Landau Level

Landau levels and quantum Hall effect
Alexandre POURRET
alexandre.pourret@univ-grenoble-alpes.fr
March 17, 2022
Outline
• Introduction
• Landau levels in 2D
• Integer Quantum Hall Effect
• Measurement of bandstructure
Page 1 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

Outline
• Introduction

1. Introduction: Bibliography
Books
• Solid state Physics, Ashcroft et Mermin (1976)
• Magnetic Oscillations in Metals, D. Shoenberg (1984)
• Introduction to Solid State Physics, C. Kittel (1953)
• Principles of the Theory of Solids: Seond Edition, J. M. Ziman (1972)
• Band Theory and Electronic Properties of Solids, J. Singleton (2001)

1. Introduction: Classical Hall effect
History
The original, classical Hall effect was discovered in 1879 by Edwin Hall. It is a simple consequence of the
motion of charged particles in a magnetic field. We’ll start these lectures by reviewing the underlying physics
of the Hall effect. This will provide a useful background for our discussion of the quantum Hall effect.
Set-up
#»
Heres the set-up. We turn on a constant magnetic field B pointing in
the z-direction. Meanwhile, the electrons are restricted to move only
in the (x, y)- plane. A constant current I is made to flow in the
x-direction. The Hall effect is the statement that this induces a
voltage VH in the y-direction.

Classical Motion in a Magnetic Field
The Hall effect arises from the fact that a magnetic field causes charged particles to move in circles. Lets
recall the #»
basics. The equation
#» of motion for a particle of mass m and charge q in a magnetic field is:
m ddtv = F L = q #»
#»
v ×B
#»
When the magnetic field points in the z-direction, so that B = (0, 0, B), and the particle moves only in the
transverse plane, so #» v = (ẋ , ẏ , 0), the equations of motion become two, coupled differential equations:
mẍ = qB ẏ and mÿ = −qB ẋ with x (t = 0) = y (t = 0) = 0, ẏ (t = 0) = v0 and ẋ (t = 0) = 0
Lets define u = x + iy and ω = qB m we find ü = ω ẏ − iω ẋ = −iω(ẋ + i ẏ ) = −iω u̇
The solution is u̇ = A exp(−iωt) with A = iv0
v0 v v
u = − ω exp(−iωt) + B with B = ω0 so u = ω0 (exp(−iωt) + 1)
v v v0 m
x (t) = Re(u) = ω0 (1 − cos(ωt)) = R(1 − cos(ωt)) with R = ω0 = qB
v0
y (t) = Im(u) = ω sin(ωt) = R(sin(ωt)
y 2 + (x ± |R|)2 = R 2 : the motion is on circle of radius |R| at (−|R|, y ) for q>0 or (|R|, 0) for q<0.
Motion
x (t) = R(1 − cos(ωt)) y (t) = R sin(ωt) for q<0.

Classical Motion in a Magnetic & Electrical Field
#»
We apply an electrical field along the x axis, E = (E , 0, 0) and a magnetic field in the z-direction,
#»
B = (0, 0, B). The two differential equation become:
mẍ = qB ẏ + qE and mÿ = −qB ẋ with x (t = 0) = y (t = 0) = 0 and ẏ (t = 0) = v0
ü = −iω u̇ + qEm The solution is the general one + particularly one:
u̇ = A exp(−iωt) − i B E
with A = i(v0 + B E
)
u̇ = i(v0 + BE
) exp(−iωt) − i BE
u = − ω1 (v0 + B E
) exp(−iωt) − i B E
t + C with C = ω1 (v0 + B E
)
x (t) = ω1 (v0 + BE
)(1 − cos(ωt))
y (t) = ω1 (v0 + BE
) sin(ωt) − BE
t
qB
N.B= ω = m < 0 for electrons.
This solution corresponds to the combination of a circular motion (without E ) and a transnational motion
with a constant drift vD = − B E
along the x -direction, so perpendicular to E !
Motion
x (t) = 1
ω (v0 + E
B )(1 − cos(ωt)) y (t) = 1
ω (v0 + E
B ) sin(ωt) − E
Bt

Drude model
Lets now repeat this calculation with one further ingredient. A linear friction term, which is supposed to
capture the effect of the electron bouncing off whatever impedes its progress, whether impurities, the
underlying lattice or other electrons. We still have an electric field, E . This will accelerate the charges and,
in the absence
#» of a magnetic
#» field, would result in a current in the direction of E .
m ddtv = q( E + #» #»
#»
v × B) − m τ v
The coefficient τ in the friction term is called the scattering time. It can be thought of as the average time
between collisions. The equation of motion is the simplest model of charge transport, treating the mobile
electrons as if they were classical billiard balls. It is called the Drude model.
Drude model
#»
Were interested in equilibrium solutions of which have ddtv = 0. The velocity of the particle must then solve:
#» #» #» qτ #»
v − qτm v × B = m E
#»
In matrix notation, it becomes (with B = (0, 0, B), q = −e and ωc = eB
m ):
1 ωc τ #» eτ #»
v =−m E
−ωc τ 1
#»
The current density is J = nq #» v = −ne #»
v where n is the density of charge carriers. In matrix notation, it

becomes:
1 ωc τ #» 2 #»
J = nemτ E
−ωc τ 1
We
#» can#»invert this matrix to get an equation of the form:
J = σE
This equation is known as Ohms law: it tells us how the current flows in response to an electric field. The
proportionality constant σ is the conductivity. The slight novelty is that, in the presence of a magnetic field,
σ is not a single number: it is a matrix. It is sometimes called the conductivity tensor.

Conductivity tensor

σxx σxy ne 2 τ 1 −ωc τ σDC 1 −ωc τ
σ= = =
−σxy σyy m(1+ωc2 τ 2 ) ωc τ 1 1+ωc2 τ 2 ωc τ 1
Here σDC is the conductivity in the absence of a magnetic field. The off-diagonal terms in the matrix are
responsible for the Hall effect: in equilibrium, a current in the x -direction requires an electric field with a
component in the y -direction.
Although its not directly relevant for our story, its worth pausing to think about how we actually approach
equilibrium in the Hall effect. We start by putting an electric field in the x -direction. This gives rise to a
current density Jx , but this current is deflected due to the magnetic field and bends towards the y -direction.
In a finite material, this results in a build up of charge along the edge and an associated electric field Ey .
This continues until the electric field Ey cancels the bending of due to the magnetic field, and the electrons
then travel only in the x-direction. Its this induced electric field Ey which is responsible for the Hall voltage
VH .

Resistivity vs Conductivity
The as the inverse
resistivity is defined of the conductivity.
This remains true when both are matrices:
ρxx ρxy 1 ωc τ
ρ= = σ −1 = σ 1
−ρxy ρyy DC −ωc τ 1
ωc τ B
The off-diagonal components of the resistivity tensor, ρxy = σ = ne , have a rather nice property. They
DC
are independent of the scattering time τ . This means that they capture something fundamental about the
material itself as opposed to the dirty messy stuff thats responsible for scattering.
The two 2resistivities should be:

ρxx = nemτ ρxy = neB

Hall voltage
#» #»
Consider a thin slab of width w and thickness t. An electric E = Ex i is applied along the length of the
sample. This causes the charge carriers q (assumed positive) to drift along the x -direction. A magnetic field
#» #»
B = B k is applied perpendicular to the surface of the sample, causing the charge carrier to bend along
y -direction. This results in an accumulation of positive charges along one edge and negative charges along
the opposite edge. Since charges cannot move out of the sample, the force on charge #» carriers due to
#» the
electric field created by the charge separation must exactly balance the Lorentz force F L = q #» v × B on the
carriers. Thus if the resulting transverse voltage (called the Hall voltage) is denoted by VH , we must have
VH = −wvx Bz [units: V].
The different coefficients

The transverse resistance is the ratio of the transverse voltage and the current. In three dimensions, if the
density of the charge carriers is n, the current is the product of the current density qnvx with the cross
sectional area wt, i.e. I = qnv (wt), so that:
The Hall resistance: Ryx = IxH = −wv
V x Bz = − B [units: Ω].
qnv (wt)
x qnt
The Hall coefficient: RH = 1
qn [units: ΩmT−1 =kgCs].
The Hall resistivity: ρyx = RH ∗ B = qn B
[units: Ωm].
RH is positive if the charge carriers are positive, and negative if the charge carriers are negative. In practice,
the polarity of VH determines the sign of the charge carriers.
Exemple: Ix current along x , Bz field along +z, with y1 > y2 : VH = Vy 1 − Vy 2 = −RH Ix tBz .
So VH > 0 if q < 0 and VH < 0 if q > 0

1. Introduction: Quantum Hall effect
Observation of the Quantum Hall effect!

The existence of Landau levels leads to the remarkable phenomenon of the Quantum Hall Effect discovered
in 1980 by Klaus von Kiltzing in Laboratoire des champs magnétiques intenses in Grenoble.
Both the Hall resistivity ρxy and the

longitudinal resistivity ρxx exhibit
interesting behaviour. Perhaps the most
striking feature in the data is the that the
Hall resistivity ρx y sits on a plateau for a
range of magnetic field, before jumping
suddenly to the next plateau. On these
plateau, the resistivity takes the value:
ρxy = 2πℏ 1
with ν ∈ Z
e2 ν
The value of ν is measured to be an
integer to an extraordinary accuracy. The
quantity 2πℏ is called the quantum of
e2
resistivity (with −e, the electron charge).
It is now used as the standard for
measuring of resistivity.
Moreover, the integer quantum Hall effect is now used as the basis for measuring the ratio of fundamental
constants 2πℏ 2 sometimes referred to as the von Klitzing constant.
e

Plateaux
The center of each of these plateaux occurs when the magnetic field takes the value:
nΦ0
B = 2πℏneν = ν
where n is the electron density and Φ0 = 2πℏ e is known as the flux quantum. These are the values of the
magnetic field at which the first ν ∈ Z Landau levels are filled. In fact, as we will see, it is very easy to
argue that the Hall resistivity should take value when ν Landau levels are filled. The surprise is that the
plateau exists, with the quantisation persisting over a range of magnetic fields.
here is a clue in the experimental data about the origin of the plateaux. Experimental systems are typically
dirty, filled with impurities. The technical name for this is disorder. Usually one wants to remove this dirt to
get at the underlying physics. Yet, in the quantum Hall effect, as you increase the amount of disorder
(within reason) the plateaux become more prominent, not less. In fact, in the absence of disorder, the
plateaux are expected to vanish completely. That sounds odd: how can the presence of dirt give rise to
something as exact and pure as an integer?

Zero resistivity
The longitudinal resistivity ρxx also exhibits a surprise. When ρxy sits on a plateau, the longitudinal
resistivity vanishes: ρxx = 0. It spikes only when ρxy jumps to the next plateau.
Usually we would think of a system with ρxx = 0 as a perfect conductor. But theres something a little
counter-intuitive about vanishing resistivity in the presence of a magnetic field. To see this, we can return
to the simple definition which, in components, reads:
−ρ
σxx = 2 ρxx 2 and σxy = 2 xy2 If ρxy then we get the familiar relation between conductivity and
ρxx +ρxy ρxx +ρxy
resistivity: σxx = ρ1xx . But if ρxy ̸= 0, then we have the more interesting relation above. In particular, we
see:
ρxx = 0 ⇒ σxx = 0 (if ρxy ̸= 0).
While we would usually call a system with ρxx a perfect conductor, we would usually call a system with
σxx = 0 a perfect insulator! Whats going on?
This particular surprise has more to do with the words we use to describe the phenomena than the
underlying physics. In particular, it has nothing to do with quantum mechanics: this behaviour occurs in the
Drude model in the limit τ → ∞ where there#»is #» no scattering. In this situation,
#» #» the current is flowing
perpendicular to the applied electric field, so E . J = 0. But recall that E . J has the interpretation as the
work done in accelerating charges. The fact that this vanishes means that we have a steady current flowing
without doing any work and, correspondingly, without any dissipation. The fact that σxx = 0 is telling us
that no current is flowing in the longitudinal direction (like an insulator) while the fact that ρxx = 0 is
telling us that there is no dissipation of energy (ike in a perfect conductor).

1. Introduction: Fractional Quantum Hall Effect
Observation
As the disorder is decreased, the integer Hall
plateaux become less prominent. But other
plateaux emerge at fractional values: the
fractional quantum Hall effect. This was
discovered in 1982 by Tsui and Storm. On the
plateaux, the Hall resistivity again takes the
simple form, but now with rational number
ν ∈ Q. Not all fractions appear. The most
prominent plateaux sit at ν = 1/3, 1/5 and 2/5
but there are many more. The vast majority of
these have denominators which are odd. But
there are exceptions: in particular a clear
plateau has been observed at ν = 5/2. As the
disorder is decreased, more and more plateaux
emerge. It seems plausible that in the limit of a
perfectly clean sample, we would get an infinite
number of plateaux which brings us back to the
classical picture of a straight line for ρxy !
The integer quantum Hall effect can be understood using free electrons. In contrast, to explain the
fractional quantum Hall effect we need to take interactions between electrons into account. This makes the
problem much harder and much richer. The basics of the theory were first laid down by Laughlin, but the
subject has since expanded in a myriad of different directions. The 1998 Nobel prize was awarded to Tsui,
Stormer and Laughlin.

Outline
• Introduction

2. Landau levels in 2D: Maxwell equations
Maxwell equations
∇
⃗ × E + ∂B = 0 Maxwell-Faraday
∂t
⃗ · E = ρ Maxwell-Gauss
∇ ϵ0
∇
⃗ × B = µ0 (ϵ0 ∂E + J) Maxwell-Ampère
∂t
∇
⃗ · B = 0 Maxwell-Thomson
Charge conservation
∂ρ
∇
⃗ ·J+
∂t = 0 from Maxwell-Ampère

2. Landau levels in 2D: Lagrange equations
Lagrange equations
For each component x , the Lagrangian equations are: df ∂L
dt ∂ ẋ − ∂L
∂x =0
Lagrangian for a charged particle under magnetic field

L(r , ṙ , t) = Ec − Ep = 12 mṙ 2 − q(Φ(r, r , t)) = 12 mṙ 2 − q(V (r , t) − ṙ .A(r , t)) where Φ(r, r , t) is the
generalized potential in presence of a magnetic field et A is the vector potential [unit: Tm=kgm(Cs)−1 ]
By applying Lagrange equations, we find the Lorentz force:
mṙ = q[E (r , t) + v × B(r , t)]
with B(r , t) = ∇ ⃗ × A(r , t) and E (r , t) = −∇V ⃗ (r , t) − ∂A(r ,t)
∂t
dA(x ,y ,z) ∂A
Note that dt = ∂t + ẋ ∂A ∂A ∂A
∂x + ẏ ∂y + ż ∂z
Generalized momentum
px = ∂L
∂ ẋ where px is the conjugate variable of the coordinate x . For a charge particle:
px = mẋ + qAx (r , t)) so:
p = mv + qA(r , t)

2. Landau levels in 2D: Hamilton function
Legendre transformation
Legendre transformation of the Lagrange equation gives:
H(r , p, t) = p ṙ − L(ṙ , r , t)
Hamilton-Jacobi equations
dx ∂H
dt = ∂px
dpx
dt = − ∂H
∂x
Hamilton function for a charged particle under magnetic field

[p−qA(r ,t)]2
H(r , p, t) = 2m + qV (r , t) with Ec = 1
2 mv
2
= 1
2m (p − qA)2 and Ep = qV (r , t)

2. Landau levels in 2D: Going to quantum mechanics
Momentum operator
p̂ = ℏi ∇⃗
The plane wave φ(r ) = e ik.r is the eigenvector of p̂.
p̂e ik.r = ℏi ∇e
⃗ ik.r = ℏke ik.r
Hamiltonian for a charged particle under magnetic field

1 ℏ ⃗
Ĥ = 2m [ i ∇ − qA(r , t)]2 + qV (r , t)
Electrical current density under magnetic field

= 0 where ρvol = qn(r , t) = qφ∗ (r , t)φ(r , t)
∂ρvol
∇
⃗ ×j +
∂t
∂ρvol
Determining ∂t with the Schrodinger equation:
∗ ∗
Ĥφ = iℏ ∂φ
∂t et Ĥφ = −iℏ ∂φ
∂t
We obtain:
j = qRe[φ∗ ( m1 ℏ ⃗
i ∇ − qA(r , t))φ]

2. Landau levels in 2D: Symmetric gauge
Schrodinger equation
Having established that the classical Hamiltonian describes the behaviour of a charged particle in a
magnetic field, we will be looking for a solution of the corresponding quantum mechanical Schrodinger
equation. We have:
1 ℏ ⃗ #» 2
iℏ ∂ψ
∂t = 2m ( i ∇ − q A ) ψ + qV ψ
Symmetric gauge
#»
Taking the vector potential as : A = B2 (−y , x , 0)
#» ⃗ × #» #»
B =∇ A = Bk
The generalized momentum operator:
#»
Π̂ = p̂ − q A = (Π̂x , Π̂y ) = (p̂x + qB qB
2 y , p̂y − 2 x ) = (p̂x − 2 y , p̂y + 2 x ) for q = −e
eB eB
Since the particle is restricted to lie in the plane Π̂z = 0

[Π̂x , Π̂y ] = [p̂x + qB qB qB qB
2 y , p̂y − 2 x ] = 2 (−[p̂x , x ] + [y , p̂y ] = 2 (iℏ + iℏ) = iℏqB = −ieℏB for q = −e
so √1 Π̂x and √1 Π̂y are canonically conjugate.
eB eB
In terms of these variables the Hamiltonian becomes (with V = 0):
Π̂2 Π̂2
Π̂2 x y
Ĥ = 2m = 2m + 2m

2. Landau levels in 2D: Creation and annihilation operators
Let us define two new operators, "Ladder operators" (for q = −e):
b = √ 1 (Π̂x − i Π̂y ) & b † = √ 1 (Π̂x + i Π̂y )(adjoint operator).
2eBℏ 2Beℏ
Using the commutation relations of Π̂x and Π̂y given above, it is easy to show that:
[b, b † ] = 1
bb † = 2eBℏ1
(Π̂x − i Π̂y )(Π̂x + i Π̂y ) = 2eBℏ
1
(Π̂2x + Π̂2y − i Π̂y Π̂x + i Π̂x Π̂y ) = 2eBℏ
1
(Π̂2x + Π̂2y + i[Π̂x , Π̂y ]) =
2
1
2qBℏ (Π̂x + Π̂2y ) + 1
2
Symmetric gauge
Thus the Hamiltonian becomes:
† † †
2m (bb − 2 ) = m (b b + 2 ) = ℏωc (b b + 2 )
Ĥ = 2eBℏ 1 eBℏ 1 1
−1
with the cyclotron frequency ωc = qB m [unit: s ]. The energy levels, apart from the free motion in the
z-direction are given by those of one dimensional harmonic oscillator:
En = ℏωc (n + 2 ) with n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ....
1
These energy levels are known as Landau Levels. The cyclotron motion is confined in the x-y plane. Theres
something a little disconcerting about the above calculation. We started with a particle moving in a plane.
This has two degrees of freedom. But we ended up writing this in terms of the harmonic oscillator which
has just a single degree of freedom. It seems like we lost something along the way! And, in fact, we did.
The energy levels are the correct spectrum of the theory but, unlike for the harmonic oscillator, it turns out
that each energy level does not have a unique state associated to it. Instead there is a degeneracy of states.
A wild degeneracy.

2. Landau levels in 2D: Ground state in symmetric gauge
Determination
We define the ground state of the Landau levels by the action of the ladder operator Π̂ the ground state:
b |0⟩ = 0
Inserting the definition of b in terms of Π̂x and Π̂y (for q = −e):
√ 1 (Π̂x − i Π̂y ) |0⟩ = 0 ⇔ √ 1 (p̂x − eB 2 y − i p̂y − i 2 x ) |0⟩ = 0
eB
2eBℏ 2eBℏ
It is convenient at this stage to go over to complex variables z = x + iy and z̄ = x − iy .
z−z̄
x = z+z̄
2 , y = 2i
δz = 2δx + 2iδy , δz̄ = 2δx − 2iδy , ∂z ∂ ∂
= 12 ∂x − 2i ∂y∂ ∂
, ∂z̄ ∂
= 21 ∂x ∂
+ 2i ∂y
Using the above variable transformation:
(p̂x − eB2 y − i p̂y − i 2 x ) |0⟩ = 0 ⇔ (−iℏ ∂x − ℏ ∂y − 2 (y + ix )) |0⟩ = 0 ⇔
eB ∂ ∂ eB
∂
( ∂x − i ∂y
∂
+ eB
2ℏ (x − iy )) |0⟩ = 0 ⇔ (2 ∂z
∂
+ 2ℏ z̄) |0⟩
eB
= 0 ⇔ (2 ∂z
∂
+ 1
z̄) |0⟩ = 0
2l 2
B
We find |0⟩ = ψg (z, z̄) = A exp 4l1 zz̄ f (z, z̄) with ∂z̄
∂
f (z, z̄) = 0 so f (z, z̄) = z̄ m
B
This is different from the solution of the harmonic oscillator, where it is a Hermite polynomial. Take the
ground state to be labeled by an index m, which canp be seen as the degeneracy the Landau level.
ℏ
We can already introduce the magnetic length lB =
eB

z2
so |0⟩ becomes |0, m⟩ = ψg (z, z̄) = A( lz̄ )m exp −
B 4l 2
B

Representation

z2
|0, m⟩ = ψg (z, z̄) = A( lz )m exp −
B 4l 2
B
Basis
The wavefunctions provide a basis for the lowest Landau level. But it is a simple matter to extend this to
write down wavefunctions for all high Landau levels; we simply need to act with the raising operator:
−iℏ
b † = √ 1 (Π̂x + i Π̂y ) = √ 1 (p̂x − eB eB
2 y + i p̂y + i 2 x ) =
√ ∂
( ∂ + i ∂y qB
+ 2ℏ (x − iy )) =
2eBℏ ∂x
−ilB
2Beℏ
√ 2eBℏ
√ (2 ∂
∂z̄ + z̄
2 ) = −i 2(lB
∂
∂z − 2
z̄
) However, we wont have any need for the explicit forms of these
2 2l 4l !,,,
B B
higher Landau level wavefunctions.

Angular momentum
This particular basis of states has another advantage: these are eigenstates of angular momentum. To see
this, we define angular momentum operator in 2D:
Ĵ = r̂ × p̂ = −iℏ(x ∂y
∂
− y ∂x
∂
) = ℏ(z ∂z
∂
− z̄ ∂z̄
∂
)
Ĵψg (z, z̄) = ℏmψg (z, z̄)

2. Landau levels in 2D: Degeneracy in a symmetric gauge
Number of states for each energy level

In symmetric gauge, of the wavefunctions:
the profiles
z2
ψg (z) = A( lz )m exp −
B 4l 2
B
form concentric rings around the origin. The higher the angular momentum m, the further out the ring.
You shouldnt read too much into this other than the fact that the profile of the wavefunctions is not telling
us anything physical as it is not gauge invariant. However, its worth seeing how we can see the degeneracy
of states in symmetric gauge. The wavefunction with angular momentum m is peaked on a ring of radius rm
∂ψg (z)
so that ∂r | = 0 with r = |Z | and ∂r∂
= 2r ( z̄1 ∂z
∂
+ z1 ∂z̄
∂
).
√rm
We find rm = 2mlB .
2
This means that in a disc shaped region of area A = πR , the number of states is roughly
2 qAB
N = R 2 = A 2 = 2πℏ
2l 2πl
B B

2. Landau levels in 2D: Landau gauge
Having established that the classical Hamiltonian describes the behaviour of a charged particle in a
magnetic field, we will be looking for a solution of the corresponding quantum mechanical Schrodinger
equation. We have:
1 ℏ ⃗ #» 2
iℏ ∂ψ
∂t = 2m ( i ∇ − q A ) ψ + qV ψ
Landau gauge
#»
Taking the vector potential as : A = (0, xB, 0)
#» ⃗ × #» #»
B =∇ A = Bk
The generalized
#» momentum operator:
Π̂ = p̂ − q A = (Π̂x , Π̂y ) = (p̂x , p̂y − qBx ) = (p̂x , p̂y + eBx ) for q = −e
[Π̂x , Π̂y ] = [p̂x , p̂y − qBx ] = iℏqB = −ieℏB for q = −e
so √1 Π̂x and √1 Π̂y are canonically conjugate.
eB eB
In terms of these variables the Hamiltonian becomes (with V = 0):
Π̂2 Π̂2
Π̂2 x y
Ĥ = 2m = 2m + 2m

2. Landau levels in 2D: Creation and annihilation operators
Let us define two new operators, "Ladder operators":
b = √ 1 (Π̂x − i Π̂y ) & b † = √ 1 (Π̂x + i Π̂y ) (adjoint operator).
2eBℏ 2Beℏ
Using the commutation relations of Π̂x and Π̂y given above, it is easy to show that:
[b, b † ] = 1
bb † = 2qBℏ1
(Π̂x + i Π̂y )(Π̂x − i Π̂y ) = 2qBℏ
1
(Π̂2x + Π̂2y − i Π̂y Π̂x + i Π̂x Π̂y ) = 2qBℏ
1
(Π̂2x + Π̂2y + i[Π̂x , Π̂y ]) =
2
1
2qBℏ (Π̂x + Π̂2y ) + 1
2
Landau Gauge
Thus the Hamiltonian becomes:
† † †
Ĥ = 2qBℏ 1 qBℏ
2m (bb − 2 ) = m (b b + 2 ) = ℏωc (b b + 2 )
1 1
−1
with the cyclotron frequency ωc = qBm [unit: s ]. The energy levels are given by those of one dimensional
harmonic oscillator:
En = ℏωc (n + 2 )
1
These energy levels are known as Landau Levels. Unlike the case of the harmonic oscillator, each energy
level does not correspond to a unique state, rather there are degeneracies associated with the energy levels.

2. Landau levels in 2D: Ground state in Landau gauge
Determination
For q = −e, the Hamiltonian becomes:
Ĥ = 2m 1
(p̂x2 + (p̂y2 + eBx )2 )
Because we have manifest translational invariance in the y direction, we can look for energy eigenstates
which are also eigenstates of py . These, of course, are just plane waves in the y direction. This motivates
an ansatz using the separation of variables:
ψk (x , y ) = e iky Φk (x )
Φk (x ) = cst Φk (x ) = x
Φk (x ) should satisfy:
1 2 2 2
2m (p̂x + (ℏky ) + (eBx ) + 2ℏky eBx )Φk (x ) = E Φk (x ) p
2 ℏ
1
2m (p̂x + m2 ωc2 (x + ky lB2 )2 )Φk (x ) = E Φk (x ) with ωc = eB
m and lB = eB
This is a harmonic oscillator at x0 = −ky lB2 with energy level:
En = ℏωc (n + 12 ) with n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ....
The ground state would be:
(x −x0 )2
Φk = Hn (x − x0 ) exp −
4l 2
B
where Hn are the Hermite polynomials

Representation

(x −x0 )2
ϕk (x , y ) = exp(ikyy )Hn (x − x0 ) exp −
4l 2
B
n=0 n=1 n=2

Representation

2. Landau levels in 2D: Degeneracy of the ground state
Magnetic length
We have seen that the energy is independent of the position of the center of the oscillator, thereby making
it independent of ky . This leads to degeneracy.
Consider a two dimensional system of dimension Lx × Ly . Translational symmetry in the y -direction
requires ψ(y ) = ψ(y + Ly ) meaning e iky Ly = 1 so ky = ny 2π
Ly with ny = 1, 2, 3 .... However, ny has to
have a maximum because ky has a maximum value corresponding to the maximum number of states. There
is no translational symmetry in the x -direction. The centers of the cyclotron orbits are restricted to lie
ℏky
within the sample, i.e 0 ≤ x0 ≤ Lx ⇔ 0 ≤ |q|B ≤ Lx .
Thus the number of electronic (q = −e) degenerate states is:
Ly qBLx Ly Lx Ly
N = (ny )max = (ky )max = ℏ 2π = by introducing the natural size of the orbit, called the
2π l 2 2π
p p B
ℏ
magnetic length: lB = eB ∼ 25 × B[Tesla] nm
Degeneracy increase with field

Lx Ly
R Lx Ly m P Lx Ly m Lx Ly m Lx Ly
N = (N.B: in 2D (no spin), N = dE = 1
∆E = ℏωc = )
l 2 2π 2πℏ2 n n 2πℏ2 2πℏ2 l 2 2π
B B
• Note N depends on field: bigger field, more electrons can be fit into each Landau level.
• Landau levels split by spin Zeeman coupling, so it applies to one spin only.
Flux quantum
We define flux quantum ϕ0 by ϕ0 = h
e = 4.13 × 10−15 Tm2 .
Lx Ly B AB
N = ϕ0 = ϕ0

2. Landau levels in 2D: With an electrical field
Hamiltonian
#» #»
B = (0, 0, B) and E = (E , 0, 0) with q = −1
H = 2m1
(px2 + (py + eBx )2 ) + eEx = 2m1
(p̂x2 + m2 ωc2 (x + ky lB2 )2 ) + eEx
The trick is to put the x term inside the ()2 term.
2mωc2 ky l 2 eE mωc2 eE 2
H = 1 2
2m (px + m2 ωc2 (x + ky lB2 + eE
))2 − B − =
mωc2 2mωc2 2m2 ωc4
me 2 E 2 mE 2
1 2
2m (px + m2 ωc2 (x + ky lB2 + eE 2
)) − ky lB eE − 2 2 = 2m (px + m2 ωc2 (x
2 1 2
+ ky lB2 + eE
))2 − ky lB2 eE −
mωc2 2e B mωc2 2B 2
x0′
mvd
This is an harmonic oscillator at = −ky lB2
− mE
. We can notice that mE
= = r with vd = is theE
eB 2 eB 2 eB B
drift velocity.
2 2 2
H = 2m 1
(px2 +m2 ωc2 (x +ky lB2 + eE 2 ))2 +x0′ eE + mE 2e − mE2 = 2m
1
(px2 +m2 ωc2 (x +ky lB2 − eE 2 ))2 +x0′ eE + mE2
mωc eB 2B mωc 2B
The energy levels are :
En = ℏωc (n + 21 ) + x0′ eE + 2m
1
vd2
The interpretation of the three terms is that the first terms is the kinetic energy of cyclotron motion
(harmonic oscillator), the second is the potential energy of the guiding center x0′ in the electric field
potential eEy and the third is the kinetic energy associated with the classical drift velocity vd which is in the
y -direction.
The average velocity of the wave function is given by:
vy = m1 < py + exB >= m1 < ℏky + exB >= ωc < x − x0′ > − mω eE
c
= −BE
The solution are Gaussian with a width of l B :

(x −x ′ )2
ϕk (x , y ) = exp(iky y )Hn (x − x0′ ) exp − 0
4l 2
B
vx = m1 < px >= 0 (harmonic oscillator centered at x0′ )
We have recovered the classical motion of an electron in a magnetic field with a drift velocity vd = − B
E
.

2. Landau levels in 2D: With an electrical field
Energy levels
#» #»
B = (0, 0, B) and E = (E , 0, 0) with q < 0
The energy levels are :
En = ℏωc (n + 21 ) − (ky lB2 + mE2 )eE + 2m
1
vd2
eB

2. Landau levels in 2D: The role of the spin
Splittings
The splitting between Landau levels is ∆ = ℏωc = eBℏ m . But, for free electrons, this precisely coincides with
eℏ
the Zeeman splitting ∆ = gµB B between spins, where µB = 2m is the Bohr magneton and, famously, the
gyromagnetic factor g = 2 . It looks as if the spin up particles in Landau level n have exactly the same
energy as the spin down particles in level n + 1. In fact, in real materials, this does not happen. The reason
is twofold. First, the true value of the cyclotron frequency is ωc = meB , where meff is the effective mass of
eff
the electron moving in its environment. Second, the g factor can also vary due to effects of band structure.
For GaAs, the result is that the Zeeman energy is typically about 70 times smaller than the cyclotron
energy. This means that first the n = 0 spin-up Landau level fills, then the n = 0 spin-down, then the n = 1
spin-up and so on. For other materials (such as the interface between ZnO and MnZnO) the relative size of
the energies can be flipped and you can fill levels in a different order. This results in different fractional
quantum Hall states.

Outline
• Introduction

3. Integer Quantum Hall Effect: Link with Landau Levels
Introduction
This phenomenon can be understood without taking into account the interactions between electrons. This
means that we will assume that the quantum states for a single particle in a magnetic field that we
described earlier will remain the quantum states when there are many particles present. The only way that
one particle knows about the presence of others is through the Pauli exclusion principle: they take up space.
In contrast, when we come to discuss the fractional quantum Hall effect in Section 3, the interactions
between electrons will play a key role.
Conductivity in Filled Landau Levels

Lets look at what we know. The experimental data for the Hall resistivity shows a number of plateaux
labelled by an integer ν. Meanwhile, the energy spectrum forms Landau levels, also labelled by an integer.
Each Landau level can accommodate a large, but finite number of electrons.

3. Integer Quantum Hall Effect: Conductivity in Filled Landau Levels
Electronic density
Its tempting to think that these integers are the same: ρxy = 2πℏ and when precisely ν Landau levels are
νe 2
filled. And this is correct. Lets first check that this simple guess works. If know that on a plateau, the Hall
resistivity takes the value:
ρxy = 2πℏ with ν ∈ Z
νe 2
But, from our classical calculation in the Drude model, we have the expectation that the Hall conductivity
should depend on the density of electrons, n:
ρxy = 2πℏne e
Comparing these two expressions, we see that the density needed to get the resistivity of the ν th plateau is:
ne = ΦB ν with Φ0 = 2πℏ
e . This is indeed the density of electrons required to fill ν Landau levels.
0
Electrons are stuck

Further, when ν Landau levels are filled, there is a gap in the energy spectrum: to occupy the next state
costs an energy ℏωc where ωc = eB m is the cyclotron frequency. As long as were at temperature
kBT << ℏωc , these states will remain empty. When we turn on a small electric field, there’s nowhere for
the electrons to move: they’re stuck in place like in an insulator. This means that the scattering time
τ → ∞ and we have ρxx = 0 as expected.

3. Integer Quantum Hall Effect: Conductivity in Quantum Mechanics
Electronic currents
The above calculation involved a curious mixture of quantum mechanics and the classical Drude mode. We
can do better. Here well describe how to compute the conductivity for a single free particle.
We know that the velocity along xj (x ,y ,z) of the particle is given by:
#» #»
mx˙j = Π̂ = pˆj − q Aj = pˆj + e Aj for an electron
The current is Ij = −e x˙j , which means that, in the quantum mechanical picture, the total current is given
by: P
Ij = − me ⟨ψ| pˆj − qAj |ψ⟩
filled states
#»
Its best to do these kind of calculations in Landau gauge, A = xB j . We introduce an electric field E in the
x-direction so the Hamiltonian is given by :
H = 2m 1
(px2 + (py + eBx )2 ) + eEx
With the ν P LandauP Pν P
levels filled, the current in the x -direction is:
ν
Ix = − Lxem ⟨ψ(n, m)| pˆx |ψ(n, m)⟩ = − me ⟨ψ(n, m)| − iℏ ∂x
∂
|ψ(n, m)⟩ = 0
n=1 m n=1 m
This vanishes because its computing the momentum expectation value of harmonic oscillator eigenstates.
(N.B: The dynamical operators Πx and Πy are gauge invariant)
Meanwhile, P the currentP in the y -direction is : Pν P
ν
Iy = − Lyem ⟨ψ(n, m)| pˆy + eBx |ψ(n, m)⟩ = − Lyem ⟨ψ(n, m)| ℏky + eBx |ψ(n, m)⟩
n=1 m n=1 m
The second term above is computing the position expectation value < x >of the eigenstates. But we know
from earlier that these harmonic oscillator states are shifted from the origin, so that
ℏk
⟨ψ(n, m)| x |ψ(n, m)⟩ = − eBy − mE2 . The first of these terms cancels the explicit ℏky term in the
eB
P E
expression for I y . We’re left with:
Iy = L1y eν B ([A])
m
BLx Ly
The sum over m just gives the number of electrons which we computed, to be N = Φ0 .
E Lx E
Iy = νeN BLy = νe Φ0

3. Integer Quantum Hall Effect: Conductivity in Quantum Mechanics
Conductivity tensor
We divide only by the length,Lx , in 2D to get the current density J instead of the current I. The upshot of
I
this is that: Jy = Lyx = νe ΦE = νe 2 2πℏ
E
. Writing Jy = σyx E , we find:
0
e 2

σyx = ν 2πℏ

and σxx = 0 so the matrix:
2
0 −ν 2πℏ
e
σ= [Ω−1 ]
e2
ν 0
0
2πℏ
2πℏ
ρ= νe 2 [Ω]
− 2πℏ 0
νe 2
This is exactly the conductivity and resistivity seen on the quantum Hall plateaux.

3. Integer Quantum Hall Effect: Conductivity
Edges modes (without electrical field)

The fact that something special happens along the edge of a quantum Hall system can be seen even
classically. Consider particles moving in circles in a magnetic field. For a fixed magnetic field, all particle
motion is in one direction, say anti-clockwise. Near the edge of the sample, the orbits must collide with the
boundary. As all motion is anti-clockwise, the only option open to these particles is to bounce back. The
result is a skipping motion in which the particles along the one-dimensional boundary move only in a single
direction, as shown in the figure. A particle restricted to move in a single direction along a line is said to be
chiral. Particles move in one direction on one side of the sample, and in the other direction on the other
side of the sample. We say that the particles have opposite chirality on the two sides. This ensures that the
net current, in the absence of an electric field, vanishes.
We can also see how the edge modes appear in the quantum theory. The edge of the sample is modelled by
a potential which rises steeply as shown in the figure. Well work in Landau gauge and consider a
rectangular geometry which is finite only in the x-direction, which we model by U(x ).

Edges modes with electrical field

In the absence of the potential, we know that the wavefunctions are Gaussian of width lB . If the potential is
smooth over distance scales lB , then, for each state, we can Taylor expand the potential around its location
X .Each wavefunction then experiences the potential U(x ) ≈ U(X ) + ∂U ∂x + ..... We drop quadratic terms
and,of course, the constant term can be neglected. Were left with a linear potential which is exactly what
we solved previously when we discussed Landau levels in a background electric field. The result is a drift
velocity in the y -direction, now given by:
vy = − eB 1 ∂U
∂x
Each wavefunction, labelled by momentum k, sits at a different x position, x = klB2 and has a different drift
velocity. In particular, the modes at each edge are both chiral, travelling in opposite directions: vy > 0 on
the left, and vy < 0 on the right. This agrees with the classical result of skipping orbits.

Energy level
Lets now look at what happens when we fill the available states. We do this by introducing a chemical
potential. The states are labelled by y -momentum ℏky but, as weve seen, this can equally well be thought
of as the position of the state in the x -direction. This means that were justified in drawing the filled states
like this:
N.B: The number of state N per Landau level for a sample Lx is indeed (depends on the number of position
R Lx dx
R Lx dx
R Lx
x0 between 0 and Lx which is quantised because it depends on ky ):
Ly dx Ly Lx Φ
N = = = = =
0 ∆x0 0 ∆ky l 2 0 2πl 2 2πl 2 Φ0
B B B

Energy levels
From our usual understanding of insulators and conductors, we would say that the bulk of the material is an
insulator (because all the states in the band are filled) but the edge of the material is a metal. We can also
think about currents in this language. We simply introduce a difference of potential energy U between the
two sides of the sample. This means that we fill up more states on the right-hand edge than on the
left-hand edge, like this:
To compute the resulting current we simply need to sum over all filled states. But, at the level of our
R dkLas
approximation, this is the same
y
integrating R
over x . R dk ∂U R dx ∂U R ∂U
Iy = −eNk L1y vy (k) = −e 2πLy vy (k) = −e
dk
2π vy (k) = 2πB ∂x = 2 ∂x = 2πℏ
e
∂x dx =
2πBl
B
2 e2
e
2πℏ (U(Lx ) − U(0)) = − 2πℏ
e
(V (Lx ) − V (0)) = 2πℏ Ux where U = (V (0) − V (Lx )) > 0
Iy e2
In 2D, Gyx = σyx = Ux = 2πℏ which is indeed the expected conductivity for a single Landau level.

Energy levels
The picture above suggests that the current is carried entirely by the edge states, since the bulk Landau
level is flat so these states carry no current.But its a little too fast: in fact, its even in conflict with the
computation that we did previously, it shows that all states contribute equally to the current. Thats because
this calculation included the fact that the Landau levels are tilted by an electric field, so that the effective
potential and the filled states looked more like this:
Now the current is shared among all of the states.

Energy levels
However, the nice thing about the calculation is that it doesnt matter what shape the potential V takes. As
long as it is smooth enough, the resulting Hall conductivity remains quantized. For example, you could
consider the random potential like this:
We still get the quantized answer as long as the random potential U(x ) doesnt extend above EF . These
kinds of random potentials introduce another ingredient that is crucial in understanding the quantised Hall
plateaux.

Energy levels
Everything weve described above holds for a single Landau level. Its easily generalized to multiple Landau
levels. As long as the chemical potential EF lies between Landau levels, we have n filled Landau levels, like
this:
Correspondingly, there are n types of chiral mode on each edge. Chiral modes are special is that its hard to
disrupt them. If you add impurities to any system, they will scatter electrons. Typically such scattering
makes the electrons bounce around in random directions and the net effect is often that the electrons dont
get very far at all. But for chiral modes this isnt possible simply because all states move in the same
direction. If you want to scatter a left-moving electron into a right-moving electron then it has to cross the
entire sample. Thats a long way for an electron and, correspondingly, such scattering is highly suppressed.
It means that currents carried by chiral modes are immune to impurities. However, as we will now see, the
impurities do play an important role in the emergence of the Hall plateaux.

Robustness of the Hall State

The calculations above show that if an integer number of Landau levels are filled, then the longitudinal and
Hall resistivities are those observed on the plateaux. But it doesnt explain why these plateaux exist in the
first place, nor why there are sharp jumps between different plateaux. To see the problem, suppose that we
fix the electron density ne . Then we only completely fill Landau levels when the magnetic field is exactly
n Φ n Φ
B = en 0 for some integer n. But what happens the rest of the time when B ̸= en 0 ? Now the final
Landau level is only partially filled. Now when we apply a small electric field, there are accessible states for
the electrons to scatter in to. The result is going to be some complicated, out-of-equilibrium distribution of
electrons on this final Landau level. The longitudinal conductivity σxx will surely be non-zero, while the Hall
conductivity will differ from the quantised value. Yet the whole point of the quantum Hall effect is that the
experiments reveal that the quantised values of the resistivity persist over a range of magnetic field. How is
this possible?
Disorder
It turns out that the plateaux owe their existence to one further bit of physics: disorder. This arises because
experimental samples are inherently dirty. They contain impurities which can be modelled by adding a
random potential V (x ) to the Hamiltonian. As we now explain, this random potential is ultimately
responsible for the plateaux observed in the quantum Hall effect. Theres a wonderful irony in this: the
glorious precision with which these integers n are measured is due to the dirty, crappy physics of impurities.

Role of disorder
To see how this works, lets think about what disorder will likely do to the system. Our first expectation is
that it will split the degenerate eigenstates that make up a Landau level. This follows on general grounds
from quantum perturbation theory: any generic perturbation, which doesnt preserve a symmetry, will break
degeneracies. We will further ask that the strength of disorder is small relative to the splitting of the
Landau levels:V << ℏωc
In practice, this means that the samples which exhibit the quantum Hall effect actually have to be very
clean. We need disorder, but not too much disorder! The energy spectrum in the presence of this weak
disorder is the expected to change the quantised Landau levels from the familiar picture in the left-hand
figure, to the more broad spectrum shown in the right-hand figure.

Role of disorder
There is a second effect of disorder: it turns many of the quantum states from extended to localised. Here,
an extended state is spread throughout the whole system. In contrast, a localised state is restricted to lie in
some region of space. We can easily see the existence of these localised states in a semi-classical picture
which holds if the potential, varies appreciably on distance scales much greater than the magnetic length lB :
⃗ | << ℏωc
|∇V l B

Role of disorder
Now consider what this means in a random potential with various peaks and troughs. Weve drawn some
contour lines of such a potential in the left-hand figure, with + denoting the local maxima of the potential
and denoting the local minima. The particles move anti-clockwise around the maxima and clockwise
around the minima. In both cases, the particles are trapped close to the extrema. They cant move
throughout the sample. In fact, equipotentials which stretch from one side of a sample to another are
relatively rare. One place that theyre guaranteed to exist is on the edge of the sample.
The upshot of this is that the states at the far edge of a band either of high or low energy are localised.
Only the states close to the centre of the band will be extended. This means that the density of states looks
schematically something like the right-hand figure.

Conductivity revisited
For conductivity, the distinction between localised and extended states is an important one. Only the
extended states can transport charge from one side of the sample to the other. So only these states can
contribute to the conductivity. Lets now see what kind of behaviour we expect for the conductivity.
Suppose that weve filled all the extended states in a given Landau level and consider what happens as we
decrease B with fixed ne . Each Landau level can accommodate fewer electrons, so the Fermi energy will
increase. But rather than jumping up to the next Landau level, we now begin to populate the localised
states. Since these states cant contribute to the current, the conductivity doesnt change. This leads to
exactly the kind of plateaux that are observed, with constant conductivities over a range of magnetic field.
So the presence of disorder explains the presence of plateaux. But now we have to revisit our original
argument of why the resistivities take the specific quantised values. These were computed assuming that all
states in the Landau level contribute to the current. Now we know that many of these states are localised
by impurities and dont transport charge. Surely we expect the value of the resistivity to be different. Right?
Well, no. Remarkably, current carried by the extended states increases to compensate for the lack of current
transported by localised states. This ensures that the resistivity remains quantised despite the presence of
disorder. We now explain why.

Outline
• Introduction

4. Measurement of bandstructure: Hamiltonian in a solid
Lorentz force
#» #»
ℏ ∂∂tk = −e #»
v xB
• the component of #» #»
v parallel to B is constant.
#»
• as ∂ k
is perpendicular to #»
v and as #»v = ℏ1 ∇
⃗ k E (k)
#» ∂t
∂ k
∂t is perpendicular to ∇
⃗ k E (k). This means that the electron path (orbit) is one of constant energy.
• In k-space, the possible electron orbits are therefore described by the intersections of surfaces of
#»
constant energy with planes perpendicular to B .

Constant energy
R t2 R to B. The Rtime t2 − t1
Consider a section of k-space orbit of constant energy E in a plane perpendicular
k2 dk ℏ2 k2
taken to traverse the part of the orbit between k1 to k2 is: t2 − t1 = dt = |k̇|
= eB
dk
|∇k⊥ E (k)|
t1 k1 k1
here ∇k⊥ E (k) is the component of ∇k E (k) perpendicular to the magnetic field.
As ∇k E (k) is perpendicular to surfaces of constant energy, then ∇k⊥ E (k) is perpendicular to the orbit of
energy E and therefore parallel to δk, δE = ∇k⃗ ⊥ E (k).δ #»
k = |∇k⊥ E (k)|δk.So, we obtain:
ℏ2
R k2
t2 − t1 = eBδE dkδk
k1
The integral is the area of the k-space plane between orbits E and E + δE , therefore if δE → 0 then:
2 ∂A
t2 − t1 = ℏeB ∂E12
∂A12
where ∂E is the rate at which the orbit from k1 to k2 sweeps up area in k-space as E increases.

Cyclotron frequency
In most cases it is going to be useful to work in terms of closed orbits (cyclotron orbits) in k-space, i.e.
closed paths where k1 = k2 . In this case A becomes the area in k-space of the closed orbit; this will depend
on E and the component of k parallel to B, which we denote k∥ .
The period τc of the closed orbit is:
2 ∂A(E ,k∥ )
τc = ℏeB ∂E
2π eB
turning this into an angular frequency ωc (the cyclotron frequency), we obtain: ωc = τc = m∗
with
∂A(E ,k∥ )
ℏ2
m∗ = 2π ∂E
The quantity m defined is known as the cyclotron mass.

4. Measurement of bandstructure: Landau levels in 3D
Electron or hole like

Fermi surface of a metal is a constant energy surface. Therefore, if the material subjected to the magnetic
field is metallic (i.e. possesses sections of Fermi surface), then it implies that the electrons will perform
orbits in k-space about Fermi surface cross sections perpendicular to B. Therefore it give information about
∂A(E ,k∥ )
the cross-sectional areas of a section of Fermi surface. Note that the sign of ( ∂E ) allows the carriers
∂A(E ,k∥ ) ∂A(E ,k∥ )
on a section of Fermi surface to be identified as hole-like ( ∂E < 0) or electron-like ( ∂E > 0) in
a very appealing manner.

Hamiltonian in a solid
#»
Taking the vector potential as : A = (0, xB, 0)
#» ⃗ × #» #»
B =∇ A = Bk
The generalized
#» momentum operator:
Π̂ = p̂ − q A = (Π̂x , Π̂y , Π̂z ) = (p̂x , p̂y − qBx , p̂z ) = (p̂x , p̂y + eBx , p̂z ) for q = −e
The Hamiltonian for electrons in the band defined by the effective mass tensor (the mass can be different
for each direction). Lll of the effects of the crystalline potential have been absorbed into the band structure
Π̂2 Π̂2
y Π̂z2
which is defined by the effective masses. The Hamiltonian becomes: Ĥ = x + +
2mx 2my 2mz
Ĥψ = E ψ
p̂z and p̂y commute with the Hamiltonian. Their associated physical quantities are thus constants of the
motion. The operators Π̂y and Π̂z can therefore be replaced by their constant values ℏky and ℏkz
ℏ2 kz2
respectively. Making the sustitution E ′ = E − 2mz , we obtain:
2 (ℏky +eBx )2 2
e2 B2
pˆx
{ 2m x
+ 2my }ψ = E ′ ψ ⇔ { 2m
pˆx
x
+ 2my (x − x0 )2 }ψ = E ′ ψ with x0 = −ℏky lB2
eB
It looks exactly like the Hamiltonian of a one-dimensional harmonic oscillator. Indeed with ω = 1
(mx my ) 2
2
pˆx
{ 2m x
+ 12 mx ω 2 (x − x0 )2 }ψ = E ′ ψ thus E = ℏω(n + 12 ), with n = 0, 1, 2, 3.....
The energy levels of the electron a solid are therefore:
ℏ2 kz2
En = ℏω(n + 21 ) + 2mz with n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ....

Hamiltonian in a solid
• The energy of the electrons motion in the plane perpendicular to B is completely quantised. These
quantised levels are known as Landau levels.
• The k-space areas of the orbits in the plane perpendicular to B are also quantised (this is easy to work
out in the present case and is left as an exercise); thus, allowed orbits fall on Landau tubes in k-space
with quantised cross-sectional area.
• The energy quantum for the in-plane motion appears to be ℏ×(the semiclassical cyclotron frequency).
• The motion parallel to B is unaffected.

Landau tubes
ℏ2 k 2
En (n, kz ) = ℏω(n + 12 ) + 2mzz with n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ....
Each Landau level is specified by two quantum numbers n
and kz . However since each Landau level is degenerate, it
can be occupied by more than 2 electrons. Since the second
term is the kinetic energy along z, the first term must
contain the kinetic energy of the electron in x , y plane.
Comparing the energy eigenvalues obtained under magnetic
ℏ
with those in zero magnetic field, E = 2m (kx2 + ky2 + kz2 ),
we see that the energy states are reorganized by the
magnetic field. When n and kz are both fixed En (n, kz ) is
independent of kx and ky and an electron can only move
p mω
on a circle in the x , y plane with a radius
1
√
k⊥ = ℏ (2n + 1) = lB 2n + 1. When only n is fixed,
but kz is allowed to vary,the electron is confined in a
cylindrical surface, with the z axis as its symmetry axis:
Such cylinder are known as Landau tubes. It can be said
that the single electron states lie on the surface of the
Landau tube.

Landau tubes area
Each Landau has an area of

2
An = πk⊥ = π2 (2n + 1) = 2πeB
ℏ (n + 1/2).
l
B
The cross sectional area between two successive Landau
tube is given by:∆A = 2πeB
ℏ .
The number of states for a given value of kz on the surface
eLx Ly B
of a Landau tube is given by: ∆A 2 = 2πℏ = ΦΦ where
(2π) 0
(
Lx Ly
(2π)2
Lx Lyis the area occuied by a single electron state in a lane
perpendicular to the kz direction.
Note that the k-space area of each tube increases with B;
as we shall see in the sections below, this means that tubes
pop out of the Fermi surface as B increases.

Density of states
P degeneracy
With the spin the total density of states (per volume V ) is:
g(E ) = V2 Φ g(Ez ) with Ez = E − (n + 2 )ℏωc . g(Ez ) is the density of state in the direction z (1D),
Φ 1
n 0 pm 1
with no spin (already taken into account) so g(Ez ) = Lz
√ .
P eLx Ly Lz B p m p m P 2ℏ 1 Ez pm P
π 2
Finally g(E ) = 2 √1 = eB √ = mωc

√1 =
P V n 2π 2 ℏ2 2 Ez π 2 ℏ2 2 n Ez π 2 ℏ2 2 n Ez
1
4π 2
( 2m2 )3/2
ℏ n
p ℏωc
as Ez ≥ 0, n should satisfy the condition n ≤ E /ℏωc − 1/2. Because of
E −(n+ 1 )ℏωc
p 2
the presence of E − (n + 21 )ℏωc on the denominator of the summand, the value becomes large whenever
1
the value of (n + 2 )ℏωc is close to that of E . Thus g(E ) is an oscillatory function of the magnetic field B.
Electronic density
R EF p m P R EF
ne =N
V =
0
g(E )dE = eB
π 2 ℏ2 2 n 0
p 1
dE =
E −(n+ 1 )ℏωc
√ P p 2
1
2m EF − (n + 12 )ℏωc
π2 l 2 ℏ n
B

Density of states as a function of B
Density of states as a function of 1/B

Electronic density

4. Measurement of bandstructure: Quantum oscillations
Quantum oscillatory phenomena

Each time one of the sharp peaks in the electronic density of states moves through the chemical potential
EF there will be a modulation of the density of states at EF . Since almost all of a metals properties depend
on the density of states at EF , we expect this to affect the behaviour of the metal in some way.
As the field increases, the tube sweeps outwards, so that some of its states are always crossing the constant
energy surfaces. However, when the tube reaches an extremal cross-section of the constant energy surface
E , a much larger area of the cylinder (and therefore a much greater number of states, which lie uniformly in
k-space) lies between E and E + δE . This gives rises to a peak in the density of states.


Returning to the case of the Fermi surface, the maximum effect of the Landau quantisation will occur when
a Landau tube (and its associated peak in the density of states) crosses an extremal cross-section of a Fermi
surface. By analogy with the discussion of classical orbits about the Fermi surface such cross-sections are
often known as extremal orbits. The Landau tube crosses an extremal orbit/cross-section when:
(n + 1/2) 2πeB
ℏ = Aext where Aext is the k-space area of the extremal cross-section of the Fermi surface in a
plane perpendicular to B.Thus, the metal’s properties will oscillate as B changes, with a period T ( B1 ) given
by:
T ( B1 ) = ℏA
2πe
ext
Such oscillations are known generically as magnetic quantum oscillations.
Often it is more convenient to describe a series of quantum oscillations using a frequency known as the
fundamental field:
FF (B) = 11 = ℏA ext
2πe
T( )
B
• the fundamental field of the quantum oscillations is determined solely by the Fermi surface extremal
area and fundamental constants.
• several different frequencies (fundamental fields) of quantum oscillation may be simultaneously present
for a given orientation of B, corresponding to different possible extremal orbits; a famous example is
the simultaneous observation of frequencies from neck and belly orbits in Cu and Au.
• a measurement of the observed frequencies as a function of magnetic field orientation allows the
Fermi-surface shape to be mapped out.
• open orbits do not give rise to quantum oscillations.


Types of extremal orbit about Fermi surfaces

The left-hand figure shows that for B parallel to k1 there will be three extremal orbits ((1), (2) and (3)); as
(1) and (2) have the same area, there will be ONLY two series of quantum oscillation (i.e. two different
frequencies will be present). However, for B parallel to k2 , there is only one extremal orbit (4); a similar
situation would apply if B were parallel to k3 .
The right-hand figure helps to visualise the different types of orbit possible in metals possessing necks and
bellies in their Fermi surfaces, such as Copper, Silver or Gold. The orbit labelled a is an orbit around the
belly of the Fermi surface. If the magnetic field is applied out of the page, then an extremal hole-like orbit
(labelled b) will occur around the bone-shaped space in the middle; this is known as the dogs bone orbit! In
orbit c, electrons run across the bellies and necks in an extended or open orbit; this does not give rise to
quantum oscillations, as there is no closed orbit with which a frequency can be associated. If the magnetic
field is applied along one of the neck directions, extremal orbits about both neck and belly are possible,
leading to two frequencies of quantum oscillations. Note that different field orientations are required to
observe the different cases; the orbits in k-space are always in planes perpendicular to B.

Types of quantum oscillations

As the electronic density of states at EF determines most of a metals properties, virtually all properties will
exhibit quantum oscillations in a magnetic field. Examples include:
• oscillations of the magnetisation (the de Haas-van Alphen effect).
• oscillations of the magnetoresistance (the Shubnikov-de Haas effect).
• oscillations of the sample length (magnetostriction).
• oscillations of the thermoelectric power and Nernst effect.
• ocillations of the specific heat.
• oscillations in the ultrasonic attenuation.
• oscillations in the thermal conductivity.

Exemple: quantum oscillations of Potassium

• Spherical Fermi surface.
• Crystal structure: body-centered cubic-2 atoms per unit cell (a = 5.33 Å).
• Electronic configuration:[Ar]4s1 (1 conduction electron per atom).
• Density of electrons: ne = 2
= 1.32 1022 cm−3 .
a3
• For free electrons: kF = (3π 2 n)1/3 = 0.73 Å−1 .
ℏAext ℏπk 2
• Free electrons approximation: FF (B) = = F = 17600 T (large Fermi surface).
2πe 2πe
• Experimentally: Fexp = 18280 T.
• Theoretically: Fthe = 18320 T. (LDA calculation)

Lifshitz-Kosevich theory (1956)

For the magnetization or resistivity, the amplitude A of the quantum oscillations depend on the curvature
2A
factor C = | ∂ ext |−1/2 and on 3 different damping factors:
∂k 2
∥
• RT which depend on the temperature.
• RD which depend on impurity scattering
• RS which depend on the spin-splitting effect.
2A
e 5/2 VFB 1/2 ext |−1/2 R R R
A= |∂ T D S
(2ℏ)1/2 π 5/2 me ∂k 2
∥

Curvature factor
2
C = | ∂ Aext |−1/2 accounts for the curvature of the Fermi surface.
∂k 2
C → ∞ for cylindrical (2D) Fermi surface, giving large oscillations.
C → 0 for pancake like Fermi surface, giving small oscillations.

RT : Effective mass
The oscillations grow in amplitude as the temperature is lowered. This occurs because finite temperatures
smear out the edge of the Fermi-Dirac distribution function which separates filled and empty states. At
T = 0 the Landau tubes will pop out of a very sharp Fermi surface; at finite T the surface will be fuzzy.
The modulation of the density of states around µ caused by the Landau tubes will therefore be less
significant. The thermal smearing implies that ℏωc must be greater than kB T for oscillations to be
observed, i.e. low temperatures are needed. As the decline in intensity is caused by the Fermi-Dirac
distribution function, it can be modelled rather well, and an analytical expression for the temperature
dependence of the oscillation amplitude, valid as long as the oscillation amplitude A is small, has been
derived:
• For main physical properties (SdH, dHvA), the amplitude follows Lifshitz-Kosevich
2π 2 kB T 14.693m∗ T
formula :A ∝ RT = χ
sinh(χ)
with χ = ℏωc = B with m∗ in unit of me (me = 9.1e −31 kg,
2π 2 me kB −1
ℏe = 14.693TK )
• For the thermoelectic power, the amplitude follows Varlamov-Pantsulaya formula :
coth(χ)−1
A ∝ RT = χ sinh(χ) , thus the amplitude of the TEP quantum oscillation will show a maximum for
0.11B
Tmax = m∗
It is fairly obvious that we are comparing the thermal energy kB T with the space between energy levels
ℏωc . Fitting of the oscillation amplitude can therefore be used to give m∗ .

Different effective masses
χ 14.693m∗ T
Lifshitz-Kosevich formula: A ∝ sinh(χ)
with χ = B

RD : Dingle temperature
The oscillations grow in amplitude as B increases at fixed T . This occurs because scattering causes the
Landau levels to have a finite energy width τℏ with τ the scattering time. As B increases, ℏωc will increase,
so that the broadened Landau levels will become better resolved; theoretical studies have shown that this
causes the oscillation amplitude to vary with B as follows (again, the equation is only valid for small
oscillations):

−14.693 m∗ TD ℏ
A ∝ RD = exp − ωπc τ = exp B with the Dingle temperature TD = 1
kB 2πτ
TD can be linked to the residual resistivit ρ0 :

ℏ ℏne 2
TD = k1 2πτ = k1 2πm ∗ ρ0
B B

Different Dingle temperatures
• TD = 0.1 K: extraordinary sample

• TD = 0.5 K: very good sample
• TD = 1 K: good sample
• TD > 5 K: oscillations are usually not observed
Very high magnetic fields are required to observe
dHvA oscillations in samples of not so high quality
(especially with high effective masses).

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Landau levels and quantum Hall eﬀect

• Integer Quantum Hall Eﬀect

Page 1 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

• Integer Quantum Hall Eﬀect

Page 2 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

Page 3 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

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Page 8 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

The two 2resistivities should be:

Page 9 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

The diﬀerent coeﬃcients

Page 10 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

Observation of the Quantum Hall eﬀect!

Both the Hall resistivity ρxy and the

Page 11 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

Page 12 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

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Page 14 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

• Integer Quantum Hall Eﬀect

Page 15 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

Page 16 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

Lagrangian for a charged particle under magnetic ﬁeld

Page 17 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

Hamilton function for a charged particle under magnetic ﬁeld

Page 18 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

Hamiltonian for a charged particle under magnetic ﬁeld

Electrical current density under magnetic ﬁeld

Page 19 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

Since the particle is restricted to lie in the plane Π̂z = 0

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Number of states for each energy level

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n=0 n=1 n=2

Page 29 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

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Degeneracy increase with ﬁeld

Page 31 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

The solution are Gaussian with a width of l B : 

Page 32 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

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• Integer Quantum Hall Eﬀect

Page 35 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

Conductivity in Filled Landau Levels

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Electrons are stuck

Page 37 | March 17, 2022 | Alexandre POURRET

The solution are Gaussian with a width of l B :