T) and amount of guanine (G) is equal
to that of cytosine (C)
(b) amount of adenine (A) is equal to that of guanine (G) and the amount of thymine (T) is
ES
Solution: (a) Adinine pairs with thymine and cytosine with guanine.
Solution: (b) Urazine and deoxyribose sugar at position no. 2 of ribose sugar no linkage is possible at
position 2has no –OH group.
Problem 8: Two samples of DNA, A and B have melting points 340 K and 350 K respectively. This is
because
(a) B has more GC content than A (b) A has more GC content than B
(c) B has more AT content than B (d) Both have same AT content
Solution: (a) Between guanine and cytosine three hydrogen bonds are present but between A and T
two hydrogeb bonds are present.
[ 53 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Problem 10: Which of the following sets of reactants is used for preparation of paracetamol from phenol?
(a) HNO3, H2/Pd, (CH3CO)2O (b) H2SO4, H2/Pd, (CH3CO)2O
(c) C6H5N2Cl, SnCl2/HCl, (CH3CO)2O (d) Br2/H2O, Zn/HCl, (CH3CO)2O
Solution: (a)
OH OH OH
NO2
JE
HNO3
phenol
NO2
ES
ka
NHCOCH3 NH2
paracetamol p--aminophenol
2.4 Antiseptics
lp
Antiseptics are the chemicals which prevent or destroy the growth of the harmful micro-organisms
They do not harm the living tissues when applied to wounds, cuts, ulcers and diseased skin
surfaces. Some of the common antiseptics are savlon, cetavelon, acriflavin, gention, violet,
iodine, methylene blue, mercurochrome and potassium permaganate.
CH3
Cl
CH3 OH OH
Chloroxylenol -Terpineol
Disinfectants
The chemical compounds capable of completely destroying the microorganisms are termed as
disinfectants. These are toxic to living tissues and thus can’t be applied on the skin. Therefore,
[ 54 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
these are used for sterillization of inanimate objects like floor, toilets, instruments and clothes, etc.
Depending upon the concentration, the same substance can act as disinfectant as well as
antiseptic. For example, 1% solution of phenol is a disinfectant whereas 0.2% solution of phenol
is a antiseptic.
Analgesics
Analgesics are substances which are used to get relief from pain. These are of two types
(b) Non-narcotics
(a) Narcotics: These are alkaloids and mostly opium products. These drugs produce sleep and
unconsciousness when taken in higher doses. Common examples of narcotics are morphine,
codeine, heroin (morphine diacetate), methadone and pethidine hydrochloride.
(b) Non-narcotics : Analgesics beloging to this category are effective antipyretics also. Examples
are aspirin and novalgin.
JE
CH3
–
CO CH – N – CH2 SO3Na+
COOH
O – C – CH3 C6H5 – N C – CH3
ES
N
O
CH3
Acetylsalicylic acid Novalgin
(Aspirin)
an
Antipyretics
The chemical compounds used to bring down the body temperature in high fevers are called
ka
antipyretics. These drugs cause excessive sweating and thus lower down the body temperature.
Some of the common antipyretics are:
Antimalarials
The chemical substances used to bring down the body temperature during malarial fever are called
antimalarials. Malarial fever is developed when the female mosquito Anopheles bites the man
and transfer the malarial parasite (plasmodium) in the body. The medicines used for its treatment
are quinine, chloroquine, paraquine and primaquine, etc.
[ 55 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Tranquilizers
The chemical substances which act on the central nervous system and has a calming
effect to reduce anxiety are specified as tranquilizers. Since these are used for the treatment
of mental diseases, so these are also known as psychotherapeutic drugs. They are basically
of two types:
(a) Sedative and hypnotics : Sedatives are central nervous system depressants that reduce
nervous tensin and promote relaxation without inducing sleep whereas hypnotics are central
nervous system depressants that induce sleep. Synthetic compounds used as sedative and
hypnotics are barbituric acid and its derivatives such luminal and seconal.
CH3
O O O
C3H7 – CH
C2H5
NH NH CH2 = CHCH2
JE
C2H5
N O N O O N O
O O
H H H
CH3
Equanil
(b) Antidepressants : A drug used for the treatment of highly depressed patient, who has lost
ka
CH3 CH3
–CH2 – CH – NH2 –CH2 – CH – NH – CH3
Benzedrine Methamphetamine
(Amphetamine)
Anaesthetics
These are chemical substances administered for producing general or local insensibility to pain and
other sensation. As evident from the definition, anaesthetics are of two types.
(a) General anaesthetics : These produce unconsciousness and are given when major surgical
operations are to be performed. Some of the common general anaesthetics are listed below.
[ 56 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
(b) Local anaesthetics : These produce loss of sensation on a small portion of the body where
the drug is applied. Local anaesthetics are used for minor operations.
Jelly form : Oxylocain
Spray form : Ethyl chloride
Injection form : Procain
Dyes
1. Dyes are coloured compounds used to impart colour to the textiles, silk, wool, foodstuffs, etc. If
a compound absorbs light in the visible region, its colour will be that of the reflected light, i.e.,
complementary to that absorbed. For example, if a dye absorbs blue colour, it will appear yellow
which is the complementary colour of blue.
2. Chromophores are groups which impart colour to a compound, i.e., NO2, NO, N=N, quinonoid
structures.
3. Auxochromes are groups which themselves do not absorb light (i.e., are not chromophores)
JE
but deepen the colour when introduced into the coloured compounds, i.e., OH, NH 2, Cl,
CO2H etc.
4. Classification based upon source:
ES
(i) Natural dyes are obtained from plants. For example, allzarin, indigo etc.
(ii) Synthetic dyes are prepared in the laboratory. For example, martius yellow, malachite
green, orange-I, orange-II, congo red, aniline yellow, etc.
an
(v) Fibre reactive dyes contain a reactive group which combines directly with the hydroxyl or
the amino group of the fibre. Cotton, wool and silk can be dyes with this type of dyes. Dyes
which are derivatives of 2, 4-Dichloro-1, 3, 5-triazine are important example of fibre
reactive dyes.
[ 57 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
(vi) Ingrain dyes are water insoluble azo dyes which are produced in situ on the surface of the
fabric by means of coupling reactions, e.g., para red.
(vii)Vat dyes are insoluble dyes which are first reduced to a colourless soluble from (jeuco
compound) in large vats with a reducing agent such as alkaline sodium hydrosulphite and
applied to the fabric and then oxidised to the insoluble coloured form by exposure to air or
some oxidising agents such as chromic acid or perboric acid, e.g., indigo.
(viii) Mordant dyes are applied to the fabric after treating them with a metal ion (mordant)
which acts as a binding agent between the dyes and the fabric. Depending upon the metal
ion used, the same dye can a give different colours. Thus, alizarin gives a rose red (turkey
red) coloured with Al3+ ions and blue colour with Ba2+ ions.
Propellants
1. Solid propellants consist of a solid fuel and solid oxidiser. These are of two types:
further enhanced by using additives like finely divided Mg or Al along with the fuel.
The main disadvantage of solid propellants is that they continue burning at the same rate without
an
2. Liquid propellants
ka
(i) Monoliquid propellants are a single chemical substance which acts both as a fuel as well
as an oxidiser. Examples are : Methyl nitrate, Nitromethane, Hydrogen peroxide etc.
(ii) Biliquid propellants consist of two liquids, one of which acts as a fuel while the other acts
lp
as the oxidiser. Most commonly used liquid fuels are :keroseneoil, alcohol, hydrazine,
monomethylhydrazine, unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine or liquid H2O2 while the most
commonly used liquid oxidisers are liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen tetraoxide or nitric acid.
3. Hybrid propellants consist of a solid fuel and a liquid oxidiser, e.g., acrylic rubber (solid fuel)
and liquid N2O4 (liquid oxidiser)
4. Energy of a propellant is measured in terms of its specific impulse (Is), which is related to the
flame temperature (Tc) inside the rocket motor and average molecular mass (M) of the product
gases coming out of the rocket nozzle, i.e.,
Ic
Is
M
Evidently, higher the value of Ic and lower the molecular mass of the product gases, better is the
rocket propellant.
[ 58 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Solution: (c) Anti histamins are those medicines which affect the activty of histamine
(an amino acid).
(b)
CH3
CH3 CH3
(c) H3C CH CH2 CH SO3 Na
3
(d) (CH3(CH2)10CH2OSO\3Na
[ 59 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Problem 8: Which of the following biomolecules will give blue colouration with Cu2+ and purple colur
with ninhydrin solution?
(a) Aldehyde (b) -Amino acid
(c) Carbohydrate (d) DNA
Solution: (b) Only amino acids and protein exhibit ninhydrin test.
Solution: (b) Non proteinous part of the protein is called prosthetic group.
HOH/ H
Problem 10: A glucose + fructose
ES
HOH/H
B glucose + glucose
HOH/ H
C glucose + galactose
the disacchardies A, B and C respectively are:
an
Solution: (b) Sucrose is a disaccharides of glucose and fructose, maltose is a diasaccharide of glu-
ka
[ 60 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1: (a) What is the average molecular mass of starch?
(b) What is the approximate average numebr of glucose units in the sample of starch?
(Given: 20 gm L–1 of starch has an osmotic pressure = 10–2 atm at 25°C
π 102 atm
M 4 104 M
RT (0.082 L atm mol1K 1 )(298K)
W2 1000
M
MW2 vol. of solution in ml
20 1000
MW2 5 104 gm mol1
4 104 1000
(b) Starch in a polymer of Glucose; each glucose unit (MW of glucose = 180 gm mol–1)
joined to another glucose unit with loss of one H2O unit (18 gm mol–1) giving a MW of
JE
Example 2: The specific rotation of -glucose is +112° and -glucose is +19° and the specific rotation
of the constant equilibrium mixture is +32.7°. Calculate the percentage compositon of anomers
( and ) in the equilibrium mixture.
an
100
Solving for a and b: a = 36.2%, b = 63.8%
Example 3: One mole of a naturally occurring fat on hydrolysis with NaOH gave 1 mol of glycerol
together with sodium palmitate and sodium stearate in 1:2 molar ratio. The molecule of the
fat is symmetric. Write down the structure of the fat.
Solution: The 1:2 molar ratio of sodium palmitate and sodium stearate obtained on hydrolysis with
NaOH indicates that two stearic acid molecules and one palmitic acid are esterified with 1
mol of glycerol. Since the molecule of fat have symmetry, the two steric acid molecules
must be linked to two terminal primary alcoholic groups. Therefore, the structure of the fat
must be:
H2C O CO C17 H35
HC O CO C15 H31
H2C O CO C17 H35
[ 61 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Example 4: Differentiate between o-erythrose and o-threose by (a) mild oxidation and (b) reduction
2 OH 2 OH
[O]
HNO3
3 OH 3 OH
4CH OH 4COOH
2
D-Erythrose Meso-tartaric acid
Plane of symmetry
H2 / Ni (Optically inactive)
[H] or
NaBH4
1COOH
2 OH Meso-butan-1,2,3,4-tetraol
(Optically inactive)
3 OH
4COOH
JE
2 OH 2 OH
[O]
ES
HNO3
3 OH 3 OH
4CH OH 4COOH
2
D-Tthreose D-(-) Tartaric acid
Optically active
H2 / Ni enantiomer
an
[H] or
NaBH4
1CH2 OH
ka
HO 2 Meso-butan-1,2,3,4-tetraol
(Optically active
3 OH enantiomer)
4CH OH
2
lp
Example 5: Give the structure and IUAC name of disaccharide, which gives the reaction given below:
H 2O
Disaccharide Glucose + Fructose
(A)
Hydrolyse both by
maltase or emulsin
Methylation and hydrolysis
2,3,4,6-Tetra-metyhyl-D-glucopyrase (B)
1,3,4,6-Tetra-methyl-d-fructofurnose (C)
Given, (A) does not reduce Fehling’s solution and does not mutarotate.
Solution: (i) It does not reduce Fheling’s solution and does not mutarotate, which suggests the
hemiacetic OH group at C-1 of glucose and hemiketalic OH group at C-2 of fructose
are not free and are involved in glycosidic linkage.
[ 62 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
(ii) Hydrolysis by maltase suggests -linkage and hydrolysis by emulsin suggests -linkage.
(iii) Products obtained after the methylation and hydrolysis of (A) suggest (C-1) (OH) ()
of glucose and (C-2) (OH) () of fructose are involved in glycosidic linkage.
(iv) Glucose is in pyranose form which suggests a six membered ring.
(v) Fructose is in furanose form and this suggests a five membered ring.
All the observations suggest that (A) is sucrose.
6 CH2OH
5 1
4 OH
(α D Glucopyranose)
HO
3 2 -link
OH O
( i) M e 2 S O 4 / O H ( ii) H
HOH2C -link (β D Fructofuranose)
O
HO
JE
CH2OMe
CH2OH
O
OH 5 1 OH
4 OMe
ES
IUPAC H
MeO 2
-D-Glucopyranosyl--D 3
-fructofuranoside OMe
(B)
(Equilibrium mixture of α and β anomers)
an
MeOH2C
O OH
MeO
CH2 OMe
ka
OMe
(C)
lp
[ 63 ]
Biomolecules, Biological Process & Chemistry in Action
Kilani HNO3
D- Allose Pair Meso-Heptaldaric acid
(ii) (D) synthesis
(E) (F)
Explain whether the acids (C) and (F) are same or different. Which pair out of (B) and
(E) give meso-acids (C) and (F)?
2 OH 2 OH HO 2
Kilani
HO 3
synthesis
3 OH 3 OH
4 OH HO 4 HO 4
5 OH 5 OH 5 OH
6 CH2 OH 6 CH2 OH 6 CH2 OH
D-Glucose
JE
COOH COOH
2 OH 2 OH
Plane of symmetry
3 CH3 3 CH3
OH 4 H HO 4
an
5 OH 5 OH
6 CH3 6 CH3
7COOH 7COOH
Meso-acid (It is optically active)
ka
(C)
1 CHO CHO CHO
(ii)
2 OH 2 OH HO 2
Kilani
3 OH 3 OH 3 OH
lp
synthesis
4 OH 4 OH 4 OH
5 OH 5 OH 5 OH
6 CH2 OH 6 CH2OH 6 CH2OH
D-allose
(D) (E) (C-2) Epimer of
(E)
HNO3 HNO3
COOH COOH
2 OH HO 2
Plane of symmetry
3 CH3 3 CH3
H 4 OH 4 OH
5 OH 5 OH
6 CH3 6 CH3
7COOH 7COOH
Meso-acid (It is optically active)
(F)
[ 64 ]
ADD NOTES HERE :-)
JE
ES
an
ka
lp
ADD NOTES HERE :-)
JE
ES
an
ka
lp
ADD NOTES HERE :-)
JE
ES
an
ka
lp
ADD NOTES HERE :-)
JE
ES
an
ka
lp
ADD NOTES HERE :-)
JE
ES
an
ka
lp
ADD NOTES HERE :-)
JE
ES
an
ka
lp
ADD NOTES HERE :-)
JE
ES
an
ka
lp
ADD NOTES HERE :-)
JE
ES
an
ka
lp
ADD NOTES HERE :-)
JE
ES
an
ka
lp
ADD NOTES HERE :-)
JE
ES
an
ka
lp