124107012

INDEX
S. No Topic Page No
Week 1
1 Introduction to Structure, Form, and Architecture 1
2 Relationship of Structure to Architectural Buildings Part I 21
3 Relationship of Structure to Architectural Buildings Part II 48
4 Loads on Structures 73
5 Synthesis of Architectural and Structural Form 98
6 Connecting Structure and Architecture Part I 128
7 Connecting Structure and Architecture Part II 147
8 Structural Transformation in Architectural History 169
9 Factors affecting the Structural Forms 194

Week 2
10 Learning from Animal's Architecture 221
11 Basic Structural Properties 250
12 Structural Requirements 277
13 Structural Arrangement 302
14 Structural Forms and Shapes 320

Week 3
15 Structural Materials 342
16 Structural Typology 366
17 Compressive Structures 384
18 Tensile Structures 406

Week 4
19 Load Bearing Structures 426
20 Temporary Structures 447
21 Framed Structure 479
22 Arch Structures 500

23 Vault Structures 523
Week 5
24 Dome Structures 547
25 Grid Structures 572
26 Shell Structures 592
27 Trusses and Space Frames 615
28 Folded Plate Structures 649

Week 6
29 Membrane Structures 672
30 Pneumatic Structures 696
31 Structure and Architectural Forms in Windy Areas 718
32 Structure and Architectural Forms in Seismic Prone Areas 745

Week 7
33 Structure and Architectural Forms in Flood Prone Areas 775
34 Cost Effective Structure and Architecture 799
35 Structure and Light in Architecture 822
36 Evolution of Highrise Structural System 843

Week 8
37 Highrise Structural Components Part I 867
38 Highrise Structural Components Part II 888
39 Mega Structure and Architecture-Case Studies 914
40 Architecture and Structure - Past, Present, and Future 934

Structure, Form, and Architecture: The Synergy
Prof. Shubhajit Sadhukhan
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture - 01
Introduction to Structure, Form, and Architecture
Hello everyone, welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structure, Form
and Architecture. I am Dr. Shubhajit Sadhukhan, Assistant Professor in the Department
of Architecture and Planning, IIT Roorkee. So, I am offering this course with the aim to
get some better understanding on the structure, form, and architecture, which are seem to
be very important for specially the students who are pursuing architecture, and even the
civil engineers or the architects, because this lecture will give you some insight on the
better understanding of selection of structural systems and then the forms selection
which will actually support to make our architecture the way we want.
And today this is the Lecture Number-1. This is Introduction to the Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Before, I really start this particular lecture, let us just
understand this subject. As this name suggest structure, form, and architecture comprises
of three different terminologies. So, let us understand what we understand by structure.
So, structure has many definitions across different fields. So, pertinent to a building
design or architecture, structure is basically a combination of different parts and parcels,
they act together to support the system, where the form is the visible outcome of any
object and architecture is basically the process which will include different thinking,
creativity and apply with the science and technology to create some outcome, the
articulation of spaces. And the synergy is basically the strong association with all these
terminologies.
So, in this particular course what we learn? We will learn different types of structure that
may be used for the architectural designs, different forms which can be supported with
the structure, and different piece of architecture where we have the applications of the
structure.
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(Refer Slide Time: 02:48)
Let us start with these two photographs, so two buildings I just placed on the first slide,
the one is a museum building designed by famous architect Zaha Hadid; the other one is
Burj Khalifa - a tall building, a very famous building in Dubai. The reason behind
putting these two pictures in the first slide to understand the essence of it. The first one
the museum, we can see, this is basically a form which is being created with multiple
curves, and being supported with some steel glass and other materials to give a pleasant
look. We all appreciate it; there is no doubt on it. The other one is the Burj Khalifa - a
tall structure, and it is really fantastic to watch.
But this is the final outcome. To bring this into reality there are different processes; so
one has to design it, then visualize it, and that has to be supported with the structure. So,
can I say that this is only the form-based creation or it is just the imagination? rather it is
a combination of all these, and that is what this subject is made, but these are all new
buildings.
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So, let us see this. This is not much new, but again another you know wonderful
architecture that we all admire we all you know appreciate one is the Louvre Museum
which is basically a transparence you know outlook, and having this pyramid shape. The
other one is in India that is Taj Mahal; it was made long back. But with the perfection in
the symmetry and as well as the stability, still we can enjoy this environment there. So,
this is another example.
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Now, not, it is not new in practice even if we go back to the primitive age from there also
like people they invented different type of shelter, different type of structures, and form
which actually you know make us wonder even at this age. One we start with the
Stonehenge at the long-long back then the primitive shelter and the pyramid. We all
know in Egypt, there are lots of pyramid, the example the huge mega structures the
execution of that with different kind of material form really it is surprising to us. Even
that is true for the Parthenon in Greece which is the series of column that is supporting a
structure.
And apart from that we can see this a curve form structure designed by Felix Candela -
the famous architect and structural designer, and in this side the Golghar that is situated
in Bihar, and this is basically a structure which is appreciable. But at the same time, if
you look at the broad perspective without not going much detail into the structural
components, so these are basically a form. One is maybe the you know spherical form,
one is the canonical form, somewhere it is a cuboid one, sometimes we use the complex
curve with the hyperbola or a parabola, and sometimes it is a pyramid very straight away.
So, it has a relation.
Now, as already I mentioned that if you look into the definitions, it will change in
different subject. So, we just strict ourselves to the definition that is applicable for the
building design or so. So, structure is a constitution or framework of identifiable
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elements, different components, different parts, steps which actually need to be figured
and need to be combined to act for a purpose and which will make you know your design
stable. It will give a form and resist the stress and strain. We will later on we will
actually see all those terminology stress-strain in detail though those are very basic, but
again we will touch upon that what we understand by stress-strain of a structure.
Then come to the form, the definition of form, the visible shape or configuration of
something. So, what we can see because of the light and because of other physical
parameters, so basically the outcome that is a form. Sometimes it may be spherical;
sometime it may be conical; sometimes it is regular 3D shape or sometime it may be a
combination. We add some subtractive form, or some time we go for the additive form to
make a composition and give a look to our form. And the architecture, I am pretty much
sure that you all know different kind of definitions, different definitions of architecture
given by different architects and different sources.
So, here it is basically one of the definitions I have taken from dictionary that
architecture the art or practice of designing and constructing building. So, sometimes
architecture is not limited to building or space creation, sometimes it also include some
other parts. And sometimes also like we create some outdoor architecture it should not be
the meaning I just want to convey that it is not always architecture means a closed form
enclosure, it maybe something semi open or sometimes even it is of different
combination. So, these are the definitions we know.
But looking at the definition, it is not really very clear the association or the synergy that
we are talking about, but they are having a relation definitely a form, we say it is stable
because of the material used to build it or maybe the structural backup which actually
made it stable. In the architecture also sometimes, it is just created by the function that
we require some space and we just measure that space and we build something some
enclosure. But sometimes we can generate with the different form, we just be
determined. So, it is an intuitive process which will help us to create this outcome.
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Now, here I place two photographs again and taken from two you know different wonder
piece of architecture one is Eiffel Tower in Paris, the other one is the Guggenheim
Museum in Bilbao. So, my question to all of you looking at this photograph the first
what comes in your mind? Is this is an example of a structure, or a form, or an
architecture? Already though I mentioned that I have taken these examples from great
architecture, but still the option is on.
So, some of you may say that Eiffel Tower is a kind of lattice structure is made of steel
and is a creation is a structure. And I can debate on that that maybe it is a just a form that
is being created with the perfect symmetry with some scale and proportion. And as
because it has some utility spaces, so we can also say it is architecture. So, if I get a
definition in this case, all answers will have the you know right sense. So, we cannot
really distinguish.
Now, come to the other one the Guggenheim Museum is a very complex design and
developed on the mathematical calculation, and all different surfaces, different curvature,
the application of material. So, it is something a form which actually depicts some
transition and create this beautiful piece of architecture. So, again we cannot define these
two photographs with a single answer, we cannot discard other two answers from this.
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Now, this is a simple photograph that depicts all like what comes first? structure, should
we start our design with the structure keeping in mind, or should we start just the form?
So, it is very tough question. Yeah, to me, it is very tough because you know when for a
student of architecture when we give this subject, any design assignment, and ask them
to design it, so we give them some requirements. So, whether they will first start with
creating the you know form of that or they have something in their mind about the
structure they can use, so it is difficult task for them.
But definitely we cannot neglect one for the sake of the other one. So, we have to give
the equal emphasis to both of them the form creation as well as the structure probable
structure that can be you know considered for making that form. So, we need to think
this simultaneously. So, for making it very comprehensive, very stable and you know
great outcome that we want from the design, so we need to think both. The form that can
be taken up the structure that can be you know helpful to create that form as well as
overall it will give the architecture that we want.
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Now, the next slide, this slide is basically a representation like again a continuation of
which comes first. So, it is very difficult to say that time. But in this picture if you see
this skeleton and the mask that creates the beautiful human like us. So, always if we
appreciate the outlook is basically what we see, we can appreciate the human looking
good and all. But at the back it is being supported with the skeleton, the bone and also
that is being well structured. So, that is another important thing though we have different
parts of the skeleton, different components, but if they are not tied up in a right manner,
so we cannot function, so we cannot appreciate.
And that is so true even the recently build the statue of unity, it is a huge structure, so the
outcome is looking as its sculpture, but if you see the construction. So, it is made of
different structural element that are combined together to give this stability. And end
result you can all see this you know really a great structure or you can say this sculpture
or the form, or even the space created inside it the architecture.
So, looking at these two slides what we can understand as of now, that we cannot think
structure and form separately. So, structure is an integral part of the form. And we should
keep this in our mind when we take up any design, so that from the day 1, we can
actually start thinking of the probable structure that can be used for the design, but
definitely we cannot fit everything everywhere. So, based on requirement, we will fix it.
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I give you another example. Say for example, I have this pen it is a very simple design,
but it is not that much simple. So, basically the result we are getting from the refill. So,
in this the refill is a very tiny thing. And if you just give a try to use that refill to write,
we will not be comfortable, but when we use the body of this pen maybe of plastic or
maybe of metal to give the grip. So, one thing is your basically the anthropometry and
the ergonomics which will help us to make the grip, this is one point. But at the same
time this body will make it more stable, so that you can use it very comfortably. So, like
that in each of our creation to give a you know solid or maybe a stable you know
outcome, so we have to think about the structure how we can fit it.
Now, this is one example from a Beijing China, so that was built recently, the Bird Nest
Olympic Stadium. So, this is again another example of a structure which is inspired by
the nest. So, here we can say the form was taken, the initiation is just a bird nest. But the
execution, the proper alignment of the beam and column, it is very important here. It is
not so much regular that we will often see in our building, you know regular buildings.
So, this, this is another example where you know the form is predominant than the
structure, but again to make it happen to get this feeling that we can resemblance with
the bird nest that has to be supported to the right type of structure.
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Now, go to the next one. So, this is another example of the form. So, this is a photograph
of TWA Terminal, and this is basically the main terminal building. So, looking at this
picture who are actually you know have studied the contemporary architecture and I am
sure that they know this building, and this form creation is like inspired by a bird. So, it
has a relation with the airport, so rather the aeroplane. So, they both are flying or with
that concept, it is being developed.
But the roof structure, if you see that is very important to think about the type of
structure to be used. And who are having experience of you know the airport any you
know international airport or a you know standard big airports, so we need some huge
span whether it maybe a example of our Delhi airport or maybe the Kolkata airport or
any airport if you visit, so we need that span, so that people can move easily. So, to get
that span we need some kind of structure which is not regular beam and column maybe.
So, how to select that one is another challenge.
Again if you think of a form like here they have used the form of a bird, so the challenge
will be even more to how to implement it. So, again we can say that this also this
represent that the structure is an integral part of form, and we all now come to a point
where like we get those examples and we can correlate it with this.
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Now, next two slides, this one and the next one, we will see some of the forms which is
already present in the nature. And next slide we will see some form which is basically
the man made. And the structural form that we really aspire we really you know
appreciate those things, one is the cave and it is maybe the you know the first shelter of
that particular primitive age, which was created naturally and the form it is making
stable, so that people they can feel some safety out of the externalities and all and this
was very useful.
Now, to address this, I just want to extend it, basically like why should we create the
form, why should we create the architecture, the basic need of architecture or a space as
we consider that the shelter is one of the basic needs of you know survival. So, basically
if there is no need, there is no invention, no design.
Now, for the shelter the purpose, if we go back to the history, so in order to save like our
primitive age you know ancestor, they actually had to you know save themselves from
the externalities from the other animals and all, so that is why shelter was much needed.
Though it was a tree house or the cave, or later on they invented many other things to
you know get survived from the externalities, so that was the need. So, that creates the
requirement to create the space the enclosure which will be safe. But at the same time if
that cave was not that much stable and can cause some of the other problems to the in
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habitats, so purpose is not solved, so that is why the stability and the safety. So, these
two terminologies we will use later on quite frequently to define the structural need.
The other one, is a bird nest again is a fantastic creation, and it really need some
perfection. So, if you see in due course of time, I will show you this particular nest in
detail like how they have made and it has a purpose to lay their eggs, and then how they
make it very safe from other you know externalities, other you know dangers these birds.
And in this particular form it is basically a mess looking form, you know very close
picture it is just a zigzag of some of the fibers and all, but overall it is creating that
particular sense and a good architecture that we can always inspire. And from that
nowadays this kind of nest being used or we can see it in our interior as a means of your
lighting or something.
The other one is the honeycomb. This is another beautiful piece of creation where like
the bees, they made this hexagonal shape and it is so accurately done. So, this is a form
and in order to stabilize it how they have you know made it, we will also discuss it in due
course of time this kind of structure. So, in the lecture profile like number of lectures, the
one such topic will be of the architecture and you know structure created by different
animals and birds.
Now, again the example of the spider wave, so it is strong enough for them to you know
stay or use that as their habitat. So, this is we can relate with some of the cabled structure
and also, we get inspired by that. And we can create some kind of structure with the roof
like rope, and we make it. The human skeleton already has depicted it with the picture
that this is the backbone. So, everything we do even today I am standing, I am delivering
the lecture. So, basically it is supported by the structure. So, along with this skeleton like
all the bones and with the you know mass, it actually formed and make it make me able
to speak.
The other one, the other example, so if there also we can create it has a relation with the
golden mean ratio I guess many of you know this ratio where it is basically a form like
where it creates some of the involute and it is a really beautiful creation. So, these are
very few of them that I could able to put it in the slide, but there are many. So, basic idea
of putting this to get habituated with a form that is already there in the nature and their
structure, so that we just modify a little bit we can take inspiration from this example and
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we create our solution keeping all these in the mind. But based on the requirement
definitely thing is going to change.
Now, these are some of the man-made structural forms where Igloo is another structure
which is being made in you know, in case to get the comfort from the outside like to save
ourselves inside and get the comfort from other externalities outside in that. So, Wigwam
is another structure very simple structure that also help to get protected from the external
thing.
Then even we create something like you know your kite or maybe the aeroplane or the
parachute, the acts with something with the air. So, like sometimes we heard this term
call aerodynamics, and this is the principle why are all these flies and other things. So,
this is another helpful tool or the term that help us to decide upon the selecting some kind
of structure for taking into consideration these aerodynamic properties.
Again we create the cranes which is another you know supporting system, I would say to
create the beautiful piece of architecture that really helps with the you know levers and
other thing this crane is created, so that it can help us to build the structure the way we
want and at quick time.
And another invention that is the first aeroplane that is again acts with a aerodynamics
and all. And we can see the example at the corner that is a suspension bridge, and we
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really appreciate and there are lots of suspension bridge across the globe which really
you know make us really think about how it is so much architecturally pleasant and
aesthetically looking great as well as is stable. So, how these are acting why it is being
made with the suspension cable or is making a tensile structure. So, we will discuss this
kind of you know structural form being used for different purposes during the course.
And the courses is designed in such a manner that we will design each component
different type of structure and form to create this.
And last, but not the least in this slide is the example of a cell structure which is situated
in you know India, Bahai temple. And this is another example where like it is a
meditation you know hall being created where like this shell structure helped and how it
is creating the form of a lotus and sometimes, we also refer it as a lotus temple. So, we
will see this thing how it really acts.
Now, moving on to the objectives. Now, to be specific the main objective of this course
is to learn the relationship between structure, form, and architecture to make a synergy
between them, a proper synergy can only work and create the architecture structurally
strong and stable, functionally optimized and aesthetically pleasant.
So, if I make a structure very strong enough and stable enough, but hardly we have any
place to live in, that means, our purpose to create that space is not fulfilled. So, probably
our selection of that structure or element is not appropriate. So, we have to also satisfy
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the function or the requirement of creating architecture, and after all the last but not the
least is to look it very impressive aesthetically pleasant, so that everyone looking at the
building appreciate, they enjoy that particular creation, they appreciate, they give a value
to it.
The other objective is to know the fundamentals of the structural forms. So, here we will
not really go into detail of the mathematical calculation of those structural things, but
main idea is to understand their behavior their fundamentals and their pros and cons to
use for a certain thing. So, it will help us to make a decision to select the appropriate
form and structure for our architectural design, specially for the students who are just
started the architectural design maybe in the second year or maybe the in second
semester of first year, this course will really help them. Because when they start the
architectural design at the same time this course will give some input from the structural
point of view the structural form that they can use to you know improve their design
solutions, they will not be stuck into that.
And again, to learn the structural application through suitable case studies, there are
various examples there are successful stories. So, we will explore that. And what is my
idea, I will also present you some of the you know model and we will do some small
experiment to believe in that particular property how it is going to help to our
requirement, and it will definitely clear the doubts that we had normally in our student’s
days also we faced that problem. So, it will clear the doubts of those things and help
them to relate it with the architectural design.
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Now, come to the process like architecture is basically the articulation of space through
application of art, science, and technology. So, we all agree that first we have to be very
much imaginative, and we have that creativity to create something really appreciable,
and then we have to make it real with the application of science and technology. This
process also includes an integration between idea, first idea should be there to create
something innovative, then the technology and the control. The control is very important
where we manage it, and then definitely the one of that process includes the fulfilling of
the requirements.
So, if we fail to fulfill the requirements, may be the solution will not be appreciated.
Satisfying the needs and the desire of the end user, how the way who are using it who are
actually you know experiencing it, how well we can satisfy them to that. So, this is the
process of these in a summarized way where like as like when like we go to an architect
for the design.
So, basically it is between your user design and developer, developer maybe the builder
in this context to have a design solution. So, always there is a process ok. And a
feedback like user the client come to an architect, so say the requirements I want to do
this and I have this much of fund or something. So, architect will design something.
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And then it will have a cross checking and feasibility and cost benefit. So, basically it is
optimizing everything, so fulfilling all needs, so that the final outcome will be as desired.
And during that particular designer, it includes good architect structural designer, many
other designers, many other engineers, so that it can be done in a comprehensive manner
and give the outcome.
Some key points that I just want to highlight in this lecture and definitely we will go into
detail in our coming lecture. So, key points that we have to decide upon the structural
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form and all, the space that is available, the requirements given by the client, the constant
different constant may happen that your structure to be built in earthquake prone area or
in a flood low-lying area, then what is the purpose of the structure that is whether it is a
like huge activity hall or the you know you need to make it for a huge convention hall or
it is just for a small residential building, the concept, that idea, that create the form and
all, the available tools that will make this design.
The technology definitely day-to-day the technology there is a huge improvement, so

how we can integrate that with our design process then different resources along with the
manpower and other resources, so that we can optimize. At the same time sometimes, we
also see the economic viability, then the materials to be used how this can support the
form and the esthetics that we were looking for execution. So, after all everything we
have and finally if we fail to execute in a proper manner, so that we will not really give
us the required or desired outcome and the maintenance.
So, based on that definitely during the process, we make different solutions alternative
solutions, and we go for a suitability assessment to pick up the best one that can fit.
So, now we are almost you know into conclude this particular lecture. So, the synergy
we talked about among form, structure, and architecture there are different objectives
definitely. So, this synergy, proper synergy will ensure the safety of the user, fulfill the
requirement very obvious, satisfy the functional need. So, one of the primary you know
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points that we have to look into and the optimize the resources, resources as I already
mentioned it may be the material, it may be the you know cost, it may be other
manpower et cetera, solve the purpose.
So, as purpose was one of the you know like initiation to create something new, so
anyhow this synergy should solve the purpose what we actually desired, and then the
ensure the perfect fit. So, taking the best synergy, best alternative to have the desired
result.
So, basically now coming to this slide what are we going to learn from this course. In
this course, we will learn the types of structural form, different forms, basic structural
property and behavior of them to know where they can be you know applied and where
not, structure architecture relationship how they are being related from the past to the
recent time, different structural materials that are very helpful to create different kind of
you know wonders in architectural field, then structural application on resilient and
futuristic architecture.
So, resilient and futuristic architecture what we are talking about this is the need of the
hour where we have to make our thing resilient with the you know natural disaster or
manmade disaster. So, how we can do it with the case study. Next lecture we will focus
on relationship of structure to the architectural buildings as of like this is our focus to
related with the buildings. So, I think this will help you a lot.
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And this is the reference you can go for the further reading.
Again, I would like to thank you.
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Lecture - 02
Relationship of Structure to Architectural Buildings – Part I
Welcome back to the online course Structure, Form, and Architecture: The Synergy. This
is Lecture Number – 2, Relationship of Structure to Architectural Buildings. In lecture
number 1, we just started with the introduction where we learnt about different aspect of
structural form and its synergy with architecture and we have seen not only in nature, but
also in manmade world, we have a strong association with the structural form and
architectural design.
So, in this lecture, basically this topic is being divided into two lecture, lecture 2 and
lecture 3. So, in lecture 2, we will try to understand in detail the relationship of structure
with the architectural building.
Now, again we just refresh our mind with the definition, as I already mentioned that the
definition of structure or building or architecture, we will get different kind of definitions
from different sources. But to understand in pertinent to the building an architectural
design, we just put it like this, the structures the part of building that resist the load that
imposed on it.
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It is very clear and straight forward answer that, suppose a building is a structurally build
very strong; that means, the load the external load or the other dead load or live load, we
will talk about those different kind of loads in upcoming lectures. But basically we all
understand what is load.
So, it is the force on that particular surface or the object. So, it should have that you
know capacity to resist it from collapse. So, the part of a building that resist the load is
basically the structural element and all together when they actually you know put in a
right manner that composition of that element will make the structure of the building.
Now, what is building? Now we learned a definition of architecture where it was said the
articulation of space with the help of your the application of technology different you
know science into it. Now let us see the definition of building, it is an envelope that
encloses and subdivides space in order to create protected environment. Already I
mentioned in lecture number one where like in the primitive age people they start
building because of you know they had to protect themselves from the external dangers;
it may be from the whether it may be from the other animals.
So, this safety the protection was the need to make something called shelter and this is an
envelope that we normally name as building, but in a building it may be a single like
lecture room like the room now I am standing on it and it may be like a series of rooms
put together to fulfill our need. Say for example, if we take example of a residential
building. So, we have bedroom, we have drawing room, we have a like toilet then
kitchen area. So, basically it is something the division of space for as per our
requirement.
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Now, in this particular lecture, we will try to see the close relationship of structural
application to the building. Now to start with, this is a very schematic diagram in this
slide where it is just you can say the under-construction building. So, here different
components of a building structures been shown.
So, it start with the foundation that we have you know seen like it is the anchor like the
tree, they have the roots to hold it the canopy and the branches like that for a building,
so, we need foundation and that should anchor like this will anchor the whole building
with the ground. So, that it can stand safely then also it consist of some vertical structure
and some horizontal structure.
So, vertical means based on its position. So, we can say wall, column, et cetera and then
also to support it like a frame structure, then we also need to put beam adequately to
connect them and then to have this space usable so, we have to create different slab.
Now, composition of all these like beam, wall, slab, and foundation; they will make the
skeleton. Like in the previous lecture, I have shown like one image with a human
skeleton and the outer you know surface. So, like that what we see in the building, this is
basically the final outcome. But before that inside that there are like a bone like skeleton
which will which will be like you know saving the building which will make it safe, will
protect the building.
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Now, the main fundamental is that whatever the load come on this elements like slab;
slab will then transfer the load to the beam; beam will transfer to the column and finally,
it will transfer the load to the foundation and foundation will transfer the load to the
ground. So, it is the whole mechanism. We will come into detail when we discuss about
different kind of loads and how they act to the building.
But whatever I mentioned in this slide, this is very basic like very simple state forward
building where it is just we can say the apartment building, a very simple design and
concept. And looking into the picture we hardly get any idea about the material to be
used for that or you know the other functions.
So, basically the moment we make it little bit complex like we play with the different
concept, different requirement; sometimes we need a convention hall where we cannot
put a column in between we have to make it obstruction free then probably the structural
composition will change. So, that is why we can say that whatever the you know
component of a structure or maybe the parts and parcel of that it will vary from simple to
the complex structure.
So, let us understand this with some other slide. So, in this slide, I just presented one
igloo and the other is tepee.
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So, the right-hand side picture the tepee is basically a temporary structure. You can see
that this is a cloth like membrane material which like we can put on a structure
temporary made with some you know wooden stick which is making it stable a conical
structure. So, there can be a replacement of a tent.
So, the arrangement is very simple and we can easily make it. The other one, the igloo, it
is again a compressive structure. So, here we will put the compressed ice and make this
form which will protect like the people who are residing inside it. Now just as I
mentioned the compressive structure, compressive means if you compress any object say
for example, I have this pen right.
So, here if I want just give pressure from both the end. So, what is happening inside it?
So, it tries to compress, but as because I cannot put enough pressure on this from both
the side. So, the change is not visible to you, but if we perform it with some higher load;
then definitely it will collapse after certain time. So, there are structural like which are
tensile in nature and all. So, the other side this particular structure conical structure is
well formed and it is protected people for the weather and all.
The concept behind these two is basically the basic purpose to protect from the external
environment maybe it is the extreme cold weather or it may be scorching summer and as
of now these two are very simple to construct.
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Now, come to a recent one like this is Burj Al Arab in Dubai. This is really a good
architecture and like whenever we see this image or in any video that is showing this
building, we really appreciate it and we really want to know more about it from the
source.
But if you see the structure that I have shown beside that image, so, it is not that simple
that we have seen for the igloo and all. So, here it accounts more than that; more than
that I want to mean that its act with the compressive you know load the tensile load along
with that there are other several loads that this building should resist. One of that is
basically the wind if you see the location of this so; basically wind will play a crucial
role. And if you see the height of the building so, at that height also there will be a
pressured wind pressure and all.
So, then the structural composition will be different. So, then that should take care of the
wind load and other lateral pressure and that is why it is being complexed. So, along with
the simple beam column structure, now it needs more than that.
Now, what about this? This is a new Beijing airport in China which will be like which is
considered to be the largest airport in the world.
So, see this is under construction photograph. So, looking at this is nowhere matching
with the basic concept of the beam column and other structural element is so complex,
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but it is possible and as because it is possible we can see the image is still like. See those
you know different curvature and all and here if you see that not only at the roof. So,
they play with different curvature at different axis. So, it is basically creating that
particular environment that particular enclosure with some flow.
So, in order to make it happen so, we have to design the structure accordingly. Now we
have two way, one we restrict our self with a very straightforward composition and
compromise our concept we cannot go beyond that, but this is the time where we should
go what we want and we support it with different you know structural advancement and
we apply the technology to make it happen.
So, this is the repeat slide that already I presented you know in my last lecture, lecture
number 1, but just have a recap to it. So, in this process, we create the space, we
articulate the space as per our need, we sub divide the space as per our requirement and
definitely there we put our idea. So, this is very important here, the idea and then the
technology definitely the new technology will help us to make it more you know
desirable and the control on the quality and we have to fulfill the requirements.
So, these are very key parameters with which we will go forward.
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And these are the key points where also we mentioned about the concept. So, the
moment we get a requirement that we need this much of space, this type of space then
we start generating different concept.
How we can make it you know you know purposeful? How can make it different from
existing one? So, that it will make a contrast to the existing buildings and all and all will
appreciate. So, to bring that wow factor into our building so, we should really play hard
in concept stage.
And then definitely the other points to be maintained where we should also look into the
space available, the resource available, technology available, the materials, another
important thing which will change many decision even sometimes because of the
materials we cannot select a structure because a material is not available at that particular
site or location, then the execution. So, when we execute well then that will give the
result that we actually want.
So, before we move to the next slide, let us understand the simplicity and complexity.
So, you all can see that I have a paper plain paper piece of paper and this is very simple
right, I can use it for writing something.
If I fold it so, I can make aeroplane out of it. So, with the plain concept plain blank
paper, we can create many thing, but just think about the structural point of view. So, if I
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try to hold this paper, it is not possible because of the self weight and all, but I just fold
it.
Now, it is standing right. So, this type of structure will discuss in that particular section
when we discuss about different type of structure that we can use in our architectural
field. So, this is folded plate and if you make it like that trial and error you can get
something like that. So, here it is a letter you can say m or w, but you know frankly
speaking it can also carry a load. Suppose this paper if I want to put this slide changer, it
cannot hold the load; I am scared that it may fall but with this it may act as a stand
without any external support.
So, so this is the beauty like with the plain paper, with the plain kind of slab you convert
it to the you know folded plate slab can you know solve many purpose. So, we will
discuss in detail. So, let us move on to the next slide. So, in this lecture, we primarily
focus on the concept.
So, what Pressman says about the concept? Concept refers to the essential formative
scheme, idea, or basic organizing principle of a building design. A strong initial idea is
valuable because that will be implemented, that requires the cause that requires the other
energy, manpower everything.
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So, that is very vital thereby ensuring coherence among all elements like all elements
means the space available the structure to be used; everything is related with the concept.
So, for that based on a book authored by Charleson that structure as architecture. So,
concept and structure has a relation and broadly, we can classify that concept in four
pairs. So, one is order versus chaos, stability versus instability, static versus dynamic,
grounded versus floating.
So, looking at the terms we can get some idea what exactly they mean. So, when we
called something in order, say everything is order so; that means, it is very simple
straightforward well chaos is scramble like this is something I draw. It may be an
abstract art, but it is creating a chaos where I just make this arrangement. So, we can say
that they are in order and they are making a like you know three column two row
composition array.
The stability and instability, stability means say for example, this is a you know
elevation from a site of a pyramid and if you just this is the ground. So, we can say that
this structure this form is very stable whereas, if I make it inverted so, it assume to be
very much instable, but that is not the challenge.
Because also like we can make it happen, there are buildings which is having. Static
means is very straightforward where we have a composition like this and dynamic relate
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to the flow which will change or give a motion when you look into the building. So, we
will have some curvature and other thing.
Then grounded and floating, grounded means it has a feeling that it is anchored with the
ground whereas, floating means it seems to be floated, but exactly it is not the real case,
but visually we will see. Suppose a building which is having a mass heavier and you
know, it is just stand on a very simple you know and very narrow structural element
below. So, this is seems to be floating. So, this is overall idea that we can say.
So, let us just understand through different case study.
So, this is again a nice example given in the book Structure as Architecture. So, here the
you know the concept of a making architecture like form your order to chaos, how its
going to change. So, in this, this is the plan where you can say that these are dots are all
column and they are placed in order. So, creating a very order form architecture and then
when you start rotating it to the b. So, it is moving to the chaos and finally, when you
make it very random, then it is making this picture right.
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So, this is the conceptual image. Now we will get this one. So, this is another example of
order which is a Parthenon from history Athens. So, if you see in the plan so, external
and internal columns they are placed in order and finally, this is the outcome where all
verticals columns are placed in order with a equal distance and all so it is giving a feeling
of order and we appreciate it so this type of building.
So, this is one example from the history.
So, let us get some more example and this is from India, our Parliament House. So, here
the corridor and these columns ok. The earlier was like that order form we got in a
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rectangular form, but here we are getting it for the oval form. So, in this corridor the
vertical, they are placed in order and creating another aesthetic. So, we appreciate this
kind of structure not only in parliament building, there are many such buildings where
we have this kind of columns you know placed in a you know elliptical form or in a
circular form. So, this is another example of order.
Now, let us move to the chaos.
And here like before I say anything looking to picture, you can understand the chaos. So,
basically if you see this is the Bird Nest Olympic Stadium in Beijing, China. So, in this,
this is another fantastic creation where the concept is been taken from the nature the bird
nest and the members are placed randomly not in particular order.
So, it creates some chaos, but overall outcome definitely we appreciate. So, it is not only
like we should always create our architecture or design in order, but sometimes perfect
execution of chaos will also create some great you know experience.
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This is another example where this is Royal Ontario Museum. So, here you can see that
none of the surface are very straightforward or in order. So, in form external, it is
something like a looking at like some concept who are pursuing architecture. They must
have heard about deconstructionism. So, it is a deconstruction concept has been played.
And surfaces are just you know tangled with each other and this is from the interior;
even interior, we cannot get a smooth you know surface not smooth in sense of the
material. I say that when you just move your eyes through those lines so, it is creating
some chaos. So, this is another piece of you know architectural example where structural
are met in such manner which is getting chaos.
The basic concept was to make it like this and the structure that support it and final result
that we all see in this picture.
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Now move to the next concept that is the stability and instability versus you know, in this
stability; it is not basically in point of the structural stability ok. So, let us clear this
stability is basically visual stability.
So, looking at the building, we will say it is showing the stability or it is not showing the
stability because a building looking instable in this aspect. We will not mean that
structure is very poor and it may fall anytime. So, in this visual stability if you see again
this is the picture from the same book, the reference is given here.
So, here if you see that it is a proper arrangement in order so, external columns and
internal columns and they make it very stable form. Now if you move through this a, b, c
and d; in d where these are placed. These are not regular column, these are some other
members; columns are placed in a slant.
So, basically if we just try to draw so, this is one slab and this is another slab, we can
connect it with this straight column. And in the instable form that we create intentionally
something like that where we will feel that these particular column may fall.
So, it is showing up you know visual instability to it. So, let us clear this idea with some
of the examples.
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This is the Law courts in Vancouver, the structure is very massive. But still as because
we have these you know concrete support where you can see those space frame are being
supported.
Here also you can see this is supported. So, while walking like while walking with this
space, you will feel a stability that this whole roof will not fall over you. So, you feel
very secure and then you can say this structure is made very stable. So, space frame roof
supported by concrete frames, conveying sense of stability ok.
So, it is stable structural stable and visually also we feel it very stable, but if you remove
this and it is having just some slant you know random members, so, probably will be
scared.
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This is one example of another you know in the category of stability from the history
example, the Pantheon in Rome.
So, here you see that you know huge dome domical structure as a roof, but this place
feels very secured because of those members. So, if you see that the whole domical
structure being placed over different wall component and the column so that this give a
sense for stability.
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Now, move on to the instability. Forum Barcelona Solar Plant looking at the structure
itself, it is very looking very dangerous, but structurally it is strong stable. But visually, it
is looking very instable because of some of irregular piers support this whole pergola is
being placed.
So, if you stand here and look into this structure probably we will feel it very instable.
Take this example the Reactor, you can also search of this building which is being
created by two artist and this is a experience balancing self weight. So, this is having a
pivot point. So, these two people moving from different place and all it will have this
inclination and all. So, it is a perfect example of a visual instability of a building, but
again this is a stable structure. So, structure is made accordingly. So, along the concept it
is made.
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Now, move to the third concept that is static versus dynamic. Static means we will not
have any you know flow. So, here also it is a regular arrangement of column pair wise
column. So, it is giving a static you know sense whereas, you placed it in order or you
just change the scale from small or something like that or maybe you create something in
you know dynamic in order.
So, it create a visual dynamism in your architectural form. So, again let us clear with
some of the example.
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So, this is one example of a Hotel Hyatt Regency from Kolkata, here the structure. So, it
is very straightforward and static. So, horizontal and vertical you know in combination to
that and it is giving a very static you know image when you look into this.
Move to the next example this is from IIM Ahmedabad. So, here also the heavy
structure, the exposed brick work then you know very straight form is giving a sense of
staticness. Even the inside like it is a series of you know semicircular arch, it is also
creating a very static environment.
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Now, come to dynamic, this is a building design by Zaha Hadid. So, here you can see
that the building is creating a flow. So, everywhere if you see that it is showing a wave
or even it is clear in this picture.
So, it is not very static. So, basically if you look into this building, your eye will actually
take that root or make this transition. So, this is another nice example where it is showing
the visual dynamism of the building and this is being supported with that particular type
of structure.
So, it is not straight forward beam column structure. So, for that we need different kind
of structural element and that is why this subject is important to know because if we do
not have the knowledge of the structure that can make this or which kind of structure is
really fruitful to that, then probably we cannot create this kind of dynamic architecture.
So, take another example of dynamic architecture. This is a Madrid Airport where this is
the terminal building where the roof structure again creating a flow and creating a
dynamic sense everywhere. Though the structure is very light and it has to be light
because if you see that this pan is quite huge, we cannot have more obstruction.
So, again this structure is giving a sense of dynamic visual dynamism to the building and
the structured being made with that with the proper you know roofing and the light
weight structure at the roof supported by the adequate structural members.
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And this is the you know the fourth one and the last component under the concept
category.
So, here if you see the grounded; that means, if you see this part this is dotted the
foundation, then the superstructure; it is something like that. It is having a you know
connection straight way with the ground. So, it maybe a portal, but when we talk about
the floating so, the reduction or in the you know surface at the bottom to the ground; it is
creating a sense of you know floating.
Here also the I have already drawn this kind of picture where it is the heavy mass is you
know standing on a shallow structural member and sometimes also you can have these
lead rubber bearings where you know this kind of structure we use for the earthquake
prone area where you know base isolation technique or something of that nature being
used to make your building protected.
So, these are the concepts. So, let us clear our concept with some of the thing.
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So, here the building is again a curve, but the interesting part is that it is grounded at
different discrete place. So, so that we can see that it is anchored. So, otherwise it may
flow out or something. So, this is perfectly grounded. This is the Rolex Learning Centre
in Switzerland.
Now, this example is a very famous example in the field of architecture, the Glass
House. So, here it is the placed very simplistic architecture with you know glass and the
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other transparent material and it is perfectly grounded to the lawn. So, this is another
example of grounded you know visually grounded architecture.
Now, come to the floating this is Gas Natural Headquarters in Barcelona. If you see this
particular cantilever ok, normally you know in a building we have some cantilever 1
meter, 1.5 meter and in some special building, we have 2 to 3 meter. And then we are
very scared that how to make it, it make collapse or something without any support. But
this is being created and visually building is stable definitely that was taken care of, but
this heavy mass with a shallow vertical structure create a sense of floating.
So, that is the overall idea to pick up these examples. So, this is giving a visual sense that
this heavy mass this particular wing of the building is floating. Now move to the next
one.
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So, this is similar to the glass house building, but here the difference as we can see from
the concept we have seen somewhere if you reduce the connection with the ground of the
superstructure that is also giving a sense of floating. Here you can easily see those gaps.
So, this is your ground level and there is a enough gap to it.
So, this building with this you know minimal support with the narrow columns. It is
showing a sense of floating. So, this is the example of floating.
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So, all this examples we have seen that is basically the concept. So, concept was created
to make a dynamic and you know as per that accordingly like one has to select that
appropriate structure that can fulfill that concept.
So, if you summarize this particular lecture so, synergy between forms and structural
element is essential to bring the concepts into real world architecture. So, as already I
mentioned if we dream of something to be very dynamic, having large span, having very
light weight structure; so, we have to select the suitable structure for it.
If we go very traditionally conventional manner with a very limited structural form very
straightforward beam column so, may be many of our concept will be compromised.
Then concept of architectural design to be supported with the appropriate structural form
that I already mentioned and in order to achieve that, one has to know the type of
structure to be used and in order to make that structure. we also should know the material
to be selected for making these structure because each material will have different
property in terms of resistance strength. So, we should also have clear idea and that is
why in the whole course we will have some lectures on materials.
So, different kind of materials that will give a visual look is a one area, but also
considering the structure and strength. So, that has different properties. So, when you see
a building, we see the building material, we see different components of the building,
doors, windows, et cetera. So, like that each components of a structure like though it is
material or the form or different property.
We will discuss in detail in coming lectures and these are the further reading already I
have mentioned these are few important books.
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You can go through and you get more examples in the next lecture, we will discuss in
lecture 3. The part 2 of this where, we will discuss about the different architectural
qualities and the supporting structure relationship.
Thank you for taking part in this.
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Lecture - 03
Relationship of Structure to Architectural Buildings – Part II
Welcome all to the online course Structure, Form, and Architecture: The Synergy. Now
we move on to the Lecture Number-3, Relationship of Structure to the Architectural
Building - Part II.
So, in the same topic, lecture number-2, we discussed about different structural you
know example that actually fulfilled the concept of different architectural form. So, we
discussed in detail like different concept of say dynamic static or it may be like your you
know chaos or in order form or architecture and how structure help to bring those
concepts into reality.
Now in this lecture, what we will learn that is the architectural qualities. Now, what
exactly the qualities? We are not talking about the qualities of the material to be used for
that. Basically, we are talking about the overall experience that quality in this lecture and
also we will see that how different structures that help to maintain that quality to achieve
that quality.
48
Now, in this again we have some five pairs of that qualities architectural qualities where
we talked we will talk about the simplicity and complexity, open and closed, lightweight-
heavy, soft versus heard, elegant versus rough. So, this terminologies sometimes is you
know create confusion what about the light-weight and heavy. So, we will not really
measure the weight of the building or the structure.
So, basically it is not directly leading to the you know physical weight of the building,
but the arrangement of overall building how it look like, how we perceive that building.
Again the soft and hard is not like a building call soft is we touch and then we have some
depression on it and having higher elasticity it is not. So, looking at that how soft and
sometimes we say a building the formation and the structure used in that building giving
a hard form or sense.
So, simplicity is basically very simplistic form of creating those you know architectural
quality with some structural element. And now we move on to the first one, simplicity
versus complexity and we will try to understand this architectural qualities and structure
relationship with some case study some examples.
So, first we take this particular image of Villa Savoye Paris. Again it is beautiful
architecture which having a perfect blend with the nature with these outset like it is being
created with very simple form. Now, the way like looking at the building, we say it very
simple. So, that convey the meaning of simplicity here.
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So, in this if you see the elevation is very similar the font and rear. So, again they have a
ribbon window. So, ribbon window and these openings are it is similar. Then the
material, the colour, texture, everything is very similar. So, it is very straight
composition of some rectangle and some cylindrical form some cuboid and cylindrical
form. So, basically it creates simplicity.
Now, move to the next example. This is the example of One Boston Place, here also it is
a high-rise building. So, if you see the structure like Burj Al Arab and all again for the
high rise. It is also having some complex structural system which actually making this
structure strong along with the regular membership, structural member they have some
structural bracing ok.
So, like structural bracing is something where you have to resist from the lateral force
along with your members you go for you know supporting those elements with some
cross base ok. So, depending on the floor and if you see that it is being connected to that
and sometimes it is exposed to the you know externally or sometimes it is not.
So, here also it is very straightforward if we try to just draw the simple elevation. So, it is
example of some vertical lines which is very you know straight form of architecture and
then horizontal line of this windows. So, even this structure is very huge, but it seems
very simple. It conveyed the simplicity of architectural quality.
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So, both the picture go back to the earlier one. So, this is one example its very you know
not very high-rise structure. This is two story structure, there you maintain the simplicity
in the quality with similar kind of elevational treatment from the front and the from the
all the sides.
Now, here what we have seen that this is a high rise building, but then also like with
vertical and horizontal lines, it is creating a simple simplicity quality of the architecture.
Now move to the complexity. How we can get it?
So, this is one example. It is really wonder of the world and this is Eiffel tower. So, in
this if you see if you click photo if you visit this place definitely, you will have some
photographs, some selfie-groupie here. So, this is very very beautiful structure where it is
making a very symmetrical axis and this ornaments all this arrangement looks very
beautiful from a distance.
But if you have a close look to those corners, the four lakes of this and see the
arrangement so, different kind of prismatic truss, different kind of steel arrangement, the
way they are laid together, their connections. So, it is not very simple looking at this, it is
looking very complex. So, that is why this particular image is depicting the complexity
of architectural quality.
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So, this is also important thing sometimes we put this complexity to the structural
element to create a like sometimes it we can refer back to the again the chaos concept
that we discussed in the previous lecture, lecture number 2. So, it is one example of the
complexity. Let us take another example of complexity. What is complex here?.
Basically, if you see the curvature so, it is giving a very smooth transition definitely we
appreciate this, but the complexity is basically the roofing how the structure is being
made and where from it is going up down. So, everything those arrangement of structure
that actually you know help to bring this concept into reality and give the quality of this
complexity.
So, sometimes complexity does not mean that will not like that building because of the
structural you know haphazard or chaos in the system. So, this is example from Harbin
Opera House in China where it is one example of the architectural quality convey the
complexity. Move to the second architectural quality that is open and closed.
Before, I just go to few slides for taking some reference from different you know study,
just let us guess what exactly will be there in the slide. So, what is open and what is
close? So, open quality architecture means where you experience some openness, it need
not to be the open to sky, but the you know structure you make little light or you make
the structure in such a manner that you create a transparency.
52
So, that you can connect with the you know external environment that is one openness
we can say sometimes it may be that you create the space. So, spacious that we do not
feel congested and feeling having some openness, we can connect our self with the
nature.
So, some examples if you see that you know most of the international airport good
airports, they have the waiting bay facing the runway. So, while waiting you can connect
with the you know runway the visually and then you can see the flight taking like
landing and flights are taking off. So, this is somewhat sometimes we create this kind of
architectural quality with open type of arrangement.
And closed is very you know confined where like you cannot really you know see that
quality like you feel very confined and you are forced to see what is to be you know
shown by the design. So, you cannot connect with the external environment. So, both of
them are having the requirement in the field of architecture.
Say for example, closed form architecture where these qualities to be maintained
specially for the museum and some area where like there is no need to connect it with the
external which may rather hamper the you know internal environment. So, there we go
for this kind of things. So, now, let us see what is to be meant. So, this is one example of
Suvarnabhumi International Airport, Bangkok.
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I personally experienced this space and really it is something like where a long waiting
can also not will not matter much because of this connection. So, there are many
advantages to create this open type of qualities. First of all, you can connect with the you
know external environment. You can see this person facing outside you know enjoying
the operation flight operations and other thing as well as maybe this you know corridor
which is not much spacious for that, but then also it makes it grand. So, that you do not
feel congested to it.
This is another image of that how well it is being made and this structure. So, there are
some you know steel members which are running through and these are some class
material which is creating this openness with making transparency and where we can see
through the outside environment. Now move to the next example of openness.
Yes. So, this is another example of that kind which is Louvre museum in Paris. Here also
like it is you know glass pyramid kind of thing where space frame is you know install
that are acting as a structural member. So, all these structural members, they placed
together in a form to create the pyramid and it is covered with some glass.
So, that you are protected at the same time when you are inside you can still get
connected with the environment; with the outside environment. So, that is sometime
encouraging you feel very much you know comfortable very much secure that you can
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connect with the external you know everything what is going outside, what is happening
outside.
So, this is another architectural quality leading to openness, but to create it in both the
example the previous one and this one. The common thing is that use of some steel
members which create some void and we filled it up with some transparent material. So,
which is helping us to create this kind of open quality like quality wise the openness to
the architecture and the supporting structure should be like that.
Now, move to the closed form. Now in this example, this is again taken from the same
book Structure as Architecture written by Charleson and here if you see that though we
do not have the wall you know all around, but the way they are placed you are in a
closed form you cannot see this ok. Only this axis is having some openness.
So, in some arrangement, we get this kind of thing. So, this may be a door or something.
So, this is creating a closed form and if you make it more in that manner in this only this
opening, you can see otherwise it is very closed form. So, this is maybe some museum
kind of thing and where this maybe some other form closer.
Now take example of our residential building, a bedroom a typical bedroom. So, we have
this opening this side and maybe the door like for our region. So, maybe we have
window for cross ventilation and all we have visual connection. Now, in some of the
55
building you just maybe this is a dining area you make it full glass or make it very
transparent so, that you can get connected.
So, for both the cases, the use of structural element will be different to create this you
know to make it stable and create this environment to get connected with the
environment and make it open or closed form. So, these are the concept plan. So, more
closed form from a to c. Now, let us experience it.
Now in this closed form, this is another example as I mentioned that mostly the closed
form or closed you know say architectural quality being observed in most of the museum
because sometimes they do not need the you know daylight the sunlight because to
protect the artifacts kept there from the light and they rely on the artificial lighting or
with some different purposes.
Now, here also this is museum. So, this is a obviously, you know some storey building.
So, here they have some you know glass opening not opening it is a closed form. So, to
in order to get some light from the top so, they create this. But apart from that if you see
this elevation so, it is all closed no opening no window like a normal building that we put
in. So, this is one example of the closed architectural quality that being designed.
Even in this inside, they also do not have you know any opening or any such window
opening to connect the outside environment, they have something skylight from the top
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so, that this corridor will be illuminated for the activity. So, unpenetrated high wall
creates a sense of closed form. So, if you get some window here or something so,
definitely this will not be taken as this category. This is another example from India. This
is newly built Bihar Museum in Patna.
Again, another example in the museum category where you can see this is the from the
entrance this is the mass this is very nicely created with some cotton steel which is
wether steel and having some texture with that you know exposed concrete. So, it is
creating a very contrasting architecture.
But overall if you see the quality category so, it is again a closed form although they
have very nice environment inside, but from outside it is looking very closed. So, for
museum the previous one from Spain and this example from India, Patna. So, here the
structure is being made with this.
So, to make this closed form architecture the structural application will be different
because of the span and all and when we have to create some punctures, all these
equation all these load calculation will differed because the moment you create some
puncture in the you know surface or the wall definitely the material you used to their
glass or wood as window the calculation will change. So, we have to see what is required
and what type of you know quality to you know come up with.
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Now move to the light weight and heavy again, I am saying this light weight or heavy
does not mean that it is a physical weight of the structure. Definitely when architectural
look very lightweight overall like you know physical weight will be comparatively less,
but definitely here it is a visual light weight or heaviness of the building.
So, say for example, if I just want to make a door so, I can just create some arch of brick
and I just make it supported. So, this is one with the very simple form. So, this is another
the same, I just make with the huge you know support to that and then in order to give
you know considerably small thickness, I create it large to make it grand or I create some
ornamentation where the thickness is much much higher than the small one.
So, this will make it literally heavy or if you create more more detail into it add some
elements so that will make it very heavy visually heavy where at it is very simple sleek
and considerably lightweight.
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Now, move to the example this is from the airport mostly and you will also get many
example mostly for the airport and all as because like the airport deal with so many
passengers. So, movement of passengers is the basic principle how they can move
passengers, they can facilitate passengers and make them and environment which will be
very comfortable to them.
So, they create the space and that should be obstruction free one can connect with other,
everything should be visible. So, for that we should go for basically a column free space
where these are the transitional space where we get it and we only use those heavy
structure or the piers to support it where it is required, otherwise we have to make the
roofing very much light.
So, for that truss can be used, space frame can be used so, these are the structural
element which you know small dimension or small cross section of the iron members can
hold this. And along with the advantage of that you can create some translucent you
know environment which will allow light to pass on so, that you can also maximize the
day light use.
So, make these structured very light even you see this huge span and look into the roof, it
is very you know looking very transparent and only few members are just holding the
load the space frame and all similar to this one also. So, you just have a feel of the
structure is very light visually light may not be the light the way we think.
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If you add all are load and all it will be a substantial, but visually we can say that it is
light and it is only possible when you create this kind of roofing with the truss and you
do not have any further use of it. Because the moment if you want to make it more story
and all so, probably this kind of structural roofing will not be possible and that time you
have to face that very hard type you know ceiling on top of you. So, this is possible for
this and normally for the airport, these are been used. So, this is one example for the light
weight quality and obvious.
So, now this is a very important for a stadium the huge area to be covered up for the
spectator to protect them for the unwanted with the situation, it may be a scorching heat
or it may be a rain. So, for that they have to be protect and for that definitely the main
principle that any spectator sitting anywhere in that stadium should enjoy the match
going on or any sports going on in the field clearly.
So, we cannot have you know the heavy column structure to support the roof so that is
the constant. In order to overcome that constant so, we should think of some of the light
structure. So, it is possible with some membrane structure.
So, what is membrane structure? So, basically membrane is a very thin you know sheet it
may be made of rubber, it may be a plot and it is to be supported with the minimal
structural element and here you can see if you can see that, there are some piers outside
just attached to the stadium where like this members are cabled.
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So, this is a tensile cable structure and we will also discuss what exactly it is and its hold
it and they put some material which will allow light to come, but it will also protect from
this things. So, looking at this definitely, it is feeling very light structure. So,
transparency also play crucial role to feel this, the visual perception of lightness.
So, lightweight roof structure create column free activity space which is essential not
only in the stadium the same Olympic stadium in Munich, they have created similar kind
of arrangement entrance gate for that. Again it is under the same category of lightweight.
So, both the example if you see that this is a you know example from the airport and next
one is the stadium. So, if you go to any stadium and then you can get it.
Now, come to heavy. This is St. John University Library. So, here if you see what is
heaviness in this, there is no such obstruction regular obstruction because again it is
being created, but this is basically a structure which is look very heavy. So, this is like
branches of a tree which is holding the roof.
So, instead of having this in order to remove this regular obstruction, one has created this
kind of structure, but inside it if you look into this it look very heavy and very congested.
So, congestion, feeling of heaviness they are closely related. So, in this structure is one
example of the heaviness and the material use the concrete and all where we have a large
cross section and all, we actually perceive it is very heavy.
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Move to the next example. Here also if you see this example from Brazil, this is again
you know area of the art form and all. So, huge concrete structure look very simple right.
If you say that you put this example into the simplicity, yes, it is not very complex. But
having this mass heavy wall of the concrete, it creates and create the sense of heaviness.
So, in these two examples one is from the library where the supporting piers, having
different branches, holding the roof, creating a sense of heaviness and this one itself
those elements. It is creating the architectural quality under the category heaviness. Now,
move to the soft and hard. Already, I mention soft does not mean that material used in
that building is very soft in nature or hard is a very hard material. So, let us see this.
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So, in this is one example of Tama Art University, Japan. So, in this if you see the plan,
the plan is something like this where plan is in curve and in the elevation also, it is in
curve. So, double curvature creates a softness as because you know whenever we draw
any curve line, it is representing the softness.
It symbolize the wave the flow and all and whenever we go for a straight forward
straight line, it is representing hard in that concept. So, in this it is very smooth and soft
and this arches even the interior of this space is having those multiple curvature, the plan
even you know arrangement of those furnitures.
So, all together it is showing a soft flow. So, curve structure both in plan elevation with
suitable geometry irregularity flowing of softness both in exterior and interior space.
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So, I think in this I do not need to really say about this. It is a nice example of a flow
wave. So, this is a apartment building in Denmark where the roof is being created in such
a manner, it is looking very soft. So, again I am mentioning this soft is not about the
material quality, it is the visual softness.
So, here we can easily make this and it happens you know sometimes when we are you
know just unintentionally or in subconscious mind when we play with the pen instead of
making straight line always, we just make something like this right. So, this is the
softness and when you make a line, it is a bold statement bold line, it is represent the
hardness.
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So, move to the hardness from the softness; so, back to back. This is a flow and here it is
something like it is a very bold like say for arrangement of some stone placed together
with the minimalistic form and the heavy thickness and the material that used stone type.
So, it is giving the example of the hardness in the architecture.
So, this is also important this is nice example of Holy Redeemer Church in Spain and
people they do appreciate it is in you know good review in architectural forum and then
this is really you know one example of the hard quality.
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That is so true. This is another art foundation. Here also if you see like as already
mentioned very straight line and then use of this concrete structure placed in form, it is
giving a visual sense of hardness and no opening also no openings or no such visual
connection with the outside in this surface is one example of the hardness.
Now, we are moving to the last pair of qualities that is the elegant and rough. Elegant the
word its defined is very you know very perfect very smooth or very sophisticated and
when rough is something like its very brute. So, somethings we create.
So, say for example, like if you see any such gothic architecture or something so, there is
small-small creation small-small ornamentation to the structure is piece of elegant and
roughness where it lead to the deconstruction concept to the architecture. So, let us clear
our this concept, little bit clear with example.
So, this is one of my favorite example design by Felix Candela L’Oceanografic building.
So, here what happens, why I put it in the elegant category? Suppose this is a very good
you know curve curvilinear form of architecture where you know parabolic hyperbolic,
hyperbolic paraboloid these kind of form being used and Felix Candela is good in that.
So, in this is perfectly executed, the thickness the petal form or something the seal form.
So, it is been created very you know accurately from inside also, the this is giving
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elegance to the example of this elegance experience to the users in this. So, rhythmic
flow created through curves makes the structure very much elegant.
Now this is another example a terminal building again from India. This is Mumbai
International Airport. This is the entrance and the beauty in this particular transition. So,
smooth transition of column and you know roof with different elements, it creates very
elegance, its very beautifully done with a small you know solid void shade and light.
So, basically the overall ambience is giving a sense of elegant quality of architecture and
it is possible through the structure. So, the purpose as I mentioned for the airport, this is a
huge span if you can get some idea. This is a car, it may be of less than 2 meter and then
you can place it. So, this is a huge span that is being supported with this and this
particular smooth transition and they are like creating this particular piece very elegant.
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Now, come to the rough. So, rough structure can be created like the way we put it may
not be something like the result of ignorance during the construction that somebody just
left the job in half done and that is why the outcome is that. Intentionally it may be
created to create some contrast.
So, this is one example of Skissernas Museum in Sweden where this extension is made.
So, if you have a close look. So, it is something rust steel, but it is not. This is being
created with the cotton expo like steel which is weather steel and which is seasoned with
some chemical you know into it which will protect this from the external environment
and this similar material being used in the Patna museum.
You can get the detail if you search more on that and this is basically the exposed
concrete. So, with this rough finish with your steel and then this is the concrete is giving
something not really you know bad architecture, I guess. It is making a composition and
creating the contrast these two particular colour creating contrast that sometimes we are
talking about in architecture and create this rough quality in maintaining it without
compromising the stability and durability of the structure.
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Let us take the last example in the rough category where it is again the seashore library
where it is again a concrete structure if you see the roof and it is finished very rough and
also the cladding has been done giving a you know exposed finish. So, when you put
shuttering with the wooden it you know put some impression on the concrete without
plastering if you go with that so, it is giving a rough finish.
So, we appreciate this kind of thing in some of the cases definitely it is not maintaining
or compromise in quality or it is not to be made for the cost cutting to have the beautiful
finish sometimes with the rough quality can be maintained. But to get it, we have to be
choosy about the structural material that we will use it to create it. We cannot create it
with all the materials available to us, but definitely so, we have to be choosy when to use
it to make it rough or elegant or smooth.
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Come to the summary, we summarize this particular lecture. So, in this we actually learnt
about the quality architectural quality. So, suitable selection is very important. It is
essential to bring the architectural visual quality into reality. So, if you want the quality
of open form, then definitely that thing should be your very much light and that should
be supported.
Not only the structural element, but also structural material as I mentioned in last two
slides that where like the cotton steel that material being used which is strong in the you
know in order to make it stable as well as this is creating some rough finish. So, material
structure material is another important part to create the visual quality whether it is
making rough and all.
So, we have to know about the materials and definitely we will cover that aspect in some
of the lectures and most importantly the overall arrangement should solve the purpose.
So, like when we maintain think of the quality, quality definitely will come, but before
that it should solve the purpose. If requirement is to create the column free area, then that
is the constrain to us and the available options which options are not to be used we have
to discard that.
Then we have to select the best option for this whether it is a truss or it is a like your
space frame or sometimes you need something to be very bold and very closely place
then maybe these are not being used. So, with that we have to understand the structural
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material, the suitable selection of structured maintaining quality and the purpose to be
solved without compromising it. Then structural quality should not be compromised.
So, even we talked about the visual quality of architecture to select the structure, but then
also we have to say like take care of the structural quality. It should be strong enough
stable enough and durable enough because it incurred not only the cost of construction,
but also it is dealing with the life. And so, life of people or any living you know creatures
so, it is very important to make it very safe.
So, structural quality and visual quality, they should be you know act together to have a
desired result. So, this is overall understanding. So, with lecture 2 and 3, we know about
the different concept architectural concept and different architectural quality and this
association with the structure type of structure that support this concept and quality
which is having a relation. So, the relationship to the architectural building is being
justified with that and in time to time we will also discuss some of the more examples in
different context.
So, these are the same reading material. Some books you can refer and all the pictures
and other they are actually referenced, you can go through and read more about the
structure to know about their function. You can also get some more information about
the history or maybe the material used.
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So, next we will be discussed in lecture number 4, the different kind of loads on
structure, I just somewhere discretely mentioned about different kind of loads. So, we
will discuss in detail in that lecture. Thank you all to take part in this.
Thank you.
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Lecture - 04
Loads on Structures
Hello everyone. Welcome back to online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today we will cover Lecture Number 4; that is Loads on
Structure, which is very important topic in this course and we will try to understand in a
very simplistic manner.
Now, if you see the definition of load, again I am just you know taken the snapshot from
the Google search, the first time we search about the load. So, it says about some
definition; so, here the pertinent definition which can be helpful in the context of our
course that is the structural load.
So, what is load? So, if you see here a weight or source of pressure borne by someone or
something ok; make it very specific to the structural load. But it says structural loads or
action are the forces deformations or accelerations applied to a structure which will make
a result in you know say stresses, then deformation, displacement of object etcetera. So,
that is overall idea about the load what we see. But this particular lecture we will talk
about the load applied on a structure in reference to building specially.
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And sometimes also we will discuss not only the buildings some of other structure
element other architectural components. So, let move on.
So, in this particular slide we will again you know make it little bit clear about the loads.
Loads on structure is essential for its design. Why all of a sudden we should know about
different kind of loads and their property and how they act to a structure, because it will
help us to design the structural element. The structural design requires all this calculation
of different kind of loads that may act on a building.
The load may be static. Static means, it will not change over time. The other one may be
dynamic. So, static weight like static load it includes the self weight of the structure
suppose a building is made with the concrete, brick, steel, so it will stand like this. So,
that is static. Then the furniture or sometimes like that which will not really change its
you know load on structure over time.
The other one is the dynamic which subject to change with respect to time. Say for
example the earthquake, we all know the earthquake it is certain jerk which will be
random in nature and it will have different frequency. The moment it starts and then slow
down, and then there will be some you know after shock. So, we will discuss that in
upcoming slides. So, this is dynamic in nature.
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Again if you discuss if you say the example of wind; so, we know that it will not have a
constant wind load that is acting on a building that is you know imposing on a building.
So, it will have different velocity over time and so, as to with the rain based on its
intensity and all.
Again load can be classified under the manmade load. Suppose we make equipments like
you know in our classroom or so we have benches, then we have other furnitures as well
which will put load on the structure. And it may be natural. Natural means, as already
mentioned it may be of some disaster or like earthquake or the flood situation or it may
be wind load or snow load.
But, one thing we should understand like something like earthquake, flood, these are not
very much you know sure that each day it is occurring; so, it a random event which may
occur anytime. So, what we normally do, we cannot actually calculate the load in that
precision or actual load is unpredictable, but what we do is based on the probability that
it may occur. So, designing a building, when we design the structure of the building we
should take account all possible load that may affect the building design that may deform
the building.
So, in order to make your building resistant to all applied load on it anything, starting
from the self load to the additional, you know your furniture load, or may be some
natural load wind, rain or may be earthquake, flood. So, we should calculate that. So, in
such calculation there are different you know handbooks from which different you know
input parameter will be taken in to consideration.
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Now, before we really discuss each of that load in detail to get better idea. Let us focus
on this image. This is work by student a group of student. So, basically this is a cartoon
type image but it says a lot, where it shows different kind of load. So, starting from the
sun; so, we all know that it produce heat. And that definitely cause different you know
change in the property like, depending on the material.
So, it will have you know impact by the thermal heat and with heat it may expand, or
sometimes in you know winter season it may you know squeeze down. That is creating
some thermal load. And, it is also very important and that is why you know in the
building when a building is you know too lengthy or something sometimes we have to,
like we need to give the expansion gap to allow that expansion.
Even that is so true; even our school days we studied that why there is you know some
expansion joint given in the railway track. So, this is railway track made up of metal and
when we know train just cross then it generate some of you know heat. So, it may
expand. So, for that we provide this gap. So, that it can not really bent or there will be
some damage in the line.
Now move on to the other one. Not pertinent to the you know in the urban area or may
be the area where there is no such snow fall or something, but in some part of the world
or even in India some area where we have to take care of this. Because that is additional
one, but again it is not very you know permanent ok. Permanent means any particular
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season will get this additional load, it will accumulate on the roof, and it creates
additional load to that; so, as too with the rain. If there is no proper drainage or may be
the slope is too narrow or almost flat and there is some problem, so water will
accumulate. And that will create some additional load to it and sometimes it may be very
much dangerous to a building. I will show you some photographs on that account too.
Now come to the wind. We know that is a lateral force you know acting on a building on
a surface. And then we just get two important load: one is your dead load and another is
live load. So, if you get the clue from the word dead, means already it is not moveable
immovable. And what is live load which is moveable which will change.
Say for example: the you know in this particular room where I stand like the beam
columns that were constructed at the beginning and it remains stand. So, it will not move
tomorrow. So, this is basically dead load. So, all building like components like this your
beam, or column, walls, roof, different materials, structural you know parts they are
adding to the dead load of the building.
Now, what is live load which is movable. Say for example myself, like now I am
standing in a position in the room so I add load to it, but the moment I just go out from
the room so that load will be released. So, I am live load. So, as true with the furnitures
because they are moveable, today I like this particular furniture in that manner, but
tomorrow I will change it either shift it; so as too with the machinery. So, these are some
live load.
And here, you can see that person here, here, or may be the furnitures they are basically
live load. And dead loads are these beam columns. Apart from that, due to earthquake
there will be some you know wave, there will be some motion on the you know
underground and for that the building got affected with this oscillation. So, that is due to
the seismic activity or the earthquake. So, that is also referred to earthquake load.
And not only for earthquakes sometimes even if your building is situated in some area
where the water table, like round water table is high ground water table is the level of the
ground water like we can easily get it. So, nearly like this is the plain near the river or
something, where we normally observe the ground water table is high. So, this
underground water that may also affect; so, that is your sometimes call is you know
hydraulic pressure from below the structure.
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Now, before we go further let us just say: we in structure we normally say that one is
your foundation and underground structure and then which is above that is basically the
super structure. So, many a time I will use this super structure, so I just give it. Apart
from that also here its shown if you see it clearly there is something dotted some
deformation.
So, this is a initial foundation level and here it just went down, because of unequal
settlement of the land and sometimes. It may happen due to the compactness of the soil,
compactness of the that particular area. So, it may have unequal settlement. And for that
it will also create some load to the building and sometimes it may also you know
collapse the building.
Then here if you see that person is drilling something and here is that particular drummer
doing something. So, it create something you know some vibration. So, it is also
vibration load. And when it actually propagates ok, so that will create resonance. Now
suppose with this particular frequency if all structures are acting like that, so it will
further propagate and create a resonance.
And sometime it may you know affect the building. So, that is why sometimes we have
to look into that you know point and design our structure accordingly. Now, what is late?
here in this picture, so you can see a car just this car hit that particular portion of the
building and it is all of a sudden load. So, this is referred to impact load. And it is I can
give you another example and I also will show the photograph.
Suppose all of a sudden we start hammering the wall or we just try to nail the wall, so
that time it is impact load; all of a sudden load given to that. So, this is overall what we
are going to learn from this particular lecture. So, I just gave the brief about all this
through this picture. So, lets move on. Now types of load: there are different way of
classifying loads.
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So, these are very common classification. So, one is dead load and live load. Already I
mentioned about it and we will also get it more clear with the example. Then it may be
static load, it may be dynamic load. It may be point load, it may be distributed load. It
may be uniform load, and it also impact load. So, what exactly these are? Let us clear
that.
So, here these are tentative diagrams and which I have taken from a book Structure in
Architecture. So, here like picture 1 to 10, they are depicting different kind of loads that
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in the previous slide we had. In this case, if you see that this is showing all these
structure components: the column, wall, beam, roof, truss, etcetera. So they are actually
immovable. They will be same over the time, when it was constructed and now it will be
almost same. So, that is why it is called dead load. So, this one is your dead load ok. Is it
clear?
Now, move to the other one. It is the same type of building, but in this if you see that the
building outline is very faint. And there are some object like, a person is lifting weight,
then there is image there is a cupboard, then car is parked, rack, and something here
basically it referred to the snow. So, these are actually movable. Suppose with increase in
temperature this will be melted and then it will go back to the original shape. So, this is
again a moveable one. So, it can come under live load. The car, again it is not permanent.
So, when you go out with your car that place will be free of that load of the car. So, again
it is live load. Then the person move out from the room, already I mentioned with my
example, so this is another one and here also the furniture because this is movable. You
can increase the load, you can move this furniture to the other room. So, these are live
load. Now, if you see that picture number 3. So, what exactly it is? It is distributed load.
Distributed load means, when you apply a load to a structure; say for example this is
your beam and column someone is standing here; so basically in order. So, at the corner
you will have a less load than these particular corners. So, it will form something like
this. It is distributed, but random not uniform. But there are cases where it will be done
with uniform. So, also we call it in technical term UDL uniformly distributed load. So,
UDL uniformly distributed load, so picture four is all about where the load is distributed
uniformly.
Now, in contest to that sometimes it may be a point load. Point load is something like
you have this surface ok, and some where you just put some load ok. So, that is basically
point load. So, here if you see that these two columns they are carrying a load of the
beam, and there may be another wall or something, which is a point load to that. Though
it will be distributed, but this particular configuration is called point load.
Now, move to the image number or the scheme sketch number 6, again it is UDL but
partially. This particular you know arrangement is called continuous beam structure
where it is continuing over 3 columns. But load is being given here so for that there is a
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bending. And to counter it, so there is another type of upward type bending to this
structure. So, this is partial. When you put it continuous or full, so nature will change.
So, we will also discuss it when we talk about this you know beam column structures in
detail.
Now, move to this one. What exactly the picture number 8? It is the static load. Why it is
called static; like here I said that it can be moved and all. So, moveable immovable that
is a live and dead load, but here it is static because the moment that person lifted the
weight, so that will be recorded. So, in lifting competition at certain you know category
when the load is recorded. So that is a static one, it will not change that will be recorded.
So, this load is there.
Now, already I have shown with that this car hitting this particular wall, so it is impact
load. And then dynamic load, this was the building initially and with some lateral wind
pressures. So, it will bend like this, it will sway like this. So, this is your dynamic load.
This is better representation.
So, now if I ask you this thing like, what is dead load? So, basically the answer is very
simple: that all the material all that structural component load of a building is referred as
dead load. Whereas, moveable object like furniture, human being, machinery, these are
live load. So, both are important in order to design it. So, when we like design a building,
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based on the requirement we just make the space division and you know create those
beautiful spaces.
And then basically in order to make it happen in order to bring it to reality, so we have to
design the structure. So, that moment we have to take all these dead load and live load.
So, for kitchen it will be something because in kitchen, you know along with a normal
furniture and all there will be some permanent furniture. When it is built permanently,
even that is in furniture category, but that will be considered as dead load not the live
load. So, that we need to understand; suppose you construct a slab or a covered which is
permanent made of some you know concrete or brick.
Now, this is another way of looking into this. Like based on the duration one is
permanent and other is temporary. Temporary means, it will not be there after certain
time. So, permanent load basically with the self load of the object or part of it and it is
basically leading to dead load ok. And temporary load are basically which are movable
and all this is basically the live load.
Now in temporary load, there are certain way of defining it: one is your imposed load,
second is the thermal load, and third is dynamic load. So, what is imposed load?
Basically the user define load. So, it includes everything, like from human being to
furnitures or all machinery that we use. Thermal load relate to the heat you know due to
change in temperature what load will be applied to a structural component or building.
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Dynamic load: load caused by varying external condition ok. So, it may be due to rain, it
may be due to flood, it may be due to snow, may be for the wind, or may be it is for the
earthquake. So, all these oscillation, vibration that you know creating the load is under
this dynamic load. So, let us understand these is further detail. So, that will have a better
idea about it.
So, this is another image schematic image where you can see that wall, then your floor,
then floor is transferring load to the beam, beam is transferring to column, and finally it
will transfer to the foundation, and foundation will transfer load to the soil is anchored
with. So, these are permanent load or dead load. Now, what is imposed load the human
being and the furniture? Already I mentioned it, now this also you know helpful to clear
it in a better way.
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Now, this is example of permanent load. This is a building under construction building.
Here we can see that you know all these you know structural element, beam, columns
and other things which are made of concrete or a sometimes after certain times it will
covered with the brick then other any you know structural material which will make this
in closer livable. So, these are permanent load. So, material load and equipment load.
But, one thing very interesting to look into this; as because it is under construction, so
this is being supported with some you know shattering a scaffolding or sometime this
you know this props which will hold this. So, these are very temporary structure. So, in
this image will only consider this particular you know the main structural component
beam column not this, these are again temporary structure.
This you may say equivalent to the furniture. So, once it is get the you know final
setting, when it is stable enough will remove this shattering ok. So, this pictures those
shuttering and props ok, these are not permanent load. Permanent load is only the
material load or any equipment that is permanently built.
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Again this is a schematic one the imposed load, where we already mentioned that it is the
load you know by the people human being or the furnitures and etcetera. So, here you
can see the cross section this is all schematic from a lab. So, where this is a seating area,
this is the lab area, so including all these like even those lab equipments, furnitures,
everything will add to the imposed load. And they are again as we discussed that live
load.
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Imposed load it may be something from the nature. So, again this is already we mention
that snow load. So over the period, like once it get the temperature it will be melted, but
it is some additional load. So, you can see in this building and this thickness may vary. If
there is like a continuous activity, snowfall over a time so it may create a huge load. And
sometimes you know for that reason when you design this kind of roof, so there will be
some mechanism to you know remove this in periodical manner. So, that it will not
really damage the building.
Now, come to the thermal load. So, it is basically due to the change in temperature. So,
sometimes object will expand, sometimes that will actually you know do the reverse it
will just compact, it will contract in that sense. And due to the change in this temperature
there will be some you know development of crack. And it will develop when we use
different materials. Because you know in you know school science we have studied the
Young’s modular, so that is like based on that like if you know that modulus it will be
different for like concrete than steel.
So, steel will expand more than concrete and in concrete whether it is plain concrete or
RCC; so RCC means reinforce cement concrete, which also you know which is also
having steel as reinforcement. So, whenever we have different kind of material, say for
example here bricks and motor. So, two different materials they expand differently, in
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different manner, their explanation will be different in some you know temperature
difference and it will develop crack.
So, this is for the brick and this is roof (tin based) and there is some putty which was
fixed initially and due to different expansion with you know heat, so here we see the
cracks. So, purpose is not fulfilled here, because if it developed crack or sometime it may
also be prone to the water leakage and then your building will get damp and all.
Now, come to the dynamic load. There are lots of load they are in this category, so we
will discuss one by one. So, settlement load at already I mentioned, so what exactly it is?
So say for example, your building is here and you have this foundation right. And this
area is having some water body and ground water table or sometimes this particular land
sink little bit down.
So, this self weight the dead load will try to deep it down, so for that the building may
tilt. So, due to settlement of the soil below the structure, below the ground may cause
some damage. So, that load which actually do the damaging is called settlement load.
Then seismic load due to earthquake, wind load due to wind, rain load, flood load, then
earth load. Earth load is basically the lateral soil pressure ok. Impact load all of a sudden
load and resonant load will create resonance. So, let us see one by one.
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So, this is a settlement load. So, as I mentioned that if it is uniform settlement. So, your
building will settle and all building they settles very slowly if the soil is not compact, so
no damage. But when it is a tipping settlement then building will tilt. But at the same
time if your building is having differential settlement, like there is no fixed settlements
so it will crack. So, tipping settlement example is here the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Come
to seismic load or earthquake load.
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So, in earthquake what you can see that it generates below the earth. So, that is called
hypocenter and that above point is called epicenter. So, it is a movement of land in both
the direction ok. So say for example, I have this building this is you know grounded like
this. So, during the earthquake it is the jerk, random jerk with different intensity so that
will try to move. But the thing is the heavy structure that will have a inertia, so it will try
to you know stay in its origin position.
So, if you do it so that will lead to sway. And the moment the you know surface showing
this direction this will stay in original position and this will create huge sway at larger
height. So, it will be vulnerable for collapse. If you see in this is a GIF image. So, by
which you can understand that how its collapse, you can observe with this length. This is
the earthquake load and it is very dangerous. Recently we observed in India in 2015 we
had experienced it and in the area Taiwan, Japan, or in China, Indonesia. So, it is very
common in nature.
Now, come to the wind load. Here actually it is due to the wind ok. So, wind will create
some thrust on this wall and then at the back it will create suction. So, this is called
positive negative. So, that will also create the sway of the building. And actually the
velocity of wind, if this is your height and this is your velocity of the wind, so it will
increase if your height increases.
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And there are some basic forms which will actually you know minimize the wind load on
this. If your surface is having larger area complicated area so that will create more
problem due to the wind pressure. So, we should design in that manner. But for high-rise
building wind load is very vital along with all other self load and other live load.
So, this is one example of like wind load and that actually collapsed that Tacoma Narrow
Bridge in 1940. So, what happened exactly? When you have this particular bridge over a
span where wind is predominant, so it will create pressure. So, it will actually make it
twisted and it will create a vibration. So, definitely it will be a periodic vibration until it
collapse.
So, for that it is very vital. And that is why for those bridge construction normally we
give some counter weight. Say for example, in Howrah Bridge and all heavy counter
weight is given to protect against the wind load. So, this is also important. This is one
example from the bridge category, but that has affect for the high rise building. So, we
should know this. So, this is due to wind.
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Come to the rain load. Again accumulated rain will add extra load to the supporting
structure and this may collapse. So, here false ceiling or something it was some damage
due to rain you can see the water here and all. So, that should be also taken into
consideration.
The flood load is hydrostatic load. Again it will create pressure, so on the direction of
flow that will also create the drag effects from the side and that will create negative
pressure or suction at the back. So, that will also create some problem to the building.
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And if your building may material is weak or that particular pressure and it also depends
on the volume of the flood. So, this volume of the flood or the height of this particular
level will also affect the you know damage. So, let us see the next GIF image.
So, you can see that due to flood what is the situation the building is totally collapsed.
And recently in India, Uttarakhand we have also experienced similar kind of thing due to
the heavy unprecedented rain and flood the situation many building collapsed.
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This is the earth load. So, basically lateral forces resulting from soil or earth pressure that
may sometime damages. So, you can see this is retaining wall or the boundary wall and
this earth is actually you know creating pressure to this, and it is not in a safe condition.
So, sometimes it is also very vital to know. So, this is earth load.
Impact load, already I have given the explanation that nailing with a hammer or may be a
car just you know hit a building all of a sudden that create the impact. So, it is also
sometimes important. So, if your building is vulnerable to this kind of things, so you
have to take into consideration. And if your structure is weak sometimes you know
putting a nail also damage your building, it will also create you know disturb the
equilibrium of your structure.
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Now, this one is the last one where it is called resonant load. So, what is resonance?
When a wave generates and over the period it will actually propagate, so it will create
resonance. And sometimes you know we experience this with this Mexican wave for a
you know two great team are playing football or cricket in the stadium. So, people they
are creating in a rhythmic manner. So, when that wave created wave and the supporting
structure the vibration is accumulating, they are actually synchronizing each other.
So, that will propagate the wave and that may create the resonance. So, which may
collapse. So, this is another example where it was your control demolition and it was
collapsed due to the resonant frequency of the wave. So, helping taking that as a
advantage that was a control demolition. So, that this particular demolition will not affect
the surrounding area. So, here we actually summarize everything. So, what we learn?
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So, basically two type of load: dead load and live load. So, what is dead load? This is
basically the self weight of the structure and non-movable weight. And live load is
actually movable weight example: like people, furniture, and other. Then also we have
discussed it in terms of permanent and temporary. So, what is permanent? Basically refer
to dead load and temporary which will be varying with time.
So, it has first the imposed load: user load and furniture load, and then we also discuss
the thermal which will not be a constant expansion contraction over the years. So, in
certain season it will expand sometimes it will contracts. So, based on that, this is taken
into consideration.
And then you have there is you know dynamic load; under dynamic load. So, the load
caused by earthquake; the motion on the ground which create the, you know disturb the
equilibrium of the structure and your building start showing and when it is beyond that
particular resistance it will collapse. Then it may be due to flood, it may be your rain,
unprecedented rain and causing to flood. Then wind is very vital specially for the
building we construct near the coastal area where wind pressure is really considerably
high or may be the high rise.
And in wind and for earthquake both the cases the problem is with the high rise. So, the
moment you go up, so wind velocity will be more that we discussed. And apart from that
we also discussed the impact load. So, all of a sudden you just you know throw heavy
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bag on the floor or something some equipment you just throw it out so that will create
some impact on the floor or the wall. And then we also discussed with the resonant load,
and which actually you know also very vital when we have such gathering. So, a music
when it synchronizes the waves, multiple waves they synchronize each other and
propagate and create huge load on the structure.
So, all these load that we discussed today it actually it will help us to design. Like we
have to consider all the loads, which are pertinent to that particular type of building. And
in order to make your structure resistant enough to tackle all this load all this factors we
will discuss in the course, in some of the module we will discuss it. So, in order to make
your structure earthquake resistant what type of structure is good and all.
And the challenge is to make this resistance stable from this particular you know all this
loads along with you know, without compromising any purpose that that is for that
building was designed.
So, with this I just conclude this particular lecture. And these are the books already I
mentioned in earlier lectures. So, you can go through it to get more information about all
this we discussed.
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And, in the next lecture we will discuss the synthesis of architectural and structural form,
which will be another interesting topic to know about.
Thank you for the day.
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Lecture - 05
Synthesis of Architectural and Structural Form
Hello friends, welcome back to online course Structure, Form, and Architecture: The
Synergy. Today, we will talk about Lecture Number-5, that is Synthesis of Architectural
and Structural Form. So, before I start today’s lecture so far whatever we have covered
we have seen that structural forms, they helped to make architecture, to fulfill the
concept and also bring some architectural visual qualities and also we discussed different
kind of loads in our previous lectures, where we have seen like starting from the dead
load, live load, then different lateral loads, seismic load etcetera.
So, in this lecture, we will basically focus on different structural forms and how they are
making you know strong correlation with architectural form creation. So, we will pick up
some of the major and predominant structural forms that being used to create some world
class architecture and in the modern world. So, gradually, we will also say like take some
examples from the history, where other kind of structural forms being created to bring
the architecture.
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So, let us start todays lecture. Here, we again like previous lectures, we just look into the
definitions. So, what is a form? Already we have discussed it. The form is basically the
visible object and we define it with a shape. So, it is a definition given by Francis D K
Ching. So, what exactly it is, let us have a look into this. Form is generally and primarily
understood as shape or three-dimensional massing, ok?
So, one object having three dimensions that will give a sensation to our eyes and we see
that object as a form. But also encompasses additional architectural aspects. So, its not
like very dull three-dimensional shape, but in order to make it and give a you know term
called architectural form. So, it also have different aspects like space creation, then
different arrangements including structural configuration and this is obvious after you
know initial few lectures.
Now, we all agree that in order to give the form of architecture, structure is
indispensable, means it is very much needed. Without structural stability, structural
support, it cannot create the form the way we want, which may organize and unify
architectural design. So, basically form by this definition, if we simplify this, So, it is
three-dimensional object along with that it will have some architectural aspects. It should
have some space to live-in in order to you know maximize your utility and, also this
should be supported with some structural configuration.
And finally, altogether it will basically create and unify an architectural design. So, with
that we move forward to the architectural form.
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So, here it says Architectural form is an inclusive term that refers primarily to a building
external outline. Here this is very important external outline or shape. So, whatever the
form we normally say, so basically most commonly we referred to the outline of the
building if a building is something like that. So, we say it is a domical form of
architecture. What is inside the space essentially, we do not say about that and to a lesser
degree reference is internal organization, as already I mentioned like in order to create
architecture, we have to articulate spaces.
So, it will have a relationship between different spaces, their transitional spaces, how we
connect to space. So, that is very important for creating good architecture, so that our
purpose to create will be achieved. But when we discussed about the form, so basically it
is whatever the overall shape being created and basically the outline. But sometimes also
we also observed the internal form; sometimes I have given one example of pantheon,
where it is looking very beautiful from the inside that your domical form that we have
seen.
So, one thing is very clear. It is giving a shape or outline. Now, this shape is basically
creating a visual representation and that also having some property of the size, color,
texture, position, orientation and visual inertia. So, these all are very important thing like
whether my structure will be in human scale or in monumental scale. So, I guess that is
like who have studied the history of architecture. So, earlier we have seen that like many
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examples which the architecture is in monumental scale, the huge structure. So, size is
something very huge and sometimes it is nowadays with the age of you know shortage of
spaces and all, sometimes we actually optimize the space so with the minimalistic form
and small size.
Now, to the color, definitely it will give a contrast to the background. So, whenever we
see any image or who are having like some interest in photography, they also capture a
frame. So, in the frame we have a background and one foreground and with different
color, the contrast is created. So, sometimes the architectural form is very simple
rectilinear, but the color used through the material or may be paint can create something
different.
Textures; obviously, we have discussed that sometimes it may be rough; sometimes it

may be very smooth like glass. So, this is important, the position of that. Now based on
the position; how you place your form one after another, how you make composition,
that will actually give you a different sense. Orientation; it is again very important not
only for the aesthetic purpose, but also sometimes in order to tackle with the lateral load.
If you can recall the wind load that we have seen that when we place you know this
rectilinear form and this is a prevailing wind direction. So, this create thrust. In order to
that if I just rotate a bit, so we can minimize it in that.
And visual inertia is very important that will give a visual sense of stability. We have
seen some of the buildings in our previous lectures that where we have seen that the
building is following the stability; visual stability is there and sometimes it is not. So, it
refers to the instability, visual instability to that. So, these are the properties of a form
that will make one architecture from other.
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Now, come to the structural form. So, form is shape. Now how to do we really
distinguish between architectural form and structural form that is a question. So, here
structural form is the primary or most visually dominant structural system of a building,
ok. This statement is not really giving a very comprehensive answer to us. So, what
exactly want to mean?
So, so far, we discussed that the shape is the three-dimensional thing then, in order to
make it architectural form it should have some you know some space and other thing to
call it architecture and then, basically architecture is the outline of that architectural
design. This shape, this outline is your architectural form whether it is in rectilinear form
or in any some curvature or something.
Now, structure is basically the backbone of the dominant structural system. Now, here
we should be careful. So, when we say the dominant structure, what exactly like by
looking at the building, you will just get to know that this structure system is of this kind;
but sometimes even rather most of the cases a building may have more than one
structural system, one to just give the structure stability, other may to give some you
know other facilities. So, which system is visually dominant that is a question.
So, which form will take a building may have an arch form, some part of the building
and somewhere it is just a you know beam column structure. So, there which form
should we take? So, concept of structural form is unhelpfully simplistic. So, basically
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when we say structural form, its rather to say this is the structural system. So, when we
say structural systems, then we have some category in to that.
So, we can classify our structural systems in many ways; so, one way of classifying it
with the overall shape of three-dimensional shape and other thing. But structure systems
can also be defined with other parameters like its nature whether it is like your
compressive structure or it is your tensile structure or so on or else, we can also define it
in other terms like your supporting structure or supported structure. But in this particular
lecture, will not discuss those; will come to that in some you know future lectures. But in
this, primarily, we will focus on the structural form based system.
So, I will just make it clear with certain examples. Say for example, if you see a building
making of such you know concrete or steel member and the form being created is
simplifying or simply say it is an arch. So, this is basically the form, but again this
system whether it is like your tensile or it is compressive or something will touch up on
those issues, we will discuss one by one in our future lectures.
So, let us move on to the concept. Again, this is very important and very interesting
slide. So, here the structure can be defined with 4S’s: Strength, Stiffness, Stability and
Synergy. So, what is strength? So, basically strength is some property by which you can
prevent breaking ok.
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So, if I having a beam which is having good strength, may be made of good quality
concrete; so, it will resist more load. So, it will stop from breaking, but at the same time
say for example, I take this pen examples. So, it is made of some material having, some
kind of strength; but not as compared to concrete. So, if I put pressure on that it may
break.
With pen, it may take some time; but if you do it with a chalk maybe as because of its
you know brittle property, it will break even you know earlier than this one. So, strength
is very important property of a structure. So, depending on the load, also we have to you
know be choosy about selecting material having the proper strength which will help to
prevent from the breaking. You can see this you know schematic, where this is a beam
and supported by two columns and when a load is applied showing by this arrow. So, it
is breaking.
So, if you make it strong, then it will not. But regarding this I just want to highlight,
another important issue will also come to that later on. But as because now we are
discussing this say for example, we make a slab resting on a column. So, basically if you
know this is particular section. Now, in this case I just zoom it. So, suppose this is made
of concrete and made of PCC. PCC stand for Plain Cement Concrete. So, there is no
reinforcement. Now, because of the self weight and also some live load; load of furniture
and then, people. So, it will have some bending.
And what is happening here? So, if you want to see this one this section. So, the upper
portion will have one type of load that is like they will have the compression ok. So, this
particular portion will try to you know contracting to each other and this portion will try
to expand. So, tension will be developed here.
Now, for that reason, it will collapse from the bottom. In this case because load is
applied from the top if I apply load from the bottom. So, it will first develop crack in the
upper section and let me tell you one thing that like concrete like plain cement concrete.
So, basically the property of concrete, it is having good compressive strength. So, in
compression, it will sustain. But not in tension, but tension developed at the bottom.
So, in order to overcome we have to support it we have to reinforce it with some material
having higher tensile strength value and that is why we put reinforcement and the reason
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for this kind of slab, we put the reinforcement in the lower side of the section ok; so, that
this will take care of the tension.
So, it will give a balance with tension, compression and finally, will have some
equilibrium. So, we will come to that and we will discuss with some experiment also, but
anyway. So, to make it sometime stronger having good strength, we may look for some
combination of different structural material.
Now, come to stiffness; stiffness is a property which will prevent the excessive
deformation. Say for example, if it will not have this much of stiffness. So, it will deform
and the time like if you create some structure having higher deformation which will not
be really a good sign because then, your whole structure the you know the supporting
structure or the supported structure on this column may act in a different manner. So, this
is another property which is very important to select about the structure.
Now, come to stability; stability will depend on the arrangement of your structural
element. We have given one example like your pyramid and inverted pyramid ok. So,
depending on the arrangement because of the lateral load and other thing; so, stability is
basically you know prevent the collapse. So, if arrangement is something like that we
make a composition; something like this is one, option number 1 and I just make option
number 2 here ok. So, when we arrange this you know cuboid one after another. So, this
is option number 1; this is option number 2.
Now, my question to you looking at these two and consider the same material and all
which structure is considered to be more stable? So, I am sure that all of you agree that 1
is much more stable than 2, because of the mass and other thing and that is why those
points, where it get connected is very crucial. Now, we have discussed the you know
activity during earthquake. So, there will be some lateral movement in both the direction,
horizontal direction, left-right and you know upward-downward.
So, in that case basically those joints are very critical because here you just represent it in
the real case. So, this is slab and this is a beam or there will be some column and also
those joints will be casted adequately proper care should be taken so that during that
movement this structure will act as a monolithic structure; what is monolithic structure?
Made of say in a single material. Sometime you know the cave we consider the rock cut
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cave and all they are monolithic structure; so, that all will have the motion. So, that this
building will be stable.
But though we have good strength material having the stiffness, the property and also the
arrangement and assured the stability, but then also there is something which is very
important to bring the result as per our requirement that is the synergy and that the
subject the whole course is all about the synergy between different structural element.
So, if you want something to be very strong, stiff and also stable. So, you must have a
good synergy between those materials along with the design elements; so, that we cannot
compromise our requirement. At the same time, we should not compromise the structural
safety. So, that my structure will be visually pleasant, structurally strong and having a
good durability, it will stay for longer.
So, this is something is very important and looking into this concepts, sometimes you
know we have to reject some of the structural form which may not be applicable for our
design. So, in upcoming slides what will see basically the synthesis between architectural
form and structural form. So, looking at that basically it will give a sense of a shape
three-dimensional shape, but at the same time it is being so well-designed, its giving the
architecture, the way we want and also the structural form that support that to bring it
into reality. So, let us move forward.
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So, here we have listed 8 such you know structural and architectural form synthesis and
we will see by with some examples, some photographs from you know different parts of
the world and specially the modern architecture. So, one is your Shell Structure; second
one is Fabric Structure; Catenaries is one of them; then you have Ribbed Structure, then
Arches, Folded Plate, Framed structure, and Walls. This list can be further extended and
will also do that and will discuss some other kind of structures like pneumatic structures
and other form of you know shape that we use and structural element we use in
architecture.
But before, we again proceed further; let us understand by the term what is shell. So,
basically I can give you example of egg. So, what exactly it is the white outer shell is
having enough strength and in some of the experiment, it has been shown that it may
take up to even more than 20 to 22 kgs load. So, this is very thin, very thin; it is so brittle
and you know who are having eggs in their daily menu and all they know that when you
break it for the omelet or something. So, it is very thin, but it is able to carry certain load.
So, this thin shell will make your space spacious, at the same time it can also take the
load. So, what is the property basically? So, it will resist the load external load and self-
weight through its thickness and proper geometry, that is very important. You know in
order to achieve the result we should also look into the geometry, how the curvature to
be drawn for the shell structure and all and we will get some example to that. Fabric is
basically something related to the cloth or membrane kind of material.
So, sometimes in order to make structure very light, we use this kind of structure and you
know already I have given one example of stadium, Munich stadium, there we have seen
the huge structure. Though that example was taken for a light weight type structure, but
here we can take the same example, where like with some you know steel members and
all the whole area is being shaded with some translucent you know fabric and there is so
many applications of this fabric where it is basically act with a tension.
So, the tensioned fabric to be supported with some cables and yeah; obviously, there will
be some support which will help to balance that and some comprehensive element
structure to be fixed, where this membrane or the fabric are tied up. Then, catenaries is
basically a form that we normally see that it is basically a member which is you know
drape, means it is simply you can say hang on this two pole.
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So, if you see the railway track over that all those you know electric poles and this
transmission you know cable and other thing. So, we have some portal kind of structures.
So, this is a catenaries structure. I can give you another example. We also call it
catenaries that is the queue you know in station or some of the meeting place in order to
manage the queue, we have certain posts like this and there is some elastic material
which may be you know fixed at any direction. So, this is also called catenaries.
So, we will see this application in our architecture. Then, ribbed is something like the
skeleton ok. So, if you remember we started with the lecture, where we have seen like
take example from the nature like the human body; though we have some muscles, we
have some outer finish and with some clothing and all we take it in a different manner.
So, depending on the color and other thing, but basically, we are stable or we are
standing because of some support of the bone, the skeleton. So, as true for some structure
where, it is very much predominant ok.
So, every building, they must have some you know structure or you know skeleton, but
this kind of ribbed structure is very predominant. We will look into that also. Then
arches are very simple. So, different kind of arches may form the architecture. Folded
plate, I explained with some paper right?
So, if you have a paper and then, if you just fold it ok so, it may carry some load and
when you make it in order. So, it can also take a huge load on it and why it is taking load
and all; how it will balance the compression and tension, we will discuss in detail when
we discuss about the folded plate structures separately in the class. So, here we will see
like some examples under this category. The framed structure is very simple, straight
forward, beam column composition structure.
So, this is something normally we see in any house or something it has been practiced
from so long. Then the walls, sometime you know we have also shown some example,
where you have very you know opaque type of you know quality in your structure where
you have some very less opening or no opening and walls are predominant to it. So, the
walls some arrangement of walls will create some architecture.
So, let us move to each of these category and take some examples and try to understand
clear what exactly how this synthesis is happening with architecture and structural form.
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This is one example and this is very simple one a small one like the bus station ok. A
shelter, you can see this is may be the office area like official thing and all and people
can wait there. This is the bus. So, here you can see the thickness ok, very thin and this is
giving a form of an arch. So, it is also known as surface structure. Because as of the
thickness shells resist and transfer the load within the minimal thickness and that is the
advantage of using it. The similar shell structure being used in Sydney Opera House even
in or you know lotus temple in Delhi, from India.
Now, for that what is required two or three dimensional curved geometry and correct
orientation. So, to give the support where to support it, where it should be oriented, how
it will counter the weight transfer the weight that is very important in this shell structure.
And what is the advantage if you see this, so this area is having no column. So, you can
create some kind of interesting space, column free space wherever we require it. So, this
is one example very beautiful example of shell structure.
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Here, we take another two, this is one auditorium in MIT and this is already sometimes
back, we have given this example of TWA Terminal and that time, we have taken this
example as a like form like flying bird or something. But here, we are taking this
structural element which is very thin made of concrete; so, creating the shell structure.
So, they are being supported somewhere and it can create it. So, basically the shell
structure if you just design it ok, with a proper geometry making the balance take care of
the moment of inertia. So, you can create beautiful space with this and the material
sometimes it may be made of concrete, sometimes you can also think of some other
material without compromising that you know your strength, then stiffness and other
thing and definitely the proper orientation and positioning of the support will give the
stability to give you the synergy.
So, this 4S’s I have explained here how to get it. Now, come to the fabric structure. So,
again it is a cloth some like material made of some you know poly ethylene based
material sometime high density poly ethylene.
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So, different kind of material to be used in this and these are being very useful to create
your you know reduce the load of the roof, where it is just a requirement to you know
cover up the area, just to protect from the rain and the you know excessive light or heat.
Then, we can propose this kind of structure.
So, we have seen one example from Munich, that is the stadium and here, it is ice skating
ring and this is basically a sport center in Germany, where it has been used. So, you can
see that how it is being placed. So, there are some supports and where this membrane is
fixed and from inside also, there are some poles and there are some cables which will
connect it.
So, it is the tension fabric that resist the self weight and wind load. Because you know
for the wind load there is a problem of upliftment of the structure. So, if you have a pitch
roof. So, there will be some you know wind, so this will create some pressure here and
that can make some upliftment of structures. We have to take care of this and now
looking at the form, so when we discuss this fabric or membrane structure in detail; so,
there we will see the different kind of you know membrane structure.
So, here it is basically a conical one and depending on that will also discuss about some
you know property of the curve whether it will take the arch form or parabolic or
hyperbolic form. So, will discuss this and here it is very beautifully designed, it will well
take care of the tension as well as the light. So, through this one may have the light and
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you can see the people are enjoying the skating there. So, this is one application of the
fabric structure.
So, let us move on to the next. It is in again in Arizona State University Campus. So, this
is a structure, it is more clear than the previous one, where like different post are being
used and cables are used to provide the adequate tension to the fabric.
So, it is creating very interesting you know shade and shadow and also some space to
enjoy though it is very open in nature, but this is creating beautiful piece of architecture
If you see from there, so these are all you know tensioned fabric and supported by some
you know very lesser thickness cable, though they are having the strength to carry this
thing and you have some support, long pole to tie up to create that tension in adequate
manner.
So, there also I can mention something about the cable suspended bridges. So, there are
many examples in the world. So, that also act with certain principle, but here it is called
fabric structure because of this fabric being used in this. So, it is again having the tensile
structure in nature. There are some members which will take care of the compression,
but overall it is under the fabric structure.
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Now, move to the catenaries; already we have discussed that there will be some two
poles and a member is just resting on that and it is giving a form of a portal. So, here this
is the example of Dulles Airport, Washington DC. So, here you can see like this is a
terminal building. As because terminal building should have some you know openness
and you should not really obstruct it with regular number of columns and all.
So, here you can see that this is basically a series of such components being placed one
after another and then there are some you know slabs. The catenaries which will rest on
this to support ok. So, inclined piers support the catenary slab. So, this kind of structure
is being seen in many cases. So, here the synthesis happened with the catenary with this.
So, overall this is giving a sense of a portal, but as well as it will also create this
particular space, column free.
So, whenever we require this column free kind of structure, we may think of that. So,
what exactly happen there? Transfer load to the support through tension ok, roof self
weight should exceed the wind load because of this kind of long span there will be if this
free. So, there will be a flow of wind and other thing. So, this should have the self weight
adequately so that it will resist against the wind load.
Now, reinforced concrete is sometimes chosen as the material because of the property
and again, you look into this, this is RCC. As because this will act with tension, so
compression can well taken of by plane concrete; but in order to take care of the tension,
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we need some reinforcement as RCC does. And compared to the other example, the
Dulles Airport this is again huge.
So, if you see this particular you know material having the thickness is very small and
here what is happening? This is example of you know Pavilhao de Portugal. So, here
these two buildings and their porticoes being connected with this canopy. So, here
canopy drapes between two porticoes and it is again open. So, there will be you know
wind blow and other thing and next with there is some water bodies also it is
predominant. So, it should have the property to resist against that. So, it is allowed been
to this.
So, sometimes this kind of structure is being created to give something like some
openness to that you know span and considering the scale and you can consider this
human being height. So, take standard height of 5 feet 4 inches. So, you can see the span
is a huge span. So, it is possible it is stable, it is standing there and this huge span is
being supported on and on this portico. So, this is again another example of catenaries.
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Now, from catenaries we moved to ribbed structure. Already the way I define that it is
basically very visible that skeletons. So, here you can see look into the building. So, most
predominant even this is the glass being used in this, but here if you see that there are
some ring kind of structure and being supported with some ribs.
So, basically if you see this thing and we compared it with our globe. So, the latitude
longitude, this is making a basically a skeleton to it and it is very well designed and here
it is not in a circular form. The inside structure is basically creating a ramp which will go
up. So, this is another example where the structure is basically made of steel and it is
visible.
So, predominant structure as we define the structural forms sometimes is basically the
predominant structural element to the building. Here it is very clear from the picture that
it is the combination of ribs and like your circular the horizontal and vertical ribs to
create this rib structure. So, where it is being useful? Like it depends on the concept how
we want to show sometimes you may hide your structure within the building, you can
only see the overall outcome or the form of the building or if you require to show the
structural element, make it very open type. So, you can do it.
So, even if you recall the example of Bangkok airport, there also something like that. So,
they have multiple series of you know this kind of arch form and they connect it so that
while sitting here you can see outside. So, from outside it can form this. So, the same
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example can be categorized as the open type of architecture in visually openness is there,
but in terms of the structural thing, it is basically the ribbed structure.
Now, what exactly it is? Here there are few points that generate and define architectural
form although their skeletal character often necessitates a separate enveloping system.
So, what exactly it is? Like to make it; so, it may have a separate system to you know to
hold it to make it stable. So, which sometimes may be very pleasant, but sometimes you
just do not want it, just some portion of that is of that kind. So, you want to show it or
not it depends on the architecture; but in order to give the completeness, in order to you
know get that particular clarity, so its sometimes creates its own structural envelope.
Ribbed stricture, generally enclose single volume rather than multi storey construction.
So, whenever you have multi storey building. So, sometimes we just compromise it. So,
we will simply go for a you know small kind of structure, not the high rise with the
skeleton; but yeah, definitely in some of the high rise building we have used that with the
ribbed structural form and we put it in grid; grid structure and all we will discuss that in
the upcoming lectures. Take another example. This is National Art Center in Tokyo,
Japan.
And here, it is another example where you see that you have some vertical membrane
structures and you have some wavy structure connecting. So, from inside also if you see
the openness is maintained, but it is giving ribbed like a skeleton kind of you know
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appearance from outside. So, it is very predominant to the building. So, I have taken this
example under this category. So, vertical, but curved ribbed support and define the
undulating facade. So, here it is creating some undulating effect through the structural
arrangement.
Now, come to arches. This is another beautiful example of a museum called Klee
Museum in Switzerland, where beautiful use of arches and different size and all it is
resembles with the mountain at the back; so, to bring that you know compatibility with
the environment arch being used.
So, basically take this arch form can take various shape, it may be semicircular, it may be
parabolic or pointed. So, in Islamic architecture we have seen some pointed arches and
sometimes in later the Felix Candelas design that we have seen this kind of you know
structure, where it is basically your parabolic or hyperbolic paraboloid structures and
semicircle as very common.
In many of the you know domes we seen in Indian history, so there we use a semicircular
thing even in Gol Gumbaz in South India. So, there also we have seen that domical
structure and usually meet the ground at an inclination to the horizontal. So, here it is
meeting the ground, but sometimes when it is a combination that you have rectilinear
form and then on top of this arches or something in a domical form the section being
used.
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So, here basically what we are talking about the example I have given for Gol Gumbaz
that is not exactly the arch, that is the dome. So, here we are more emphasizing on the
arch form ok. So, depending on that how you create the arch as a door or entrance. So,
that is being more predominant in this part.
So, let us take another example this is in Wales. So, Great Glass house; so, here if you
see that it is basically a multiple arch in both the direction creating this kind of you know
structure and most interestingly to support this, so they have a ring beam all along. So, if
you see this is been hidden by the glass, but here you can see that here it is ring and then
on top of that you have this thing.
And in order to support it in order to have the loads transfer of the load on top, they have
some inclined you know vertical support a column which is basically the normal. So,
they are making almost 90 degrees to this support. So, it is transferring the load in that
sense. So, this is another example of arches; so, mainly predominant its arch, but
definitely this being supported with some other format. So, as we have discussed at the
beginning that in building, there may be some multiple kind of structural systems; but
looking at the dominance we will say or we will take that in some category.
Now, come to the folded plate, if you recall that in some of my lectures, I have explained
with a plane piece of a paper and then, I folded and create some origami. So, it is
something like that.
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So, this is US Air Force Academy Chapel. So, here you see that it is being created with
some folded plate giving the adequate strength and also the column free spaces. So, in
order to make this convention hall, assembly hall, you know space for huge gathering
which require the space to be column free so that we can use it. So, here this is the
interior of this you can see easily that it is something like you know with the fold like the
origami. We create different kind of you know form some animals, birds, or some other
form and this is the pretty similar.
The use of this structure is basically for the roof or sometimes in the wall and sometimes
with some inclined truss, we can create the same. So, this is one example of the folded
plate which is basically a structural form. But that also create the architecture of this
kind. So, it is making synthesis with architectural and structural form.
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This is another example of a Tempodrom, it is in Germany. This is basically a

multipurpose you know auditorium different activity is going on different functions and
again, in order to have clear view and other thing, it was mandatory to make this space
column free and for that the options one of the options was to create it with the folded
plate.
So, it is giving the strength. So, the ridge and valley that will have different compression
and tension, we will be talking to that also in detail. So, this is something we can see that
instead of a plain surface or you know domical surface that we have seen in many of the
historical buildings. Here, it is something which been created with the folded plate that
been supported, these valleys are supported at the end and it is taking the load. It
transfers the load to the members and solve our purpose to create the space as the way
we want it to create.
And depending on the space, depending on the requirement, the volume, definitely
design will change. So, this can be also used for the warehouse, there we can have this
kind of structure and we support some of the areas. So, wherever we have this you know
valley.
So, ridge is this top portion and valley is the down portion ok. For any mountain and this
is pretty similar to that concrete can be used to it and some of the you know small gallery
and all been made with wood. So, when we discuss about the structural materials, will
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again look back into this to create different kind of form what kind of material is
suitable. So, we are coming towards end of this lecture.
So, here we talk about the frame structure. So, again it is a combination of the beam and
column. This is one example the La Grande Arche in Paris. This is also called frame with
in frame. This is very good building we all appreciate it, but basically the fundamental
thing is it is being made with some orthogonal skeletal structure being beam column
combination and it is sometime also very you know very easy to make.
But nowadays we should not say like easy or very tough to create; everything is possible
with proper execution, proper selection of the material, technique and available
technology. But here this form is being created with a frame, where like you have a
series of you know column and then, it being supported with the beam then top of that
again it will go on. So, it is making a skeleton.
So, normal housing also we see those buildings are of this frame structure. But it has
some limitation in terms of the height. So, when we discuss about the evolution of high
rise building, there we will see that when height goes up. So, along with that gravity
load; gravity load is the self weight acting towards the ground the center of the earth.
And there is another called lateral load like wind and other thing.
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So, the gravity load and other thing can be taken well care of this, but when you go
vertical as we have seen in the load that with the increase of height wind load wind
pressure will also increase. So, there we have to support it with some other advance
technique. So, we move from framed structure to the tube structure, we can also add
some structural bracing to give extra support. So, anyway we will not discuss it now in
more detail, we will come to that how to get that thing to get the desired height of the
structure.
So, move to the next example. This is example from India, Mumbai this is a hotel
building again is very simple. So, made with some column and you can see the visible
thing is also showing visually the grid form. So, this is also an example of frame
structure.
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Now, this is in the last category that is wall, where the wall or structural walls are
capable of you know participating in the integration of architectural and structural forms.
So, basically if you see that it is a series of walls mainly ok. So, that is very predominant
here. Though some part of that we have some you know stilted column and all, but
overall it is giving you that particular sense.
And looking into that if you see this kind of this side elevation, there is hardly any
opening to that; there is a sleek opening there here and sometimes in this portion also,
but it is not the case that all the time will have this opaqueness. Sometimes also we can
achieve some degree of transparency with this wall. So, proper combination of that there
are examples of Louis I Kahn and all, we will also discuss during that you know detail
discussion on the wall and all.
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So, move to the next example this is Saint-Ange Residency in France. Here, if you see
this is somethings like looking at the building, it is basically the wall ok. The wall all the
side, but as I mention that you can also create some transparency by creating or
providing some of you know some transparent element to it because this is the opaque.
So, opaque transparency you all know; like opaque is something you cannot see through;
transparent where you can see through. So, here we can see that this glass use of glass
can give you a visual connection for the people who are you know staying inside to the
outside world, but here it is predominantly the structural form is the wall which is
creating this architecture.
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So, in this we are now to summarize and here like let us just the way we have discussed.
In this presentation, we know that what is the form? Your form is shape. So, 3D and
then, further we discussed architectural form. So, not only this is basically outline of the
building ok, but plus some other architectural aspect ok.
Now, next to that what we have also learned that structural form. So, here what we said
that which is the predominant structural system of the building, we called that or
considered that as structural form. So, from that we just come to a conclusion that it
should be structural system rather than a structural form and then, after that we also
discussed about 4S’s of structure which is very important. Number 1 is not in particular
order.
So, one is your you know Strength, then you have your Stiffness, then you have Stability
and then, the Synergy. These four components are essential to create it and next to that
the synergy the synthesis between architectural and structural form depending on the
predominant structural system that is installed to the building.
So, based on that we have 8 categories; so, under 8 categories what are those. So, like if
you can recall, the first we started with the structure just you know not in orders. So, let
us start with the fabric structure. Then, you have shell structure that was the first one.
Then, you have also discussed with the catenary ok. Then, framed; then, we have called
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ribbed which is skeleton type. Then, you have arches and then, you have folded plate and
then last, but not the least we also called discuss with the walls.
So, with all these, we create a particular predominant structural form which is visible in
our architectural buildings, we have seen many examples and there are more many more.
So, I advise you all like I have only given you few examples. So, depending on that you
also try to you know explore more examples and you know in some forum, we will also
discuss it like how to define it which is the predominant of that building.
So, I love to see those you know questions and those you know discussion, looking
forward to that. But you know all these things like sometimes it is predominant, but at
the beginning of the lecture, we start that a building may consist of multiple structural
systems right. So, they may create sometimes something different like not coming into
the category. It will just create some contrast ok.
Out of that, we may have a building like this, where it is very tough to define or put it in
the category. Somewhere it is in a combination on the frame or sometimes it may be the
shell structure, some part of that folded structure. So, it creates beauty. Overall we
appreciate it, not a particular dominant structure, but overall composition creating a
contrast creating something very beautiful.
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So, definitely we are really interested to look into that and with that the upcoming 2
lectures the basically the single topic that will you know discus that is connecting
structure and architecture. So, here we will see different kind of where sometimes
structure is predominant or sometimes your architecture is predominant, sometimes it
followed, sometimes it is some unorthodox or something you know not orthogonal. So,
we will see that.
So, that will be our lecture number 6 and 7, connecting structure and architecture and
these are the reference. I have added one more example that is a book written by D. K.
Ching, Architecture: Form, Space, and Order. You can go through it and I have also
given the references for all the image sources, you can go and get more detail. And
again, I would like to thank you all to take part in this course and till the next lecture,
bye, bye.
Thank you.
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Lecture - 06
Connecting Structure and Architecture - Part I
Hello friends, welcome back to online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today we are here with the Lecture Number-6 that is
Connecting Structure and Architecture. So, before we start today’s lecture whatever we
have cover so far, based on that we can say that now we have some idea like how
structure is integrated with architecture and how structures support the architectural
design to bring desired solutions. Sometimes it will solve the function, sometimes it will
also help the design to make it aesthetically pleasant.
Now in this particular lecture what we will talk about again something similar to the
previous one like the relationship, but earlier in two lectures we have seen that structural
relationship with architecture in terms of architectural concept and sometimes in the
other lecture, we have discussed about structural association which will maintain the
quality, visual quality of architecture.
But if you can recall the first lecture where we have asked you a question like which will
come first the structure or architecture? So, basically there is no such distinct answer
because they are acting together like when the design process starts at the same time, we
have to also think about structures so that that will have a proper synergy to bring that
into real world.
Now sometimes in looking at some building, we will find that this building is something
is nothing but structure. Say for example, we have taken this example of Eiffel Tower.
So, basically that is a structure, you can nicely build with you know symmetry and all.
So, it is again architecture. So, we cannot put it in a single category, but depending on
the dominance of something like either architectural dominance or the form dominance
or sometimes structural dominance will classify those things into different categories.
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So, in this lecture what we will do basically? We will explore the relationship between
structure and architecture and here our focus will be based on the aspiration and intention
of the designer.
Say for example, as a designer we just design a building where I want to show some art
form which will be definitely be supported with the structure, but will not really bother
with the structural requirement or structural arrangement to optimize it.
So, sometimes we just ignore the structural constraint to make it short or small. So, with
the advancement of technology and different you know materials, nowadays it is possible
to go beyond traditional, orthodox you know structural fitted design; say we moved from
frame structure to different shell structure and all.
So, there it depends on the designer or architect who will design the building and looking
at that concept, quality or overall the form that to be created. So, whether there will be
structured will take the predominance thing or sometimes it may not and sometimes with
traditional orthodox beam column structure, we may feel bored. So, we go for making
some twist on making that structure little bit interesting.
So, in this particular lecture, we will see those kinds of thing. So, the varieties of
relationship as already I mentioned, that ranging from complete domination of the
architecture where architectural form then all these you know imagination creativity will
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come into reality. But again, we should not really take these words in a wrong manner
that when you go for that form creation will ignore the structural requirement because
otherwise your design will be unstable.
So, there will be adequate structural support to make that form. But looking at the
building what we will see the dominance of the architecture, not will see a beam column
or something like that. Now other thing is a pure structure where the structure itself
representing a space ok. Already I mentioned like structure as architecture one example
the Eiffel Tower. So, we will see more on that also and then sometimes it may be like we
totally you know ignore the you know structural requirement not ignored in terms of the
adequate load resistance and all, but to give the form.
So, we will think about the form and then adequately we give the support as and when
required. So, in both the cases a building sometimes you know in order to make it
something aesthetic something organic so, as already mentioned that we will go a little
bit out of the traditional beam column and state forward structural design. So, on that
basis this kind of you know connecting architecture and structure the form or the
relationship, we can sub divide in five groups.
And here you will see that all these five groups are having similar word composition;
that means, if you just put word left or right first and last. So, the group will change.
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So, this is very important and that is why we should understand the difference and how
we actually put a building in the category. After the end of this lecture, what I will expect
from you all like you will provide more example to each of these categories so, that we
will know that how we actually categorize the building in terms of your architecture and
structure relationship. And in order to know all these 5 points and different examples in
all the category, we actually will have two lectures. This is the part 1 where we will
cover two of these five and then the next lecture will be continuation of that where we
will discuss rest three.
So, first two this ornamentation of structure and structure as ornament ok; they are little
bit confusing, but I am sure that end of this presentation you will able to identify the
difference between these two categories. And next lecture, we will discuss about
structure as architecture, structure accepted, and then structure ignored. Again, I am
saying that we should not take this structure ignored means we compromise the structural
requirement it is not, but to create the form in form making we just you know go beyond
the traditional structural system and all.
So, we will go to you know look into all these examples. So, let us move on with the
ornamentation of structure. So, what is ornamentation of structure?
Before we go further detail with some other example, we all know this building right?
So, this is Parthenon, Parthenon from Athens Greece. So, what exactly it is and why it is
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ornamentation of structure, what is a meaning of ornamentation? Means decoration more
carving something like that. So, ornament is to making something beautiful in details and
structure already, we have discussed with different definitions and time to time almost in
all lectures. So, far we have used the definition of the structure so, it is basically you
know parts of a building in terms of building structure parts of a building which will
resist all applied or imposed load to that building ok.
So, here it is something like what we see that whatever the structure remains, it is
basically some combination of column and beam right. So, this your beam and column
composition ok. So, with that this is very you know simple structural arrangement. So,
we just make vertical columns and horizontal beam which will make the structure you
know stable. But it is not the simple beam column nowadays we see for the like your
frame structure. Normally we use some you know rectangular cross section of that,
sometimes it is circular. But what is additional to it? If you see the column so, there is
some decoration and at the top portion of the column which is also referred as capital, it
has some decoration ok.
So, we ornament this particular structure. So, basic structure is there, but in order to
make it more aesthetically pleasant, we put some decoration to it and come up with some
good solution. So, the upcoming slides will have some example under this category.
So, basically what is the fundamental in order to we look at a building and say that this is
under this category. So, looking at the building, we should able to identify that overall
the space creation is dictated by the structural form like structural arrangement rather.
So, structural requirement dictated the form.
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It is simple post and beam like structure that we have that will highlight the visual
expression.
So, here looking at this if we just make an alternative to that, so, we should not really
dare to compete with that. But if we want to simplify with a rectangular one so, we will
have some you know post and then you have some beam like beam structure. So, post
refer to that vertical columns and beam already you know. So, this is the arrangement
normally.
Now in order to beautify this so, we what they have done? They have used this
ornamentation. So, here it is Doric order used where you have you know the one
property that this particular cross section will vary and at the top it is little bit tempered.
And the reason is these all are made in some monumental scale. So, we know the
perspective concept right.
So, whenever like we see a tall building so, basically that will act as a three-point
perspective. So, for a high rise building so, what we see from the bottom. So, it is
something like that means it is merging to a point, but the point is it is not exactly the
same even the rectangular one.
So, this has been created to correct the visual error. So, the example if you make your
structure little bit tampered downwards or something, you will have some things
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different. So, here they have made some correction in that in the history like these has
been covered extensively so, sometimes we make those correction. Here in the Doric
column what is the features that at the top or near the capital there will be some reduction
in that and you have a capital like this.
Now, this slide will clear this thing more you know accurately. So, if you see that this
particular you know plan and elevation which is obviously restored after that that was
restored drawing. So, here you see the all these you know solid circles, small circles are
the columns and it is arrangement of that a regular interval columns they make these
building like that ok.
And now if you see this particular painting where it is definitely in overall sense it is just
an arrangement a combination of your post beam or the column beam arrangement, but
all other decorations special in the column or in the beam, those are additional ornament
to it which add value to it and it will definitely it makes the structure different from a
traditional beam column structure.
So, it has been in practice in the Greek architectures apart from this you know Parthenon,
we have many such buildings there where they have used. Now for the decoration let
look into the history. So, here are different type of columns or post being used.
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So, Doric order which was used in Parthenon you see the capital how it is being made. It
is very simple staggered and there is some minimal ornamentation to that, where we
come to Ionic, so, the capital will have some involute to create some way or something
like that and when it is the Corinthians is more curving and all and overall it will give
you know with this picture, you can see it is something like leaves and other thing give
more organic look to the capital of the column.
So, with that we create different kinds of ornamentation of structure. So, basic structure
is again post or column, but now with these carvings and all so, it is basically some
ornamentation which add value to the structure. So, this is another example where Doric
column is used that is Auckland War Memorial Museum. You can easily identify these
things.
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So, these are basically a cylindrical post pillar, but having those cross sections. So,
basically it is not exactly the circle. So, instead of that basically if you draw it correctly
so, you will have this kind of cross section and at the top also the capital is designed in a
different manner. It is not a pointed beam column that we normally used for the frame
structure.
Now this is from example of Doric and now move to the next one this is Jefferson
Memorial in Washington DC. So, here also if you see the entrance where the column is
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used and this is exactly the same and that we have seen for the ionic column. So, at the
capital you have some you know some involute or something to make it beautiful.
So, this is another example of ornamentation of structure and that is following the ionic
column. Move to the next one, this is the New York Stock Exchange and here if you see
the capital.
Again, it is pretty similar now, I think it is clear. If you compare the slide where I have
shown different three types of the column style at the capital, so, here it is definitely for
the Corinthian where it is giving more organic leaves and other floral kind of you know
final outcome. So, this is something really interesting.
So, it could be a straight beam column, but to give that classical look to maintain that
you know important history or something. So, we can still use it even in the modern
building we can and after that you know there are other types Tuscan and other you
know combination and the later stage after you know in the gothic or after that also.
So, decoration this particular you know tradition is being practice to ornament the simple
structure. So, here we have seen three examples, three buildings were like one followed
the Doric the other one is your Ionic and this is Corinthian. Move on to this building
Potter Building in New York, here also it is something where this beautiful curvature
being made.
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So, this ornamentation it is mixed of many. So, this is a corner portion and even the
arches everything is having some extra ornamentation and that is why it make this
building little bit different. So, this is giving a terracotta look to the whole structure and
again you see the combination its basically adding some ornament to the basic structure.
So, this is another example of this category ornament of structure.
A previous lecture also I have shown you where the span is you know covered with this
mushroom column. So, this is basically the mushroom column. So, we know the
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mushroom. So, with that concept we developed it. So, the slab and the column their
connection ok, the simple geometry is connecting at this you know normal or at right
angle, but here it is something where they have a smooth transition.
So, it could be a simple cylindrical column normally we can see in flyovers or some of
the elevated roads to the metro, elevated metro corridor where normally you have the
cylindrical or like cuboidal piers and on top of that you have this particular you know
corridor or maybe the flyover.
But this section can be improved like this where we can ornament it, it maintained the
proper geometry and all, but finally, outcome looking at that it is not a simple column
slab combination rather than it is some additional you know ornamentation to that
combination. So, this is a modern example of that and it is from Mumbai International
Airport that already we have discussed in some of the earlier presentations.
So, before we move to this particular next category so, let us clear this out. So, what is
the basic concept to put a building in this category? Looking at the building will simplify
it with this is just like structure typical beam post or beam column structure and if the
space is being created with the arrangement of these beam and columns this is the
fundamental ok.
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Now addition to that we add some ornament following some style sometimes it may be a
combination. So, we used in earlier case in Greek and Roman architecture, there we used
different you know Doric and we can later on your Corinthian and then after that you
know a mixed of that. So, that met the you know very simplistic beam and column to
really a piece of ornament. So, that is basically the ornamentation. So, along with some
past like historic example, I have also shown some modern examples. So, that it will be
clear that nowadays also it is in practice, these are very few ornamentations that I have
shown, but definitely you can explore more and I also want you to do that.
So, you go through different you know piece of building and then try to analyze that
what exactly it is that, how much ornamentation being done and can we put that building
in this. So, then we will discuss in time to come.
Now move to the next topic for this lecture that is structured as ornament. Now here we
have to be very much careful. Earlier it was ornamentation of structure; now structure as
ornament; that means, in this category we will get to know about the buildings where we
used basically a structure that act as a ornament to the space creation.
Now how it is different from the last one that is ornamentation of structure? In
ornamentation of structure basic is your structural requirement fulfillment and then we
add some decoration to it. Here the basic function is being made with some basic
structure and then some structural arrangement put into that building which will act as
ornament. So, structure itself act as ornament.
So, in this building also if you see this is basically showing all the services, there are you
know cross bracing there are some you know tube structures. So, this is having this
escalator, having cantilever. So, everything all together it is making some impression of
the structural arrangement. So, here it is something like structure act as ornament to this
building, which is very simple rectangular building, but this adds value to this. So, here it
acts as an ornament.
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So, here basically what normally when we see any building, we will see if the building,
the structure is given visual prominence ok. So, that may fall into this category. Say for
example, this is Lloyd’s Headquarters Building. So, here if you see that this building
form and other space are very simple functional rectangular shape. But if you see all
these you know duct like it is exposed all these you know vertical services and other
thing which is made of steel which act as ornament to that. Otherwise, it could be a
simple multi story building rectangular building we will see this beam column, but this
you know exposed or externally placed all these services add some value to it as
ornament.
So as true if you see the inside interior of that building where again it has a prominence.
So, all these you know structural bracing is visible, they are rafters, mullions, then you
have this particular you know structural arrangement for the roof. So, its altogether if
you look at the building, you will first see that all everything wherever you look, this is a
structure. And in order to make it little bit beautiful; if you see if you can search more on
this building.
So, this is not straight forward there are also some you know ornamentation kind of thing
being made. So, that this can add some value as ornament ok. So, building was very
simple, but all this structure adds some value as ornament.
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So, design process is driven by visual rather than technical consideration in this category.
So, we have to understand it what exactly? So, technical consideration it could be, if I
redesign the building maybe take a similar kind of example. So, in order to just fulfill the
functions, we can simply make it with your some you know slab and then beam column,
but here structure should be visually upcoming ok. Visually pleasing and on that the
emphasis given on that visual rather than technical and that is why if you see all those
structural elements, they act as like some you know to make this building more beautiful.
So, these are being pleased as a beautification you know elements or as ornament.
So, with that move to the interior view of the same building, here you can see ok. Here
all these you know circular column, then the beam so everything act as ornament and this
is another picture where it can be easily seen like all these you know services. So, all the
you know pipes are externally placed which adds some value to is as ornament.
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Move to this one so, that was the title slide also. So, here if you see that the building is
again a rectangular one and it is from Centre Pompidou in Paris, a museum. So, here in
this case if you look into the overall arrangement, so, basically this is again a vertical
service being placed outside and it is being decorated and covered with some transparent
material.
So, these all portions are supported with some cantilever and other things. So, these are
visible. It is not for that one cannot hide could not hide it from thus you know viewer,
but rather the architect wanted these to be exposed and act as like people can easily
understand the type of structure being used and it is so beautifully placed in order with
some rhythm. So, that it acts the structure itself act as ornament.
But the study says instead of making these cantilever, all these you know structures; so,
if you could have used it with a simple one, you can even save like more than 25 percent
of the structural you know elements; that means, here that was not the constrains. So,
make this building like something a piece of structural arrangement and add
beautifications for each and every corner. So, all these joints are very beautifully placed
maintaining some rhythm and all. So, that this building come up as a you know one
example under this structure as ornament category.
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This is another example that do we discussed in earlier presentation also under the
category of ribbed structure, but here also if you see this is the exterior and these two are
form interior. So, here if you see the detail is nothing, but the structural arrangement and
here it is all exposed and very beautifully done.
Say for example, if you see this you know inside so, the you know regular spacing of this
vertical member and then close spacing of these horizontal members that create some
kind of you know interesting features to the interior.
And along with this ribs and other thing along with the glass and other composition so,
basically that add some value to this spherical you know architecture. So, here if you see
that it could be designed with some other technique with some you know sales structure
or something, but here it is basically designed in that category. And if you look into this
so, structure here being used and very predominant. So, dominance of structure is there
and act as ornament. So, that it adds some value. So, it could be very straight way design
or something, but here in order to make it aesthetically pleasant. So, some of the neat
finishes and you know the combination of different structure being made.
So, this is very important to know this kind of you know relationship where we can
connect the structure to the building as ornament. So, connecting structure with the
architecture this is the second category.
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So, now, we come to the you know end of this particular presentation. So, here we have
discussed about ornamentation of structure and structure as ornament though both are
having similar words just here and there the combination, but definitely we got to know
some of the thing we can distinguish.
So, again to quick recap. So, the first category ornamentation of structure and the other is
structure as ornament. So, what exactly? So, ornamentation of structure means structure
is the basis that dictate everything. So, a typical say I just try to make one building. So,
these are beam and these dots are like your columns and we make the elevation that is
the beam and then you know you have these structure maybe a shelter or something.
But this is very simple; structure driven, there is nothing to play with some other form
and all. But now instead of this I just replace this arrangement with the beam is there and
then we just ornament it with some you know different structural element. I just give
some other loop or maybe we just decorate like the other columns and other things. So,
give a classical loop to it. So, depending on the need, we can do it. So, basic fundamental
is the structural dictation to the form and we ornament it with some decoration. Here it is
something that new structure is being supported with something and very easy form may
go. But here the use of structure is very predominance and perfect execution of all the
structural element together add some value to the building.
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So, here the structure itself act as ornament and we have seen two buildings one is a
museum then other one that you know spherical one with the rib structure that we have
seen. So, these all are example under this structure as ornament and that the Lloyd
Headquarter, we have seen the services which normally you know in the building we just
hide it with the duct and all. But here it was shown and with the structural like steel,
application of steel and other metals. So, that act as a structure itself as an ornament to
the building. So, then we will discuss these three structures as architecture accepted and
ignored in the next lecture.
And these are the reading materials, I keep on updating it whenever I add some you
know new source to it and here also some of the information are taken from the book you
know Structure as Architecture. So, you can also refer to those books and also go
through those links that being provided under each of these pictures I have taken so, that
you can go to get more information about that. And as already mentioned we will be
discussing the rest three categories in part 2 and like for this time being bye bye take
care.
Thank you.
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Lecture - 07
Connecting Structure and Architecture - Part II
Hello friends. Welcome back to online course Structure, Form, and Architecture: The
Synergy. Today, we are in Lecture Number-7, that is Connecting Architecture and
Structure- Part II. In part I, we have seen like two different categories, ornamentation of
structure and structure as ornament. So, we have also discussed different examples like
starting from Parthenon to the modern buildings Stock Exchange of New York.
So, when we have seen that how a typical beam column structure is giving some
ornamentation, some decoration with some you know Doric, Ionic or Corinthian style.
Even in the later on stage we have seen some buildings where some other kind of
ornamentation being done. In the second category, what we have discussed that is
basically the structure act as ornament.
So, structure as ornament was the category and we have discussed few buildings where
we have seen museum, then we also see that dominical structure. So, these are the
category. And, I am sure that you have also you know identified some of the buildings
under the category. So, let us move on to other three you know which was remaining in
that part in this lecture.
So, again to brief about that, so it is basically depending on the architect designer like
how he or she will go with the structural architectural and structural outcome. So,
depending on that sometimes we have seen the dominance of architecture, the form and
sometimes it may be the dominance of structure. And, sometimes it is like something, the
ignorance of the basic requirement or the structural arrangement which can be a very
simplistic solution to that form, but create something different an interesting one.
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So, here we will discuss about three concepts, one is structure as architecture, structure
accepted in architecture, structure ignored in architecture in form making. Again, already
I mentioned then also I thought that I should clear it out the when we say structure
ignored be sure that there will be no compromisation on the structural safety, stability,
and other parameters. But when you look into the building we will not really think about
the structural arrangement, typical arrangement.
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So, let us move to the category, here the structure as architecture and the cover page
itself like this opening slide itself clear everything. So, this is the example of some you
know arrangement of structural parts, some truss and other thing was used in this
building and finally, the outcome a tower. This tower is having the symmetry, and from a
distance look very beautiful even you go have a closer look though it is having some
chaos in the visual form, but giving some nice experience.
So, here the structure itself this is a tower simple tower arrangement of you know
structural arrangement in order and give you the overall architecture, right. Even if we
take the example of like telephone tower, or something like radio tower or something
like that which is also looking similar to that not that much aesthetically designed or so,
but then also sometimes also we like them, right. So, these are some things where it is
basically a structure, but act as architecture.
So, this is another picture of the Eiffel Tower. So, where like architecture that consisted
of structure and only structure. What exactly it is? It is having some heavy word. The
focus is on structure, and the form whatever finally came out for existing building, that is
different, but overall looking at that we give more weightage to structure.
So, dominance of structure in that I would rather say and this being normal used when
we require to create space either for very long span, very tall buildings and sometimes
maybe in order to make your structure light. We can recall the example of some stadium
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say Olympic Stadium in Munich, but we have seen that some tensile fabric structure
being used to cover up the spectator seating area. So that is basically example of
structure. And then finally, overall outcome comes as the architecture. So, sometimes to
make some structure the portable, ok, so it should be with the structure.
So, let us see some more example. Here it is again ice-skating ring where it is say
basically the skating ring where hockey being played and again it is in you know in
USA. So, the basically if you see this is something like indoor stadium where you need
this area column free and for that you need a kind of structure which will support it. We
have seen that shell structure could be one of the option to go with where we can create
this much of span, column free span which will help to make all this activity happen
without any disturbance.
So, this is a design where is just a structural arrangement. If you see from outside again it
is looking like you know fish the overall form, but inside basically it is having a member
at the center, this rib which will getting connected from the bottom. So, again it is fixed
with the, if you see in detail so it is fixed with a tensile cable. So, with everything like
every arrangement the purpose is to solve, to create space like column free and for the
long span this structure act as architecture.
So, here the structure dominance is being seen if you see all through. So, from both the
side at the middle there is a rib and then it is being connected, with a symmetrical design
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and finally, long span support with structure. So, this is one example of structure as
architecture and many indoor buildings. You know if you search some good indoor
buildings, so we will get that this is basically a structure rather than a form. So, whatever
the structure being created with the basic form so that come as a structure as architecture.
And who does not know this building; this is the millennium dome, very very huge dome
being created for a celebration of the third millennium in London. So, here you see again
that this is a tensioned fabric structure. The earlier day we used to talk about that which
is being supported with the cable and some vertical post, where you will get this
compression in the structure.
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This is the inside during the construction. This is huge dome and the main experience
when you see this structure. So, experience is a huge structure, and then the form
creation overall it is coming as architecture. This is a schematic section you can imagine
the span, again it is for the long span we use this kind of structure. And, in order to make
it stable with the minimal number of you know vertical poles, so reduction in the self
weight of the roofing system was required and that is why fabric was used in this case.
So, again this is example where it is being formed as a dome, but definitely it is a
structural arrangement that helped us to design such kind of beautiful space. So, for
again this is one example where making space column free was the purpose and the
solution with a minimalistic vertical support with the tensile cable and the fabric tension
fabric it all the structural arrangement could help us to do that and it is there in front of
you.
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Now, come to the high-rise building. The moment the high rise building came into the
picture where we had to create some building tall buildings; so, there main fundamentals
to focus on the structure rather than the overall outcome or the form. So, in earlier days
the structural arrangement of those high-rise building was the main concern and there are
different parameters to be handled with the structure, ok.
So, while discussing with different kind of loads on building we have discussed that, one
is your gravity load, ok. So, all vertical loads like say a dead load and live load, which is
acting towards the ground is one, ok. For any building, so it will have a self-weight, so it
is acting to the gravitation, but along with that there will be some lateral force and when
it is high rise building the speed of wind will increase. So, lateral force as a wind load
will have some impact on that.
And along with that the seismic one, when there will be a movement of the earth surface,
so that will also create some lateral pressure. Also, we discussed about the flood load or
the sub-soil load, the hydraulic pressure to the building. So, all these lateral loads played
a very important role and specially for the high rise apart from everything even it is not
in earthquake form, so wind is having a problem. So, in order to protect it we must have
some adequate structural arrangement.
So, here if you see this is the John Hancock Building in Chicago. So, here the truss-tube
structure forms a major component of the visual attraction. So, here if you see the
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building, so first those majors members you will see that there are some vertical
members, and then there are horizontal members along with that this is very interesting
to know that there are some cross members. Now, what exactly these are? These are the
structural arrangement. Now, why this cross is required we will discuss in detail. But
here also I just give you one example.
Say for you just use two sticks like this, which is being supported at the ground and you
just make another stick here, ok. And you fix it very lightly you can tie with some knot,
you can take match stick or something and then you try to put the pressure. So, what will
you observed? That it will show in this direction, if you put pressure from this it will
show in this direction. Now, you just make addition. So, the same frame you take another
match stick and connect it diagonally and then try to put the pressure here, you will see
the deformation this way will be minimized. And if you add form this direction it will be
more. So, this is basically called structural bracing, ok.
Here it is for the lateral force, and placed vertically, but there are examples where you
have the bridges, and it is placed horizontally. I will show you some of the pictures
during the discussion; on this you know high rise structure or application of this
structural bracing. So, here in this building also you will see that it is basically to resist
the lateral load and minimize the sway with the like against the wind pressure. So,
overall it is the structural arrangement.
And trussed tube is one of the categories where we have certain limitation like for
traditional concrete frame structure, we can go up to say 30, 40 meter height and beyond
that we need some more arrangement. So, we go for the trussed, we can go for tubular
structure, bundle tube structure. So, we will have detailed discussion on that, that how
you move it because with the increase of height you know the load will be more to the
building and that is why we have to take care of that.
So, I just give you one small example. Suppose, how load been calculated in a building.
So, for this particular slab, so the dead load of this will transfer the load in this slab.
Now, if you draw this load diagram it will give you something like that, so it is being
cumulative. The load here will be just load of column of the upper floor and all, but if
you calculate this; that means, the addition of all these floors to this. So, that is why you
can see the load transfer to the ground is quite huge and it is like step diagram or
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something. So, here also for high rise building we have to take care of that. So, structure
is very important for this and there is some limitation. When we will talk about the
evolution of structure system for high rise building then we will get to know different
kind of structures to be used for different kind of height, different kind of purpose and
span.
So, here with this example the intention to show you that for in the modern building also
the structural arrangement just bring like this structure as architecture in this category.
Here, it is another O-14 building in Dubai, looking very organic. So, what exactly it is?
This surface is made of concrete; rather it is having some perforation. It is also having a
core. Now, what is core? So, in a building in a high rise building many a case you know
we design a core, and which essentially you know serve all these services like the
vertical circulation.
The other thing along with that and normally we use some you know very you know
strength material some shear walls or something which will support the other you know
external surfaces; so, where you can reduce the thickness of the column or something.
So, we will discuss. And, normally this core concept will come into picture when we will
discuss about your high rise building.
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But here it is something where different perforation of different size creating some kind
of you know rapping to the building, but here this is again a structure. So, this along with
the core, the perforated reinforced concrete outer shell and core, ensure the vertical and
lateral loads. So, here it is a form, being created with some structural material with the
core, connecting it and overall, it is representing the architectures. So here also it is one
example of structure as architecture and this is from like Dubai, O-14 Building.
Again, this is from Dubai, what is called Burj Khalifa. So, for the tallest structure and
there are many structures are coming up which is even higher than this one, but this is a
completed building. So, here if you see this is basically this is followed a bundled tube
structure, ok.
So, for example, in gross you have some tube, right. So, you place them together, ok. So,
the strength of that to resist the lateral load will be much more higher. And again, if you
observe it carefully all the high rise building nowadays being made with the increase of
height, they reduce the cross-section area in order to reduce the lateral load of the wind
and this is something where it is a very staggered. So, with the increase of flow there is
some drop and some of the towers just you know droped at that time and it will not
continue.
So, overall, the creation here is basically the structural arrangement. The way we put,
want to create a stable structure, so we should go with something, step and then you
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know reduce the weight and then finally, whatever the outcome is in front of you high
rise building, the tallest building as of now in the world. So, here it is another example of
structure as architecture.
So, bundled tube structure makes this architecture strong and still tall resisting vertical
and lateral loads. So, lateral loads normally it is very very very important for the high
rise. We will also discuss that when we discuss different you know mechanism how to
reduce the load, what should be the exact structural arrangement to overcome that
window.
So, as we at the beginning of this we discussed that this structure as architecture, we can
take example from where we have to create long span and we have discussed like
millennium dome and then the other one your skating ring. And, then sometimes for tall
structure, then we discussed about Burj Kalifa then John Hancock building and then also
discussed about the O-14 building.
Here it is basically for making your structure light. So, then the solution is you can go
with the tension fabric structure. You know earlier lecture we have discussed so many,
one example from your Arizona State University Campus that you know sky song
structure. But here also it is just the arrangement of the vertical post. If you can see
through in detail, so these are you know tension, given tension, these are all tension
fabric which is tide up with the cable to that post which is fixed outside, so that all
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spectators can get some uninterrupted view of the activity. Whatever the games are
played in the middle so they can enjoy at the fullest; so, this is also required. So, it is
basically a structural arrangement and structure itself whatever the structure you made
with minimalistic form creation and all that acts as a architecture.
Now, come to this structure accepted. Now, definitely here just I would like to say what
exactly it is structure accepted or structure ignored. We cannot ignore structure. We have
to have accept the structure, otherwise how our building will be stable? But here the
concept is where whatever the structure in form creation being there we accept it, we do
not try to deviate it from that, and we just try to put in order so that it will not really you
know disturb the creation of the form that we wanted, right. Now, how it is different
from three categories that we have discussed? Here whatever the structure says will
follow with that, ok, but along with that the form to be created.
So, see for example, here in this example this cover photo is you all know I guess this is
the Pantheon in Rome which is having the huge hemispherical, domical roof structure on
top. But how it is being supported? Let us see.
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So, this is a painting I have taken Pantheon. So, here you see that this is a basically you
know dome which is placed on a cylinder; so, very simplistic form creation. But it could
be very simple like a dome is being created and the cylinder. So, composition if you see,
you know in the first year when you start learning graphics or descriptive geometry, so
there we try to figure it out the composition with spear, with cylinder.
So, this is a simplistic form of this structure, but now how beautifully is being placed.
So, there is some void being created, some entrance somewhere this is used of some you
know Corinthian column, and then solid void all this creation even the some you know
carvings in the roof top. Overall, it is giving something beyond your cylinder and your
hemispherical dome structure. You can see in detail, so how these being created.
So, here the structure says it is a cylinder heavy mass at the top at that time definitely we
did not have the technology to reduce the thickness of the structure, steel was not there.
So, on that it is basically a load bearing comprehensive structures, so all loads being
carried by the wall and the support, but then also it is being created in the sense where
whatever the structure is coming it is accepted that is considered, that is visible, but with
some modification that is being placed to create this nice ambience.
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This is the simplest one, proposed by Le Corbusier that Dom-Ino House with basically
simple your column and then you have slab and in order to access you have staircase,
simplistic. So, here it is just the structure. No final you know any ornamentation to it,
nothing added extra to it, so an open floor plan consisting of concrete slab supported
with the minimum number of thin reinforce concrete. So, here it is very important to note
that at times when in history where there was some crisis then also the shelter was
required, so with a minimalistic form you can go with that.
So, here whatever the structure comes accept it; we do not need any alternation and
many a building very simple building in the history and in the recent time also when we
go for the mass housing, low cost affordable housing will still follow this kind of you
know minimalistic form where whatever the structure will come with little modification
in that we bring that. So, structure accept it in form making is one example there I put it.
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This is New York Chrysler Building. Here also it is a beautiful example of the steel
structure, but here it is not exposed. Overall creation if you see that it is giving a nice
form, but all these are made with the structural things. So, here the structure is accepted
as it goes up, and then we just accept that. We do not try to deviate it much from the
form creation, for the form creation. So, this is another modern example in this.
So, basically to summarize this particular category. So, whatever the structure comes in
that process we accept it, it may be exposed it may be hidden, but we do not really
deviate from whatever the structure says to solve the problem.
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Again, this is for Habitat 67. Nice arrangement of your you know some cubicle
arrangement here like your rectangular block being places different housing unit the
purpose was to give the nice view to all of the resident in that. So, here also like to
maintain the stability whatever the arrangement, whatever the arrangement one after
another to be placed it was maintained.
So, again this could be one example under the structure accepted and you will also find
more and share with me like which can be you know incorporated in this category. So,
we can enhance this particular database in days to come.
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Now, this is the last, but not the least under 5 different categories where we get
connected with structure-architecture, then architecture-structure something in that
manner and where structure ignored. And again, I am saying that this ignored is not
leading to the compromisation to the structural requirement we do not compromise
because after all your outcome whatever the architecture will bring into the real world
that should be stable, ok. And people they can experience it like without fear, so that
should be safe also.
But in order to give some organic form or something which is unorthodox, so there
sometimes we ignore the typical structure that could come, we just ignore that. So,
basically here structure ignored is in form making and not considering to give a aesthetic
forms to your architecture.
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So, this is a creation. Here in Ronchamp France this is the Chapel of Notre-Dame. So,
here if you see the structural considerations played very little part, very little part in
determination of the form.
See in this example like this huge mass being created, and this roof as because now the
material is available we can think of reducing the thickness of the structure, we can go
for a cantilever of a desired lane with due consideration of structure requirement to
support it. So, then this is one example where structure is being ignored in form making.
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This is another example designed by Zaha Hadid, Riverside Museum Glasgow. So, here
also if you see this is basically the form the plan if you see that is some matching with
the site, and as well as the weight. So, wherein in the section if you see, that it is having
some irregular roofing system, so which is not very simplistic structure. But here
whatever is required to make this form to match with the environment and the concept of
the designer, so we will go with that and accordingly will select some structure to make
this.
So, here also the structure the typical structure that could come is ignored and then this is
placed like we just the form creation, and this is a very beautiful example under this
category structure ignored.
This is from Singapore. Here also if you see this is a form of a flower, so again it is sales
structure being used here, but definitely to make these it is elevated, supported with some
you know like thick and thin vertical support. So, overall this creation is something
where we cannot really think about the structure. Looking at the building it is basically
the form that comes first in our mind.
And here we again this can come in structure ignored where it could be supported in a
different manner or we can minimalize the application of the structure, we can also go
for some cost saving, but anyway here the main focus was to make your architecture
little bit organic and here that is why the structure is ignored in form making.
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And this is the last example under this category. This is again a form of Nautilus. So, this
is a resort in Mexico where you can see this form. So, looking at this we cannot really
give what exactly the structure. So, as it is definitely a shell structure kind of thing and as
because it is derived from a nature you see the interior everything every space creation is
the form, the architectural form or the organic form that comes first to create this. So,
structure again ignored in form making and definitely in order to make it stable whatever
required was considered in that.
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So, these are the further reading, already I have given in the earlier slide. So, if we want
to summarize that in today’s lecture what we learned? the first example, the first
category was about structure as architecture. We have taken example of Eiffel Tower or
some high-rise building where we have seen even in Burj Khalifa where basically it is
the structural arrangement to protect your building from your gravity or lateral load all
imposed load on it and finally, the outcome is really a form. So, structure act as
architecture.
In the second category, where we also discussed about accept structure. So, structure
accepted there means whatever the form like in order to make the structure, make the
architecture whatever the structural requirements come into picture we fit it, we do not
actually deviate it from that, but in order to give the completeness we give some you
know other arrangement of that. But definitely over all looking at that they will maintain
a balance between whatever the structure is required you can say that it is adequate.
But in the last category, the structure ignored in form making where the form was given
emphasis and for that the typical or optimal use of structural arrangement and
requirements was not followed being ignored to give this particular form. But again this
ignorance will not have any relation with the compromisation of the structural stability
stiffness and safety.
So, that overall ambience in all these examples we see that there are somethings which is
predominating. So, we have seen different dominance either sometimes in architectural
form, sometimes with the structure, sometimes the combination of both and sometimes
the total ignorance of structure in form making, and it is a free flow design by the
architects. So, these are different kind of thing where we have like discussed so far in
two lectures and this is very important two lectures.
And what I suggest you all that, I could add more pictures or more examples to it, but
intentionally I just explained of different variety taking from different era different
examples. So, I would suggest that you also do this exercise and you just try to figure out
some of the buildings from the country from the overall across the globe and you try to
feed out to give this building is basically can come into this category.
So, there may be some cases of same building can come under two categories, but there
will be something called predominancy, looking at this as first instance which one will
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be the you know in your mind, so that you can put that building in the category. And
with that we just discussed about different form either with the concept of architectures
structure relationship, quality structural relationship. Here it is basically connecting both
we discussed about that.
Now, the next lecture will be very much interesting that is Structural Transformation in
Architectural History that starting from the primitive age, Stonehenge, tree house and
now the modern age tall structure, how it transformed, ok. So, we will discuss that in the
upcoming lectures on the structure transformation in history and till then have a nice
time.
Thank you.
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Lecture - 08
Structural Transformation in Architectural History
Hello friends, welcome back to the online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today we are in Lecture Number-8 that is Structural
Transformation in Architectural History. As we discussed earlier different role of
structure on architecture, how it actually helped to bring the form and also like bring the
quality and concept of that.
But so far whatever we have discussed I have shown some of the you know modern
buildings and all, but it is been practiced since long, like over the time if you see the
history of architecture then, we can understand that how that a structural requirement and
its needs transformed over the time.
So in this lecture we will basically see those through the ages and we will discuss with
respect to the world history of architecture and I will also give you some of the
information about what happened that time, like in different phases, like starting from
prehistory to your neoclassical modern architecture, what happened in India and how
structural form that has changed.
So, in the introduction basically the need for changing something is basically to refine, to
make it more better and better. So, for example, if I take a cube a solid cube, it is nice
object to see with the nice proportion because of all the sides are equal.
But the moment we just create or add or subtract some portion from that, that will create
some different form, and we create some voidness inside it and make it habitable. So,
like that whenever we need something to you know get something from the basic to a
new one or modified one which will help us for some of the or to solve some purpose so,
we go for it.
So, as true for the structure and your architecture basically the first purpose, if we see the
primitive age where our the then ancient man so, they were threatened by the other
ferocious animals and also with the external environments. So, for that they build shelter.
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So earlier what they used to do? They started living in the cave, but let me tell you cave
is not manmade architecture, it is a natural one ok. So, this is basically the erosion of
your rock due to some water flow or the wind flow and people used to you know live
there, and then later on they also invented some of the tree house and then slower and
slower and now we can see the tall structure like Burj Khalifa or Burj Al Arab.
So, this long journey there are different phases where sometimes structure was so basic
and prominence or importance was given to the structural arrangement, sometimes in
earlier presentation we have seen, that along with that basic requirement they also
ornament it, so, we will go through it.
So human needs and desire changed over time. First it was a purpose; so one of the basic
need is shelter and then when we have it then we want to make it more aesthetically
pleasant environment. Even in the cave they painted so, you know this particular idea
like decorating the structure, making the space more beautiful was there in the history
also, but it changed over time.
Earlier there was no that much space constant or maybe for the empires or who were
having enough wealth to build mega you know huge gigantic monumental structures, but
now it is not really possible because of the land availability or maybe sometimes with
some other constraint.
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So then like we invented a different technology, different materials by which we just
transform the structural requirement for the modern building. And over the time the
spatial need also changed, like earlier it was something like when we considered the cave
that has different space requirement and then the modification has been done over the
years.
So, we segregate the space in different manner, we even we take the example of a
residential building, where we have segregated the whole space design space in different
you know areas, like we have bedrooms, we have toilets, then kitchen and then dining.
So, like that the requirement of the kitchen and everything based on the anthropometry.
Anthropometry is basically the dimension that we require to do our activity with that.
So, those anthropometries played a crucial role to design those space. So, spatial
arrangement and requirement also changed over time. So, we have seen in history that
how those monumental structure now became a like human scale structures, so, these are
the changes we have seen. Then architectural style also changed and it has influenced
from one empire to other empire, based on that it has been followed over that area even it
crosses the boundary to spread in a global spectrum and so, as true with the structural
requirement because the moment we go for a huge structure, where like maybe that is not
having that much interior space.
So, like with minimalistic interior space we developed like the huge structures. So, that
was something else, but that time we should also remember the steel was not there,
concrete was not invented, so, that is why it is all the stone. So, they made megalithic
structure, so we will come to that also.
And now we have invented steel glass so that we can reduce the thickness of the wall and
we can do some excellence what was not there in the mind and gradually we are
improving on that. And scale of the architecture already I mentioned that from
monumental structures now bring down to human structure, sometimes also we followed
back the history and we make a structure very huge and spacious.
And most importantly the new and innovative materials and technologies, that changed
everything, the scenario. The time to time we got some good material having good
strength and which can be you know easily placed in you know instead of using the
traditional brick or other type of building materials, will are really giving more strength
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as well as it will also create the desirable interior space that we normally looking for to
maximize it.
So, let us move to the history and definitely with the time constraint and other you know
things, so, it is not possible to give all the examples that we can put it, but definitely here
I tried to summarize it or take some you know very prominent examples. So, I would
also request you that you also do this search and also compile some of the more
buildings in each of the phases which depicts that you know the architectural style as
well as the structure used in it. So, let us move on. So, this is the overall you know
timeline and there are some you know maybe in some of the sources they add some other
thing creed architecture or something like that.
So, these are the basic timeline, again it is of the world level. So, starting from the
prehistoric then we have the Egyptian architecture and we know the pyramid and other
type of you know beautiful piece of architecture at that time, then the classical period is
very important where we have these Greek and then after that it is Roman architecture.
So, starting from Parthenon to Pantheon, so styled more or less same, but you know the
formation and the requirement has changed a bit, then Byzantine, then Romanesque, and
then Gothic. Gothic architecture is very famous for the ornamentation of structures, the
use of some pointed arch. So, we will also get the detail of that.
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Then in the Renaissance period again it is evolved then Baroque and Rococo this is
basically coming to again the decoration and beautification of that.
And then you know in the 16th century 17th century that time Neoclassicism then Art
Nouveau then your Neo Gothic those are the you know new type of form that has come,
but followed some of the earlier you know concept and the order architectural order and
the rhythm. And then when we take the Art Deco and the Beaux movement during this
you know 1920 and that particular phase, so, system has changed the modernism is
getting to start at that time.
So in modern style the you know we go for the minimalistic structure so, those are
actually possible with some invention of you know steel and other things. So, after the
industrial revolution, so, the structural requirement and their you know used in building
thus changed the scenario. Then the post modernism we have seen some beautiful
buildings at that time even including your Sydney Opera House and those kinds of
structure.
And then the Neo Modernism and Parametric architecture this is nowadays in practice,
and if you can see that all these things like for modern to the new postmodern and the
parametric architecture these all are practice even some of the buildings we again look
back to the you know earlier classical order in the architecture.
But these are the architectural form so, our focus will not really discuss the contemporary
architecture and their transition, we will also try to focus on the structural changes how it
has changed.
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So, in the prehistoric period that we can get some bee hive kind of structure which is
basically a dry stone comprehensive structure. So put stone after another so that will
make this structure. So, it is similar to the construction of igloo, so where no mortar
being used so just the self-weight being transferred through this particular arrangement.
And here sometimes we also used mud or sometimes most of the cases stone was used,
so that was something like having small opening to just act as a door. So, this is
something really interesting at that time, and this is basically a comprehensive domical
structure so, where we just stack stone after one after another to form it.
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This is another example of dolmen. So this is basically the megalithic structure. So,
megalithic structure is basically where horizontal slab is resting on the upstanding slab.
So, if you take a particular slab like stone slab and then you make it you know upright in
this position and you put another one again no mortar being used. So, you can see that
how it is resting there.
So, it is giving some form of stability and because of the self-weight and the position so,
it is again making like the structure stable. So, it is the horizontal stone slab resting on
two or more upright slab so, this is a megalithic structure.
And it creates a quadrangular shape. So, basically this is the interior space, so, it was
helpful that time to protect ourselves from the externalities or protect from the other
animals. This is another example of the same, where multiple such megalithic structure is
formed this temple kind of structures.
So, here you can see that the interior space subject to like with respect to the solid
structure is very less. As because there was no specific idea like how much is optimal
you know area to be given for the structure and how to do it, remember there also it is
again putting stone one after another to create this space. So, that was the idea and from
here itself the idea came that is basically like giving us stability to structure where
horizontal member will be resting on the vertical member and then we later on name it
post lintel or post beam structure that we will see in the next phase.
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So, this is again pre historic example and this is the Stonehenge following the same you
know same kind of arrangement of structure post lintel or post slab. So, depending on the
span or the area of the stone we used either we call it slab when it has a considerable you
know area, length and width, and when it is just you know just like a piece of like beam
so, then we go for this post lintel structure.
So, this is again one example from the pre historic period and now we move on to the
Egypt. Egypt again they create the you know beautiful architecture with the symmetry
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and the stability. So, pyramid is considered to be one of the most stable structure because
of it is you know larger base and then when it goes up it merge to a point. So, again for
the winter condition and other lateral forces this kind of shape is very useful.
So, that is why now also in the building modern building high rise building as we go up,
we give you know conical or pyramidal shape at the top in order to reduce or the resist
again the lateral wind load. But again, it is a monumental scale structure is being used
and stone as material. So, using stone as a material is basically giving good strength and
all together it will like one after another it will also give a megalithic structure so that it
was stable.
Not only pyramid even that period in Egypt they have also constructed other structure
where they have used the timber beam and then this is monolithic stone masonry. So,
you can get this particular wall. So, a piece of you know stone they have used, then the
columns made by single rock.
So, that is another important issue, that is basically from the single rock they cut and they
give some kind of you know ornamentation to it, they paint those structures. So, in Egypt
this is famous that they always about the Egyptian you know painting on the wall and the
columns.
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And overall, the concept is again remaining same in this era also, this is post lintel or
post slab where, your horizontal slab is resting on the vertical columns. Now come to the
classical period there we start with a Greek architecture and this is the example
Parthenon which almost in you know many of the cases we repeated this particular
example because of its multiple characteristics. Here again it is as already we discussed
about this; Parthenon that it is basically a structural dictation is there to create these
forms.
So, basically in a rectangular form multiple columns are placed and then they are
connected with lintel or beam, and basically what it gives? It is the trabeated system,
where you know you have this horizontal beam on this column and then you can create
these kinds of triangular members to support it to create the roof system.
And the most important thing here, it is not simple like post beam structure or very rough
finish, so enough decoration has been made and the Doric architectural style been used in
this structure. So, you can see the capital of these columns and already we discussed this
in the last lecture that how this ornamentation has been done in this particular period.
Even in the lintel or beam also ornamentation has been done. So, basic idea is your post
like lintel structure, but with some ornamentation. And this has been carried forward to
the Roman architecture and there like structural system again, your post slab or post
lintel, but here in this case column arranged circular or rectangular.
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In Greek most of the cases is the rectangular form, but here in this we also discuss this
example in the last class that it is like hemispherical dome placed on a cylindrical form.
So, giving more stability to that and also create those you know we accept this structure
in architecture and here in the entrance portion so, they have used the column, but here
the Corinthian style is used where the capital is giving a you know ornamentation
aligned with the organic thing like leaves and other living elements. And again, the
structure is pretty similar to the Parthenon at this front portion and the back portion is a
huge dome. So, this is basically again falling under the category where it is being used
with your stone as a material.
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Now this is another example from the Roman architecture the Coliseum, so here this
beautiful arena is being made and gives an elliptical structure and here stone and mortar
being used, even that is used in this case also.
Now, come to the Byzantine where like stone is being replaced with some brick instead
of stone and then dome roof like in even in Pantheon in Rome, we have seen that. So, it
is being used and here along with that you can see that use of arches for the window
being used, even for the structure these huge roof. So, again the pitched roof has come
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into the picture and construction material basically limestone and sand mortar and
construction system is wall slab.
So instead of column, so, it is basically the load bearing structure that is being
constructed. So, wall is being formed so, that give envelope and on top of it either it is
pitched roof or the dome roof. So, there is a transformation that we can see earlier it was
post lintel kind of structure where you get more void through the structural arrangement
itself, but here it is something where we go for wall and slab.
Now, the Romanesque is again the addition to the by Byzantine dome that is your Gothic
like steeple. So, this you know structure being added to it and definitely, if you see again
the scale has a little change in that even like the scale has little reduced here and along
with that, they also create some additional support to this. So, basically again here the
stone and the brick being used and again it is like your load bearing structure that was
constructed during this phase.
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Now come to Gothic, Gothic era is specially known for its ornamentation of structures.
So, basically here you see the basic structural is again your post lintel and post slab also
and then you can see that pointed arches then flying buttresses and ripped vaulting these
are features of this.
So, what is the flying buttresses here? So, you can see here that it is giving another
support lateral support to the main structure, and when it is talking about the vault,
ribbed vault is basically you know sometimes it may be like it is again a comprehensive
structure which will transfer the load through the structure on its support. And then
sometimes it may be like the ripped one where like, we create a frame of the vault and
then we cover it up. So, from interior you can see all these buildings and this is the Notre
Dame in France, where we can see this pitched roof along with these buttresses and then
inside it also you get some cylindrical form and the vault, use of vault.
So gradually like in order to support the tall structure and also create more interior space
to make this space like column free to have the assembly in a beautiful way. So,
development of this kind of comprehensive structure ok, were ripped vault and other
lateral resistance being provided by flying buttresses these are you know some of the
addition to that. So, shifting from simple post-lintel to adding all this is one of the
features in this period.
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Come to the Renaissance period here the symmetry played a role and almost you can see
those style like, here also ionic column being used and it is similar to the Roman and all,
but again it is your post lintel and your post slab structure, along with that the central
dome arches being used.
So again, the for the arch when you discuss during the property of the arch, then also like
with this symmetrical arrangement it will easily transfer the load to the support. So, we
can create some you know span with this kind of structure. So, as true with the dome and
again like if you take the example of India, from India then Golconda Fort in Bijapur,
they also have like it also has a huge dome; so, that is being practiced to create this
structure.
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Now, come to the Baroque architecture. Here basically the structural arrangement has
been followed through your Gothic and all, but more ornamentation and very complex
shapes, the curvatures and other to be made, for the decoration purpose and again vault,
arches, and buttresses as your Gothic architecture they have used to support the building.
But more importantly it is creating some contrast with the you know traditional
architecture, so, ornamentation of structure creating some false column that was used
here so, that is in this period.
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Then Rococo is again further decorative design and you can see those moldings. So,
there also dedicate geometric patterns being followed, some involute and symmetry that
has been made there and basically in this case again the structure is being followed like
the same with your the previous one, where you get this particular Baroque architecture
or Renaissance architecture.
In the Neoclassicism were like little bit modification has been done, again the symmetry
is followed and there again post lintel post slab kind of structure being used, then the
user column and the blank wall is in practice. Even this kind of arrangement of column
we can see in like our Parliament House in India also, you can see those structures. So, it
is basically a combination of the form and again your structures now being modified
little bit and then dome and arches being used in this phase.
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Now, Art Nouveau basically this is the age where different art form being added to the
architectures. So, again instead of straight wall then curvature been maintained then
decoration for the arches, balconies, etcetera being made, and then it is basically the
asymmetric shape and in order to support that then there are different other you know
different arches being used and overall ornamentation is being made.
Now Beaux Arts is again a modification, so, this is example from Opera House in Paris
there you can see the beautification. The basic structure remains the same, again in this
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case like your column then a portion is basically being supported with this lintel. And
you can see those you know Corinthian order in the column capital again use of ribbed
dome, so that has been supported.
But again, it is the beautification and ornamentation that we see and again symmetry is
maintained in this case.
Now, come to Neo Gothic, it is basically a transition to the modern skyscraper, but
adding some features of the Gothic. So, Gothic again it is a revival period where those
kinds of ornamentation is made.
But now in this case like what we have these frame structure with post and beam, so,
frame structure come into point and when we go for the multiple floor. High rise
structure being made, but again due to that lateral pressure and all, it is again having
these particular steps cut architectures where you know when you go up the cross section
of the building it reduced to you know resist again the wind load.
So, this is some advancement being made where the scale been reduced to the human
scale ok, the space is optimized, but again ornamentation is still on in this particular
period.
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Now, Art Deco movement again is the frame structure, still being introduced already. So,
again Ziggurat or terraced pyramid shape structure being made in this case. And steel
concrete used as a material to give the form, and again it is basically the high rise
structure that was the need to create some high rise of its building or the residential
building, hotel buildings, and this is one example of that where definitely overall it is
giving a nice aesthetic look, but basically the structural point of view it has moved from
a typical like your structure to the frame structure at this moment.
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Now come to the modern style. So, here also it is the time where like architects and
designer they prefer the minimalistic form with the structural application. So, this is one
example for United Nations Secretariat Building, multiple building very simple
straightforward building, a frame structure use of steel and concrete is very predominant
and very simplistic no such decoration and so as true for the Glass House, again it is like
the use of steel and then use of glass.
So, basically in the modern style decoration-ornamentation, that was not given
prominence rather than that the space creation and the use of the structure to reduce the
thickness of the wall to carry the load being given importance. So, that is why since then
we create some multi story building with this.
And post modernism it is out of the frame structure then also like the design and they
tried the sales structure to reduce the number of columns required and it is creating with
some you know reinforce concrete. So, that it can create the interior space. Large span
structure and we have seen in many you know indoor stadium even in the example of
your Lotus Temple that has been used. And in that case also like in Sydney Opera House
it being made on that category.
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Now come to the Parametricism, this is the current age architecture, were not a perfect
geometry or something. So, it is being played with some Parametricism.
And here you can see that the nice wave and curvature being made and it is only possible
because of the shell structures and different other structural advancement and
innovations of different material, which can actually bring this into reality with minimal
thickness with the application and maintain the stability.
So, large span structure being made and there are many examples. So, this is one of
them. So, there are examples of different high rise building many buildings been
designed by Zaha Hadid. So, this is an overall transition from a simple you know post
beam or post lentil structure to this kind of form; this is a long journey, and due to
invention of steel after the industrial revolution this is been you know so popular even
we have seen your Eiffel Tower that time so, that has a change.
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So, you can just compare these two images, this is one example from the Singapore and
this is the old you know dolmen kind of thing. So, basic idea remains same but the
transformation if you see the thickness and you can compare the thickness, a huge
difference. So, idea concept being in practice so, from the history we learnt so many
things that we use it but with some modification in the structural arrangement, and so
basically we have discussed all.
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So, during this phase also in Indian context we have seen Indus valley civilization where
also there are examples of some of that structure, like the Great Bath and all. Later on,
we move to the Buddhist architecture, we get the domical structure in Sanchi and then
also the rock cut architecture to create those Stupa. And then also we have seen the
Dravidian temple in that era, where again the form of you know mountain or some
Pyramidal form of the temple being made that time. And then slowly we move to the
other phase where we have seen the Islamic architecture like again Taj Mahal and other
thing where it is a beautiful example of the structure, the symmetry, and also the
ornamentation.
So those kind of structures being made even in Fatehpur Sikri we have seen different you
know use of those bracket and their ornamentation, and the letter on like in the phase of
the British era or your colonial era, there we have seen the use of different you know
column and also mean like they have created some buildings following these you know
old order like Doric, Corinthian and all and.
Later on, like after post-independence also we go for the you know global movement.
So, during that you know Art Deco and Beaux so, there are different buildings been
made and we followed up.
So, the history of Indian architecture is also very rich, the transformation we have seen
from the structural point of view and the overall scale, but here we have just focused on
the overall scenario of the world. We discussed some of the changes that like from basic
structure then ornamentation then again in the modern era, stick to the very minimalistic
form we go for more space creation and then in the modern we create again something
very dynamic structure and which is possible again because of like day by day we are
getting more material that can replace the existing one, we are able to reduce the
thickness of the wall, we can go higher and higher and we are breaking the record of
creating tall structures.
So, that is only possible with this transition and again some of the buildings they
followed the traditional-classical architecture as a decoration also not as a structural
point of view. So, overall architecture and structure they balanced each other and with
the invention we keep on doing those you know new practice and we move from one
phase to another phase.
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So, I hope that this will really help you to just get a look that that transformation, but
again I am saying that I have taken very few examples of that and there are many. So, I
suggest you that you also go through those links I have provided in each slide. So, that
you can get more information about those buildings and you can search similar kind of
building, so, that it will help us to understand about this transformation.
So, with that I conclude this particular lecture and these are the same reading materials,
some references are given as book. So, you can go through that and the next like we will
discuss about different factors that affect the structural form. So, with that I thank you all
for participating in this lecture.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 09
Factors Affecting the Structural Forms
Hello everyone. Welcome back to NPTEL online course Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today, in Lecture Number-09, we will be discussing on
Factors Affecting Structural Form. In earlier lectures, we have seen that structural form
also referred as structural system and definitely there are a number of factors that will
influence how will you pick up a structural system.
And in last lecture, we have seen how structural form transform from history prehistoric
age to the modern and even at the age of parametric architecture how it transformed. So,
depending on different factors like structural form will also differ. So, our focus in this
lecture will be to understand those factors. And I will also give you some of the
examples in those factors how it can be an influencing factor to determine the structural
form. So, let us start.
So, basically structural form or before that the architectural form that actually changed
over time and due to some physical factors and as well as some social factors. So, earlier
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the technology was not much known, not that much material was available or methods of
construction was not that much advanced.
So, people they built their shelter or any structure, architecture based on the available
materials mostly stone and they used like that already we have seen in the last lecture
that they created some megalithic structure made of stone, slab, then post lintel and then
basically these are some physical factors that influence it. But at the same time there are
some social factors.
We have seen in like later in Gothic or Byzantine, so depending on the social aspect say
for example, if we take example of pyramid, so it is a huge monumental scale and the
main reason to showcase it at that scale is basically show the power of the king. So, like
that in some of the historical examples there we have seen this the emperor they created
monumental structures. So, as true like in India we have Taj Mahal, so it is a very
beautiful structure, but again the scale is very huge.
So, there are some social influence also and then time to time, whenever the emperor
change from one to another there is a certain change. We have seen in Islamic
architecture the use of different domes and then different arches pointed arches and then
later on like also we have seen the transformation to the modern building, the frame
structure.
So, physical factors as well as social factors they like influence the architectural form
and so as to the structural system because we cannot make much difference between
these two because whenever something has been thought in mind and to bring that into
reality so structural supports structural design was made with available resources and
that transform over the time.
Then selection of appropriate structural system, depends on some quantitative and as

well as some qualitative factors. Quantitative factors like which can be measurable, say
for example, the load. The very basic requirement to design structure is the load
calculation.
So, it is pure mathematics where we take into account different you know dead load, live
load, and all lateral loads, we also take the probability because already we have seen that
actual load calculation is not that much possible because of like uncertainty in those
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because when you consider the seismic or wind, so it will not be same all through. So,
there are some probabilistic approach by which we calculate the load. So, this is
measurable so, that can be.
Again, the factors like the cost we would like to spend on making the structure. So, if we
just have some limitations, so we cannot really go for very high quality you know like
finish for our building. So, then we have to compromise with some maybe some low rise
structure or so, this is another factor. Then other quantitative factors may include your
like calculation for the wind speed, then the temperature variation, then expansion of the
structure.
So, these are like quantitative. Now, come to the qualitative aspect. So, basically that
starts with already we have discussed much on that, that is the architectural quality and
concept. So, there is a visual quality that we want to bring it, whether it is organic or we
go for some ornamentation. So, these are some qualitative aspect, giving emphasis on the
aesthetics of the building and how we make it with the help of structure. So, both are
very important factors.
The change continuing with innovation in materials and technology. Earlier the available
materials probably were wood, mud, stone, later on we have seen that instead of stone
they started using brick and then lime mortar as a binder, then after that it is a cement
mortar after invention of cement and then concrete and nowadays even beyond that. So,
even nowadays we also are talking about nano carbon materials which will have more
strength. So, we will come to that in detail.
So, here you can see that two examples side by side one is the pyramid in Egypt and the
other is Louvre Museum. So, this transformation of the structural element that put into.
So, one was made of limestone stack one after another other is the steel and glass.
So, basic form, the overall concept to create a pyramid shaped structure is fulfilled, but
definitely you can see that how much space you can get inside and how much openness
being created in this, ok. Even the scale has changed you can see this and this compared
to that, though the pictures are looking pretty similar, but scale are different.
So, as true with this. This is the Stonehenge at the prehistoric age and this is a building in
Singapore. So, basically the concept, visually if you see the form it is pretty same, but
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application of structure element like where it is just initially the post lintel kind of
structure, now the frame structure and then supported with some cantilever and heavy
mass at the top, so there are something like that.
So, depending on the innovation of different new technologies and again the materials
that change the decision to take upon for a structure to create the architecture the way we
want. So, in this slide I just summarized the basic factors which will determine the
structural form or the system. So, because like when we discussed about the structural
form, we discussed that basically in a building which is more dominant form that is the
structural form, the dominant structure will depict the form. But one building may have
multiple of such, so it is better to say the structural system.
So, here one factor is the purpose. Second, the requirements, then loads, then definitely
the architectural design. So, when we talk about architectural design, so also that
includes the visual quality, the concept that we are really looking for, then the culture
that also influence the structural system and architecture as well. Then geological and
geographical condition of the site where the building will be erected.
Then the climatology is one of the most important factors to determine the structural
form. Then we have materials, machinery, manpower, methods, then money, the cost
actually this refers to cost of the construction, then the time duration for the construction
and the technology.
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So, we can again extend this list further, but definitely to decide upon a structure only
one factor will be the crucial it is not like that. So, there are multiple factors that act
together to take upon a decision, but here we will try to see each of these factor how it
can be with some examples and also I suggest you to you know extend that list, so that
the understanding on this particular lecture will be much more clear.
Now, one thing very interesting that I have put here that is this particular materials,
machinery, manpower, methods, money, and minutes. So, these are basically considered
as 6 M’s of construction management. So, these are also very important aspect to decide
upon how we will get the structure to be built.
So, let us move to these 6 M’s of the construction. So, here like not in particular order, so
we start with the material. If material is available it is having the strength and we also
know this 4’S of structure. So, let us recap that what was that. So, first is your basically
the strength, then you have stiffness, then you have stability, and then along with that we
got the synergy.
So, this strength will be determined by the material used in the structure. So, it is the
property which will prevent your structure from breaking. So, based on that like we
considered rock is a very strong having good strength, but the main problem was like
with the thickness of that rock we could not able to create like huge interior space or that
was difficult.
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Then at this time when the land cost is so high and we all are looking for like creating
more space. So, thickness of the wall is becoming an area of research where we can
reduce it further and further, so that without compromising the strength overall resistance
of the structure we can use much interior space. So, material that started with mud, wood
and then it became the brick masonry, then the concrete structure, then the steel structure
and again it is continuing with some more materials in the construction field and day-to-
day we are using that to make our construction fast, maintain the quality and also
durability.
Then machine is another important factor like for a small like you know building, earlier
people used to build at their own, so make the frame and all. But now, if you consider the
construction of a high rise. So, height of say about almost say 100 storey building, so 100
or even more storey building. So, to reach that particular part it needs some good
machine which will act really with precision, so that it can be easily completed with due
course of time and with proper quality maintenance.
Then about the manpower that includes everything starting from the designer, architect,
designer, structural engineers, then your service engineers, even the construction
engineer then you have your labors. So, all together they are very much useful
component of the construction management. If you have good architects having good
skill to make something really great, so that will also depend like how you can get a
structural design and all. And sometimes with lack of knowledge or lack of those
facilities we have to compromise our structure.
Then the another one is your methods. So, how you will do it? Whether you make it on
site, many a times it is referred to cast in situ and then also sometimes nowadays we can
go for prefabrication. We make in off site and then we just go and plug that and that is a
plug and play concept that is been there.
Then money is very important. If you do not have money then we can only imagine we
cannot really bring that into reality. So, the way we you know visualize something to be
built. So, that also need some investment, the money. So, earlier like we have seen the
wealth was there with the emperor, so they get those huge structure, but nowadays like
even with you know having less money or so, we will just try to build at that cost.
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So, it has a strong relation with the selection of the you know design and as well as the
execution and that also having relation with the material, the finish, it may be a cement
finish in a residential building or it may be a like some high quality marbles or onyx as a
finish material.
Then time that referred as a minute is very crucial. Nowadays where the demand of
housing is more specially in like I take example of India, so here we need some fast
construction and that has to be erected very fast with that. And with the help of this good
quality machine and the right method that will really save time without compromising
the quality. So, these are something that referred to the construction.
Now, we move to the purpose. Now, purpose of making a structure, it may be a

temporary one or permanent one. What is the temporary one? Temporary structure is
basically like we referred to the formwork. Whenever we construct any building, so in
order to support the concrete when it is poured on the you know temporary structure that
is the your shuttering and that is being supported with some props and then sometimes to
backup it will get some you know some racking.
So, that it gives some initial support strength and this can be one of this temporary
structure. The purpose is to make it temporary after this concrete will get it setting then
will remove this structure. So, this is also very important and this has to be designed also
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adequately. So, that it can carry that load to the desired level, maybe like for the concrete
its recommended to be 28 days minimum with proper curing and all. So, this is one.
The other maybe it is just for a function. So, it should be portable. So, there is a
convention or there is some function going on. So, now, open field we can create some
you know hangar type structure for different purpose and then we just can remove it
when the function or the activity gets over.
So, for that also definitely the structure should be light enough, so that it can be easily
handled and also it should be designed properly, so that it can you know the logistic of
that will be easy. So, the parts and parcel of that should be easily plug and play kind of
mechanism where we just can create it and once the purpose is solved we can remove it.
Then other temporary structure, I can give you example of the site office. So, for a huge
construction, so there should be a site office or maybe for the staying of the labors
working there. So, these are something. Now, for like permanent structure that is
basically all the buildings, like it may be categorized as residential, commercial,
educational, recreational, then sports facility like stadium industrial like the plant and
warehouses.
Then religious like temple then mosques, churches. Hydraulic means the creating the
damp and other thing, then the transportation relates to the bridge, airport, like stations
etcetera.
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So, here basically you can see the temporary structure one that I refer the site container
office. So, basically this is very simple structure and this can be just plugged and can be
used. So, that can be easily transported from one to another the container type. This is
something we call it the flying shore.
So, basically this being used for the you know building having some you know lean
towards outside and like deteriorated building; to give the support additional support
from the outside, so that it will not collide or it will not fall on this. So, these are some
temporary structure.
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Come to the permanent structure. So, there are many examples. So, I have referred some
of them in each category. So, also like we have the bridge and all. So, basically in this
case this purpose like it is to be used for say residential purpose. So, we will go with
some anthropometric dimension that we need this much area for the kitchen, this much
for the toilet and we optimize it.
For the bedroom and it all been decided based on the furniture that will put into that
building or that space. Basically, in bedroom or normally we will expect a bed in the you
know side table and all. But this will change when we go for a stadium. So, stadium may
be a like capacity of 50,000 spectators. So, there that should be something where no
obstruction should be provided and all.
We have seen some examples like one stadium in Munich and there are many cricket
football stadiums across the globe, where we create their structure, very light structure
the shade to protect the spectator from the excessive heat and also from some rains and
etcetera.
For recreational, then when we go for the museum and other thing. So, we have different
features, then the structural form that will be more you know opaque and we go for that.
And scale will also change, for this auditorium and multiplex if you go there, so height is
double height triple height. So, for that probably the normal beam column that we used
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in residential building may not work. So, for that maybe the other truss system or maybe
space frame will be used.
So, for which purpose we are making our building and structure that will also determine.
So, it will also relate to the span, how much span we require, then the height of the
structure, the impose load calculation will differ whenever we go for a assembly building
or there will be more gathering. In a residential building per floor maybe the average
occupancy will be 5 or 6 depending on the family size, but for those areas, so there will
be more footfall and we need some area for that.
Then scale, then spatial arrangement which is very important and it will change when
you move from your residential building to other kind of buildings. And this list can be
again continuing.
So, here you can see the Petronas Tower which is a commercial and business type
building. Again, this is something where you have to go with some different kind of
structure. So, here it was used as a tube structure. So, we will come to that when we
discuss about the high-rise building. So, basically there we create the form in a tubular
form and then use of steel to a great extent and we can get it. So, that is also true for the
stadium where we have to make this is a cover stadium.
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So, you can imagine the span, so this span to be covered. So, our structural decision will
change from what we normally used to think for the residential building. Now, the
requirements; based on the purpose one purpose is done that I want to build one
auditorium then we have to frame the requirements about how much area is required,
what should be the height for that, then the span required for that, and the overall form.
So, to maintain the acoustics another you know other criteria the form of auditorium will
have something. So, create the view, so most of the you know auditorium or something
should be like you know getting a view. So, the shape will be something like that maybe
the elliptical. So, creating those kinds of structure and also the height should be that
much enough, so that if you have second tier from there also you can see the
performance. This is one example of the ice-skating rink that we also have seen in earlier
presentation.
So, here the main reason to put this picture is to show the span. So, this span is very
huge, the area. So, that your structure you know the roofing system will be little bit light
and it should go with something like, it can be a shell structure, it can be made of a truss,
not a flat roof and heavy structure and that should be supported at the end of this span.
Then also the requirements fit with the architectural concept like visual concept, how
you have to make it open or the opaque say for museum, window stadium, that are more
opaque rather than transparency that maintained in the airport. Then the visual quality
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also will play of that thing that how you will make it this building. So, the light weight
type or heavy type, so that will also be the requirement based on that we will decide the
structure.
And this slide is very important though it is a repeat slide, but the it is very important in
this case, the load. So, load started with the dead load that is the self weight of the
structure as well as the live load, the imposed load, the load of people, load of furniture.
And then there are other like temporary load that is your thermal load due to the you
know heat gain from the sunlight. And then the dynamic load refers to different
movement of buildings due to some lateral force the vibration and oscillation, so
specially refer to the wind and your earthquake.
And then it also sometimes the flood load we have seen, when we discussed about
different loads on structure that how like flood and seismic, they really you know put
some impact on the structure. So, depending on that load calculation we will also think
about the structure. And it has relation, like not any single factor is solely responsible to
determine the structure. So, it is basically like combination of many. But in this case
loads will determine the structural design and like basically all possible loads on the
building.
So, if you want to make a building in coastal region where wind speed is considerably
high, so you have to take special care of those form which will really be you know going
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with the aerodynamics and other kind of things, so that you can reduce the impact of the
wind and your building can resist that as well.
So, come to the loads. This is one example of very high-rise structure. So, if you see that
again it is a structure made of bundle tube, so multiple such tubular form being used
here. And if you see the shape of this it is basically in a conical form, and the main
reason that we discussed several times that when you go up, so wind load is basically
increasing. So, we have to reduce that particular part.
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And now we just go with the design. So, design includes all architectural design and then
the structural design. So, then it will maintain the concept and the visual quality. It may
be very simple structure, that we can see very you know simple form being taken and we
just execute with the material we have, very simple post lintel, a post beam structure.
Even this is a modern building, but very simple with some steel frame and then use of
glass and other material. But it may be complex like this one in the museum.
The Guggenheim museum in Bilbao, so basically here it is a showing some

Parametricism. So, parametric architecture being used, so mathematical calculation,
complex decision was made to make this structure. So, how it changes, based on the
concept and visual quality to bring into the reality how designers they have come up with
the structure. So, basically the structural arrangement changes because of the design.
In the culture as already I mentioned the pyramid was to show the greatness of your
Pharaoh, so this is very huge gigantic structure. And also, they had a belief on the life
after death. So, for that they preserved the mummies inside and they create this huge
monumental structure into this.
So, as true in Indian case where like also we determine the form of the structure, the
scale of the structure. So, this is basically the stupa, again showing the greatness and
across this you know place the stupa will form this particular you know considered to be
the head of Gautam Buddha.
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Now, that is also very place to place, this is a typical Chinese form of architecture where
pagoda being used and the roof is being some treated with some more ornamentation if
you see in the column. So, basically if you link this is a post lintel kind of structure, but
the roofing and the ornamentation that differs it in a great way and here the use of the
onion dome in these and the you know all these contrast the use of your stone.
So, everything will change on the culture, like the brightness of the structure. So, that
being reflected with your cultural form.
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Now, come to the geological and geographical condition of the site. It will basically give
the soil characteristics, the bearing capacity of soil by which we will determine the
foundation type. The groundwater table, like the water level below the soil. So, if this is
your ground level, so like what is the level. So, that for the boring we dig up to that
position, so that we can get water. So, if the water table is so high, so some type of
foundations will not be fruitful because when you go for excavation water will come out.
The soil erosion, normal in hilly region the soil erosion landslide is becoming a problem.
So, for that different kind of structure treatment to be done. Natural terrain will also
depend on like how you will go with the structure. Then if your structure to be made in
seismic zone, so special care should be taken so that your structure can resist on that.
Then the elevation or the flood level of the area, so that will also determine like how
much water accumulation will be there and accordingly you will decide because in that
video we have seen that how the flow of water totally collapse a building. So, for that
may be like you have to make your structure little bit tilted so that water can easily pass
through and not create some suction or negative pressure on the surface.
Climate plays important role again, with the temperature variation and all and then the
rainfall, then snow, wind and different climatic zone. So, based on that it will also
determine the type of foundation, the material, the height of structure, and as well as the
disaster resilience. Because of the excessive rain flow on your structure maybe very
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weak of the water accumulation at the bottom of the structure. So, we will also create
some additional load and rain load that we have discussed. So, for that reason the
structural form to be decided accordingly.
So, normally where we have like high density rainfall, so there we normally prefer a
pitched roof rather than the flat roof because you know water can easily pass through that
will not really accumulate and create excessive load on the structure and so as true for
the cold climate where we will go for this kind of pitched roof.
So, here if you see this example here it is a pitched roof made of the concrete tiles. And
in this the purpose to make it like with this, like again we go for this you know heavy
wall or the cavity wall, so that can maintain the temperature, but along with that the
slope will also help to runoff the snow when it is melted due to the sunlight or heat and
this is to be used in the rainy areas.
So, this is another form which is considered to be good for you know the area where
wind is predominant. So, in western part we have seen the effect of tornado or typhoon,
so huge wind pressure to be created. So, this kind of structure normally you know not
getting that much affected with high speed of winds, so because of this aerodynamic
nature. So, as we know the design of the plane also act like that.
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So, basically to cut the air it can pass through, so this is one shape that can be opted. So,
structural variation according to the wind and other rainfall and snow fall we have seen
that how the structural form being changed and definitely to create this kind of form, so
we need adequate shuttering, so temporary structure to be designed in that and again it
should be go with something like not flat, again it is not pitched roof. For pitched roof
there may be a case of uplifting, but here it may be a shell structure, so it differs.
Come to the materials. So, here the materials like over the period lots of material being
used. So, it may be just the sun-dried earth or we call it adobe. So, here it being used and
normally in rural areas now also in India, we used it with little bit mix of the cement to
give more strength. Then it can be simple brick masonry where brick pillars being used
for normally earlier people used to make it with like the load bearing structural concept,
then bamboo structure being when used to create some beautiful piece of architecture.
Then wood being used in many of the cold region, so that it can maintain the temperature
difference and all. Then masonry can be brick and stone. Then half-timbered being used
in some of the areas where basically the frames are being made with some wood and the
gap being filled up with the brick and stone sometimes. So, you can see this example of
this half-timbered material. Then reinforced concrete being used for multi-storey
building and then the steel frame being also being used.
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So, for high rise we go with some composite structure and as we already talked about
some advancement in the nano-carbon materials and we are doing research on that. Like
people really focus on how to reduce the thickness and can also go for high rise without
compromising the other factor.
Then the machinery plays an important role. It will determine the speed of construction,
then execution and dealing with the challenges of making modern buildings. So, earlier
like for the low-cost construction or earlier people used to have this wood batten and
then the bamboo as a props to support the structure.
So, it has some limitation. We cannot really go with that for the high rise building, and in
this picture you can see this is a very very design scaffolding system to support the
structure along with the crane. So, machinery, the invention on that people can go high
rise, they can maintain it, maintain the precision and also it is the timely construction.
Along with that, using this kind of thing will have very little life. Though the cost of steel
scaffolding is initially high, but that can be reused for the several times, but here like
most of the cases will after certain use we have to discard it. So, machinery also changes
this you know the structural form that we can achieve.
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The manpower already discussed the architect, designer, structural engineer, service
engineer, labor and more. So, depending on their coordination and all, so one can really
go up to a huge and very beautiful structure. So, determine the architectural concept
required and then also determine the structural composition that people want that also
feeds some of the services that your building wants.
Then also maintain whether we go for a very simplistic structure or very complex
structure and then execution of design through proper management. So, whenever you
have a good team so you can take up this particular challenge to do something really you
know great. So, any complex design can also be achieved with a good team and good
manpower.
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The methods that is like it may be the cast in-situ. Then volumetric prefabricated
construction where the module been made. Say for example, you want a toilet block, so
it is fabricated off site and then transport and fit it. Then modular construction, as we
mentioned it is pretty same where everything is you know in module that can be done.
So, here you can see this is the example of the cast-in-situ and where this is basically
your prefabrication where you can see that with the crane and other thing you just fit it
plug it.
Then also the manual and automation in construction. So, if we go for automation, so
using robots and other you know machinery that can speed up this particular project and
also execute the complex form because determine those complex joints and all with you
know manual intervention sometimes cannot give the exact quality, so it is done.
And the plug and play already I have mentioned, so that it will speed up your thing very
quickly. And nowadays in being practice also like the whole house being fabricated and
then put one after another as per the demand, so that within very stipulated time we can
get those you know structure.
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Money is basically it leads to the cost of material, what should be the finish, how much
you pay for the manpower and then the machinery. This is one of the structures made
and this is a research from IIT Madras. So, they have used some glass fiber (GFRC) so
Glass Fiber Reinforce Concrete. So, it can be a low-cost architecture, but it has limitation
to a certain height, so that can be achieved.
But along with that, when we want some luxurious hotel of this kind this is the Atlantis
from Palm Islands. So, here the finishes even the interior if you browse through, so you
will be amazed with this particular feature, but definitely the cost you have to make a
trade off like how much money you have, and how much cost you can really afford to
get the structure.
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Again, the time of construction, definitely when you go for a speedy construction it will
be very prototype and it will be repetitive in form where for getting something complex
you need some time to build it. So, if you do not have time then definitely getting some
complex structure will be difficult because such project can take up some points because
each point there will be some decision and then definitely it has impact.
Then come to the last point here that is the technology. So, now, basically nowadays we
are having some simulator and some good software which will say us that the decision
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on the structural system, how it will act on different kind of loads and basically how it
will resist it in due course of time. So, different structural performance measures been
taken before execution, so that it will give us the right selection of the structural
composition.
Then the parametric design tools being used, the software helped us to maintain the
quality. Computer aided design come into picture, so that we can think beyond some
box. And then the building performance simulation, that how your building how your
design structural act with wind and then seismic. So, there are different testing facility
which will help you to decide upon the structure based fitted.
And this is age of 3D printer, even the 3D printed buildings being made in some of the
cases in experimental basis. So, which will give you the precision and timely
construction. Then the use of robot, in construction where manual intervention will be
less, so a robot will act as a machine can put up the blog and fix it with precision with the
program. So, that will also reduce the error in construction and can help you and this is
continuing.
So, days to come, we will have technology where we can go even further, we can create
more you know specious structure with some advanced material and with the help of this
technology.
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So, here this is one example of the 3D printed house, mud house and you can see how it
looked out. So, it is a perfect finish and that been done with the printer. And here is some
automation being shown how like the structure and other part like how here you can see
the concreting being done with like there are people who are observing it to control it
and the robot is creating itself. So, it can make your structure faster.
This is not the only gain, along with that it will also maintain the quality of construction.
So, definitely with this, like we can take up on a decision like how should we go. If we
have this kind of infrastructure technology with us, we can think beyond a very
conservative way of looking into structure. So, we can design with software(s), we can
get advantage of good materials having good strength and we can go up.
So, basically here like if we go to the summary, so there are factors, n number of factors
that influence your structural form how to take a decision on the structure. So, there are
some qualitative factors and then you have also quantitative measures, like your loads
and other things will come into that. Here basically the concept visual quality, so they are
coming into that picture.
So, again we have seen the effects of culture how over the time people they have used it,
like when they preferred on more on art form and other thing and they want their
structure to be ornamented. So, we have seen in your Romanesque and then Gothic, and
then even in the byzantine period and then in the modern architecture with the
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minimalistic thing, so that whole approach being transferred to the structural system and
the decision. And along with that the support of the innovation in materials, that help us
to bring some world class architecture nowadays.
So, I hope that this will definitely help you to get some idea about the factors, and
definitely when you are going to take a decision on your architectural design or any
building you want to construct with the proper structure. So, you focus on the purpose of
the building and so that will also determine the different requirements, and then from
requirements you calculate the load, probable load on it and then the design solution,
based on the available money, the budget, material that you have that you can use and
the technology available to you. So, overall that will give you a comprehensive approach
to take a decision on the structure.
So, with that I conclude here. These are the same reading materials. So, next lecture will
be very much interesting and there we will take some lesson from animal’s architecture,
from different birds and different creatures, so how they build their shelters and how we
can get some idea out of it. And definitely before I end up this, I again thank you all for
taking part in it.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 10
Learning from Animal’s Architecture
Hello everyone, welcome back to online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today we will be discussing Lecture Number-10 and it is all
about Learning Lessons from Animal’s Architecture. So far whatever we have discussed
in previous lectures, we have seen some wonders, some creation by famous architects,
our ancient people, and structural engineers, so buildings that we formed over the time.
But now, not only the human architects; in nature we also have some great architects,
some birds, some animals, some even small creatures who can create wonders and
obviously, from those kind of architecture we can get some idea, we can see their
formation, the material they used and how they really built it. So, we can get inspired
from them and we can apply that knowledge in our creation, when we decide upon
structural form or creating architecture or choosing right material for the right structure.
So, let us begin.
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So, this is nice example of nest and it is the baya weaver nest, which is basically formed
with a perfect knitting of the grass and it is something hanging from a branch of the tree;
where like the threat like other animals, other predators cannot reach to that part.
So, in this lecture we will get to know about such more from different different birds or
maybe it is the small ants or maybe it is some other animal. So, regarding this particular
nest I will also show you like a nest that I have during that particular portion. So, why
they built? It is pretty similar. The reason that is why we built our architecture or
buildings.
So, preliminary for getting a shelter then sometimes for the storage they need specially
for the nursery; for the kids they have to feed them, they sometimes also need a storage
and also sometimes for the communication; to make that nest to really make it attractive
to their mate. And, also they build the structural system in such a manner, that which will
resist the external load like the wind pressure or sometimes it may be the rainfall, some
natural cause that may disturb their nest so, they decide the structure on that and also
choose the material on that ground and also to protect from the predators.
Now, come to the material so, they use the material which is available in nature that in
the earlier slide we have seen that they have used the green grass which will again you
know get harden and it will change color in presence of sun light; sometimes it may be
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nature residuals that you know the fallen branches, leaves, and other residuals throw
away materials.
So, sometimes you just throw the material as waste it may be the ware, it may be some
other stuff, that normally we through to the dustbin or open space so which will be used.
So, that is why we can say that they can create good best out of waste kind of product
and sometimes also they create the material at their own, so, like the spider they just use
from their own their saliva or something they just extrude from their body and then you
know they create the material for their shelter or the nest.
We start with sociable weaver; so you can see in the image so, it is a huge structure and
normally it is being made with like some grass or some vines like materials, sometimes
to give the stability they use the stick and here why it is called sociable weaver, because
its not a single nest so, they believe in community so, this represent a community
dwelling like a mass housing and where they can stay over period of generation.
So, that is something really a good lesson from this kind of structure and if you look into
the system that there are small holes these are nothing, but the entrance to that nest and
you know that overall feeling the inside as because the material used which is a bad
conductor of heat so maintaining the inner temperature they actually store it. So,
normally during the night time they can definitely get some coziness inside that and they
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used to live and thousands and thousands of birds they can stay together in this and
normally they make this structure, which is like some height may be on tree or
sometimes may be some post so, this is example from sociable weaver.
So, these are another two pictures of that, one they build it on tree and other one on the
post. So, they build over the time and you know again it is representation of something
where they show the community dwelling or the housing. So, this kind of you know
architectural features to create the mass housing can be you know derived from this kind
of concept and so far the material is concerned, they really built it in such a manner with
multiple layers of this grass and stick so, that they can also maintain the temperature
fluctuation, which is also essential to protect them from the external you know like may
be the wind, may be the heat that can disturb their inhabitants.
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Now, move to the next one this is the Bowerbird and here you can see that this is just a
pile up of something. So, what is new in it? But, if you see that they nicely create some
space in between so, its all started with a stick and then just they placed it in a manner all
these stick they used the friction to lie them one after another so that it will be stable. So,
this tent like structure if you notice that there is a small branch and here also you can see
in this picture that on which they just put the stick and grass to you know tie them up. So,
this is being created, but more importantly here if you see those you know berries or
some flowers or other thing which is giving a contrast.
So, this is something like ornamentation to this so, normally in this case like the male
bird they build this structure and make it attractive to communicate to its mate. So, this is
again a structure, where this is built by a bird and you can see the effort like it takes time;
so, it is made of grass and stick and stick it is making this structure.
So, again we can you know match this structure with the teepee structure, where we also
get this kind of tent where different sticks are tied up and then a membrane like materials
is put on top of it to protect it.
Now, again as I mentioned that they make all these structure along the thin truck on so,
and then they make it attractive.
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So, in next picture it will be much more clear. So, they nicely create this space. So, is not
the pile up; so, normally this structure you can resemble with when you go for a you
know bonfire or something so, we just pile up the stick, but nicely created this structure
which is also giving some strength it will not really break up and you can see the knots,
not the knots is like how they placed all these stick crisscross so that they will be sticked
to each other with friction.
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So, move to the next example, this is at the opening slide also I have shown this is a nest
and very nicely built and it is again the formation, the formation is created with the
reasons so, this is the entry from the bottom and specially this is built on a tree branch
where it is a hanging structure and this is made of the grass so that the entrance from this
will help them you know to protect against the predators like the snakes or other
ferocious animal to go inside and this is the portion if I make a cross section of it so this
is the chamber where they lay eggs and the kids grow up.
So, they are knitting it very carefully and here they use again the grass and when it is
new the fresh and malleable grass stalk, they use to built it; in that picture we have seen
the color is green and then over the time it dried up and it gives the strength and this all
you know grass acts as a fiber, which is also considered to be good at tension so they
change the color and get hardened.
These are two pictures of the same kind, but more than that I have one of such.
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So, you can see this the pretty similar to that and this is original I have collected it so,
here you can see this is the bottom portion where I can put my finger up, ok.
So, this is the entrance and if I really want to cut it so, I do not want to cut it, here if you
see this is basically this portion is very solid and they have a laying chamber. So, from
top it is something like that so, where they put eggs and all and as because this protection
being taken, so, it will not there really fall down. So, when this you know eggs they
mature and then the kids they are ready to fly away then they go out from that.
So, this is the mechanism and with this particular knitting is very nicely knitting and you
can see that, how much dedication and how much time it requires and they make it with
similar kind of materials. So, they are very choosy about which kind of material to be
used so it is not whatever available so, they choose it and its all uniform thickness so,
you can see that you cannot really pull this grass so, I just put the pressure, but then also
it is not coming out so, this is a very good example of this and like definitely it will
sustain for some duration and whenever they do not really feel like this is safe so they
make it empty and then they build again.
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Now, move to the next one, this is Red Ovenbird; this Ovenbird the name also has some
justification so, this time it is not the grass so they used the mud and manure and they
just you know create the structure and then dome shaped structure they create and over
time with sun light it dried up and give a solidity and you know some stability to the
structure and with some small opening.
So, they can create multiple counter for the multiple user so in this case mud and manure
being used and they create dome like structure; here you can see it very clearly where
load can be distributed, even this kind of you know shape is also we have seen that it is
good for resisting against the wind so, this is another good structure they made and in
this case this nest help them to prevent from the externalities and now, why it is called
oven? If you see this particular structure.
So, it is earlier days. Now we are using LPG gas and other you know inductions, but
earlier if you see still in rural area so they make some you know oven made of mud so
after burnings so, it get the strength it hardened and they use it for the cooking and all.
So, this is the similar kind of structure coming up and on that ground so they used it and
here if you see the material they have chosen this mud is basically having something
laterite kind of things so a reddish mixture and along with other ingredients so they give
the strength of this particular nest.
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This is a closer picture of the same here you can see that, how stable and strong it is
looked like, it is made on a branch which is giving some kind of base and the earlier it
was on a particular post.
So, depending on the availabilities, so normally in the urban area where like availability
of trees are less so they do it on some abundant or something, where there is a minimal
reach or no reach by the people so they build their nest on that. This is the Swallow bird
nest and it is very common nowadays we see. So, here they made it with the mud and the
saliva they create.
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So, normally again they choose some corners. So, may be like in a building where like
there is a very rare reach below the curnish or at the corner or sometimes, even below the
flyover, so they used to build this kind of structure where they can lay their eggs and
they can stay for this. So, this is again an important structure that built based on the
material mud and saliva they mix it in a proper manner and over the time they made it.
So, this nest also prevents them from the other externalities and as because, the position
if you see that the creatures like the snakes and all they cannot climb on the surface,
vertical surface so, they create this structure also very rough you know in this manner.
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So, that again it is giving a natural finish. This is another example of them where you can
see the multiple such you know swallow bird nest are formed just at the below the roof
top so, again there is no reason to get the rain inside it and at the same time it can be you
know very safe, out of the reach of like the people or maybe this is something where like
people do not really clear in a daily basis.
So, now from birds we move to the Wasps. So, here it is basically a nice structure made
layer by layer. So, it is basically the social wasps which build paper nests. So, why it is
called paper if you really have a chance to look like the real one so, it is giving a you
know feeling of a thin paper, handmade paper so, it is basically a mixing plant pulp,
wooden particles, and also the saliva secretion. So, they made that material and they built
it over the period.
So, if you see that this is the outer look of that it is just the envelop, but inside it they
have different shells; the main purpose for this nest is creating to lay the eggs and then
they wait till they just get matured and they come out from the eggs, not for the storage
unlike for the beehives so, they use it also for the storage of honey and like pollen.
So, in this case is basically it consist of several horizontal combs aligned in parallel lines
so, what exactly that will be clear by the next slide.
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So, this is when they start creating it so, you can see the cells it is the similar to the
honey bee so, they create 1000 and 1000 of such cells together and they put the eggs and
they seal it with the same paper, you know kind of you know finish.
So, this is being created again with some wood particles or saliva and the other plant
pulp and they seal it and then after that they wrap it and they have very, you know tiny
opening to reach inside to that and whenever they just matured, they just break this itself
and then they go out.
So, several layers of the wasp paper close off the entire ensembles. So, that it will not
open to the external environment and also not open to the other predators; which may kill
or may eat their eggs. So, this is something really very important and then also the layers
of physical protection they provide and also, they protect against the temperature
deviation so, the gap in between two such layers is giving up void, which will maintain
the temperature.
So, temperature fluctuation will not really effect the growth of the eggs and that is why
they build this structure and the organization from this you know the cells one after
another those chambers is really giving some idea to you know build our design maybe
we can treat it in the plan, a group of such rooms or class room or else it may be
something sometimes, we can also treat it in the elevation which will have a similar and
repetitive architectural treatment.
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Now, as I discussed that this is the similar kind of approach, but this time it is the honey
bee structure and we all know, how beautiful they make it and it is basically the comb
they create with regular six side that is hexagonal cell; which they actually built with the
wax they can produce and where they just store the larva and also the honey and pollen.
So, once they lay the egg and they seal it with the wax. So, to protect it still it get mature
and the reason behind this hexagonal shape is basically it fit together all these you know
cells one after another it can fit the maximum without wasting much space and with
minimal effective perimeter, it can give you the maximum area.
So, say for example, instead of hexagon if I go with the circle so, we can see that when
we make it so, there is a gap and that is not really effective utilization of space whereas,
when we make it an as you know multiple you know 1000 and 1000 of such you know
worker bees, they are making this structures. So, they just follow it on that ground. So,
they can easily link up one after another to create it.
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And, here you can see the details; this is one example of this you know empty honey bee
structure, which is very perfectly built with this is very light and when they put the honey
and then the eggs so, they sealed it.
So, again I am showing you the reason of this, so that you can see automatically it giving
a cluster. So, this is something where also we have seen some of the buildings, which
also formed it. So, create multiple facade, it may be a hotel room, creating the view so,
again it is maximizing the space whereas, the other form is not that much effective than
this one. So, that is why these being chosen and again these structures helps us gives
some idea to the form the hexagonal form that we can create, which will be easy to put
such many regular shapes one after another to build the huge structure.
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Now, this is something really interesting and we all I guess I am sure that like me you
also like the series of the spider man. So, there we know the reason like this is the power
that one can, you know create the spider web which is having the strength, it can
elongate and its probably it has been like the reason they create it; with the spider silk
they just produce from their mouth and this is giving like a cable or rope knitting
structure, where some of the portion is tied up with the available support and then they
build there with the precision.
So, normally it has some additive property which will actually, you know catch the other
insects or something. So, like some you know other flies or mosquito or some other
creatures; if they somehow come in contact to this so, they will be obstructed to that and
then spider can easily store their food with this nest. So, in this case basically, the spider
silk which is basically proteinaceous silk and they have the spinnerets so, from there they
actually create this structure.
So, this particular spider web they are good, having good stiffness and also they are
having this strength and stretchiness. So, it will have some property, when we put the
pressure it will elongate and then it has the property, elastic property they can get the
retain the original shape. So, that is why it is giving a good example of the how structure
can be built specially for with the rope and other cable suspended structures.
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So, it is having that same concept and they built it at their own and in this case, they
produce the material for their construction.
So, you can see that again where ever it is beyond the reach and some of the area, where
it is not being really regularly be used so, they create it very beautifully and knitting it
with perfection and there are some main anchors to that wave and then they built it the
other support, like this all links are being made and so, they also follow the geometry so
depending on the spider category they also go for different kind of spider waves.
So, this is another good example from animal’s architecture, which we can also get some
clue where like this can be used in our building structure; for specially cable suspended
where like we build the tensile structure, like may be something with a very thin material
and we can create that overall outcome we will produce and there also we can get this
kind of cable suspended structure, which having tension to manage it.
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Now, come to the even smaller than that, that is some Red Wood Ant and they pile up so
this mound kind of structure normally we have seen in the forest area or sometimes even
the area is having some humidity, just after your rainy season so, this being created. So,
this is again a skyscraper compared to the scale of that particular animal, which is also
known to carry almost 30 to 40 times of their weight, the building materials so, this is the
skyscraper dome shaped mount of grass twigs then conifer needles and then again they
use some other, you know wood dust or whatever the residuals they can pile up so, they
create this mount with proper ventilation.
And this ant hills; so this is hill like structure so its referred as ant hills can up to 2 meter
and 5 meter wide and depending on the side and the nature so, it can also vary so, inside
the tower there is a mega systems. So, we can only see this mound, which is not looking
very decorative and all, but the system inside is really making us wonder like; how this
can be built and fulfill the function as per their requirement.
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So, here you can see these two images that I have taken from the source so, here they
have divided the whole interior space into different segment. So, somewhere this is the
chamber, where they like live they just put eggs some where they put some storage so,
they prepare everything. So, in this case if you see this are the entry points and how well
they built it up so that even if there is some rainfall so something will be protected.
So, this all cells how they make it with their caliber is really appreciable. So, in this case
you can see that the extension then the living space so they go even you know deeper and
deeper for making their life safe. So, this is very important lesson so, this is one kind of
underground structure they made and this all space are well ventilated, that is another
important aspect that when you built your underground structures so that should have
some ventilation.
So, whether it is naturally done or may be artificially, so, in this case this is a natural
ventilation and they maintained the temperature, this is a model where it has shown all
these aspect that is being described in this photograph.
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Now, next example is like the huge tower that is the termite skyscraper. So, here also the
material they use that is mud, then the chewed wood, their own saliva and feces. So, with
that they create this material and they can go up even to 25 to 30 feet high so you can see
that our average height may be 5.5 feet and then it is almost 5 times to that.
So, it is a huge skyscraper and also it is self sustaining mound. So, this towering up can
hold a million and million of the termite along with some of the area that they built
underground so here itself the self-sustaining mounds towering up to 25 to 30 feet and it
is air conditioned and the tunnel they create they are actually maintaining the
temperature and the flow.
So, this is very important lesson and the underground colony spread over acres. So, if we
only see this is something we can also say for comparison like ice berg; so, basically
only a few portion that we see as a super structure, it is not all they built below the
ground and they can really create again a good underground infrastructure, which being
clear from this.
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So, you can see this is basically the ground level. So, on top of it you can see some of the
pores so, these are mainly made for the circulation of wind, which will really give the
ventilation and inside that they have multiple such chambers, where they grow the
nursery so, you can see the nursery galleries then there are some royal cells, where
normally the queen will stay and then also they cultivate some of the fungus and other
combs there which will be used.
So, this is another example where you can see the shape of this is really high and how
they have created so, if you see the close loop, there will be the hole like this and they
create in a multiple manner. In Australia and those places it is being observed in a great;
even in India if you go to like the forest area and all in south if you go to Coimbatore and
then you go to Coorg; so, you will find these kind of a structure where like it is being
made by the termite.
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Now, this is another example where it is really like a disturbing element Gopher like the
people who cultivate, because they are really getting frustrated with this so, but they
create such good opening and they built almost the underground township so with all the
facilities, so here basically the underground tunnel with air conditioned rooms for their
sleeping, for like their kids, and also for the storage, and also they maintained the
hygiene; so in the next slide we will see that how they create the area, where they use
this for the waste for that.
Now, again another interesting thing is that; they create some freaking leaves around the
entrance, which will basically protect the inside structure from the rain to penetrate or go
inside and then another important thing in this they create some watch tower, how they
create it? To create the tunnel the residuals will be pile of here and there and they can
watch silently the what are the things happening, is there any enemies or something to be
disturbed they just blow the whistle and they have some escape route.
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So, without delay let us see the system. So, here it is the schematic system that I have
taken from a source. So, where they have like the nest where they like really grow for the
kids and they also have the food storage so, whatever they collect they story it for the
future use then they have a drainage tunnel, which is also connected.
So, they have like potty holes so, where they can use it as a latrine or something and you
can see that there are some multiple this pop hole is for the emergency exit and you can
see that, how these are piled up. So, the overall township these particular features, how
they made it with proper planning and all this is really a great thing.
So, this is the image and here they are creating this particular hole, they pile up the mud
and all so, again this is giving sense of the panning and creating the overall structural
arrangement like; how they put all these facilities and this food storage away from the
waste area or the drainage so these are something like how they distribute the whole
space and then create this.
So, again this is one good example of underground structure and again with this they are
ventilated so they also use this particular structure for their need.
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Now, we are coming to the end of this discussion so, in this case it is the Beaver Lodge
so normally in the area where you have some lagoons or some water body; so, there they
create this kind of structure. So, in this case they also can regulate the water level and
then create the dam.
So, what exactly it is? Let me take this slide to explain you so, this is the water body so,
this is the settlement of that so they create a dam in this portion so that they reduce the
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speed of the water the flow of the water and then they create this particular nest to pile
up the tree branches and other things.
So, like the previous image we have seen the overall, this is looking a heap of some
garbage, but actually it is well designed and well executed by them and the interesting
thing if you see in both the pictures, they can swim, they can bring these and here you
can see that they are making this structure and then from below the water they have
entrance to this and once they reach in this flat this is basically the dry land so where
they can survive they can eat they can also reproduce.
So, this is the structure they built and again this is some structure or tent they built of
some of the tree branches and other material to protect them from the external
environment and also from the other creatures and this is really interesting to have the
entrance below this so, this is something the way they maintain it and creating this dam
to slower down the high flow of the water body or something which will actually protect
their main nest.
So, this is really some great work by them and like all these examples we have seen,
these are some limited information, but there are many, like we can take the example of
butterfly or maybe we can take example of different kind of nest so, every time we get
the sense that, how accurately and whatever the available materials to them, how they
select it and built it.
So, starting from the beaver to the beaver lodge so, you have seen various deviations
sometimes they have taken material from the nature, sometimes they create it at their
own with the saliva or the spider silk they create at their own, but ultimately the outcome
they create that is for the survival, the storage for the food or may be just the most
important reason to get shelter to protect their life’s from external environments and also
from the predators.
Now, this slide is basically the manmade creation, but inspired through those.
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So, here also if you can see this kind of membrane structure which is also a
representation of the spider web. So, different threads and some rope like material being
used to create it, this is the similar kind of approach there and this is the nest so, as we
have seen in this particular nest of beaver. So, this is inspired by them and they create it,
to get nice environment of creating the form of this architecture.
And, it is continuing here like the honey comb structural approach, being taken in the
elevation this is already we have seen in the last slide was it was a 3D printed house, but
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here again it is the formation of your what we call the wasp kind of structure; where you
can see the surface.
So, layer by layer so, they print it. So, its very nicely done and this is the example from
the Beijing Olympic stadium, which is also inspired by the bird nest. So, all these
structural members, they put together, so give overall ambience to that. So, this lecture I
am hopeful that it will really give us some insight, how we can get inspired from the
animal architecture and I would like you to really search more on that, and enhance this
vocabulary of collecting the information like different kind of material being used,
different kind of structure being formed by those animals, the birds, ants, and other.
So, that is why that will help and with that if we summarize here basically; like starting
from like the main purpose is shelter and then food storage we have seen in the gopher
case, that we have this and then communication so, the nicely built structure will also
make it very attractive to the soul mate.
So, this was there and then again the material selection, we have seen from grass to the
mud and then it may be the spider silk so, it will actually, we can make the long list how
they make it so, I want you to do that so, we will have more example in due course of
time.
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So, with that I also put some two books regarding that so, this is one from the Animal
Architects: Building and the Evaluation of Intelligence the other one is the Animal
Architecture. So, you can go through these two books to get more idea about their
philosophy and other thing which will help us.
So, with that I conclude it; and then we will start with the Structural Properties and all
we will slowly move into different structural system and all and again I thank you for
taking part in this course and till next lecture it is bye bye from my side.
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Thank you.
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Lecture - 11
Basic Structural Properties
Hello everyone, welcome back to the online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today, we are at the Lecture Number-11 that is basically
Basic Structural Properties. So far whatever we have discussed is more or less related to
the building structure, different architectural style, their synergy, we have also learned
about different kind of loads acting on a building.
So, there we have seen some static load, dynamic load, and also discussed the evaluation
of structure from like pre historic age to the modern age and we have seen the
transformation. So, in this lecture we will focus on like some basic properties that I am
sure that you have come across like in our like 12th standard physics.
So, different kind of properties related to the force, then stress, strain and then we will
again actually recap these things which are very essential to know about the structure. So,
accordingly we can make the structural element and we can make the structure stable and
also having good strength by putting the right material to it and maintaining the overall
synergy with the architectural design.
So, let us start this particular session with some of the definitions that it is again a recap.
So, here we see that basically the property that we discussed about a structure. So, this is
coming under the mechanics. So, this is basically the study of structures, where like
different behavior of we know structural element will be studied based on different loads
applied on it and it has two dimensions, in a two way we can do it one basically under
the statics and other one is dynamics.
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So, in static, basically it will deal with the force system and, that we can see to make the
static equilibrium. So, what exactly it is? To give the example, I have this slide changer.
Now I am holding it and giving a support and it is acting like a cantilever, but still I am
holding it that is why it looked very stable.
But if I just want to put it in one finger. So, I am scared because, I do not know the exact
position where I can support, but with these two fingers I can hold it. So, now it is in
equilibrium, but still it is you know having some sway and when I make it like this on a
stable platform. So, it is more stable. So, for a building also, due to the gravity load or
lateral load like; wind load or seismic load.
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So, then the problem is the building will really try to adjust itself with that external force
acting on it and try to maintain a balance and try to create the equilibrium. So, static
equilibrium will come to that in the next slide the other one is basically the dynamics
where, we study the property of structure in some of the dynamic forces like during the
high speed; high wind flow, how building will sway. What will be the deflection on it?
So, we will focus on that. So, basically deals with the motion of a system of material and
it is under the influence of forces. The other one is basically the overall statics is the
equilibrium we want to say and the other one is the dynamics where, we will study the
nature of a structure how it will go. So, with that we proceed further to just this is a brush
up of the idea that already we know like, force and moment.
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So, force is basically an action on a body and, what will be the result into that. So, it may
change the shape of an object, it may move an object, or change the motion of an object.
So, how exactly it is? Let us take one example the first one the change of the shape of an
object. So, here I have like, thermocol a piece of thermocol.
Now, this is like in a free state now and I want to put a force. So, you can see that how it
is going to change the shape. So, if I put it like in a column position. So, you can see the
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size of the thermocol is getting reduced and sometimes if it is not really equal and
opposite direction. So, it will also give a bend.
So, it may be a permanent deformation or it may retain back to its original position based
on the elasticity. Now, we use the rubber band for the different purposes. So, sometimes
you know we just elongate it and then when we release the force. So, it will get back the
original shape, but sometimes with repetitive use and we will get some permanent
deformation.
So, it can change the shape of an object, move an object definitely it can move. So, if no
force is being applied to it; it will remain stand like this all through its life, but if I just
put finger or if I blow with some wind. So, it will change its position. So, from static it
will just give a kinetic start to that object and the third one it can change the motion of an
object.
Suppose it is moving towards this direction and if there is no obstruction it will move on,
but the moment I put my hand here, so, it will stop the motion and it will force is to be in
static condition. So, force is that action which tends to do that and what about the
moment? It is related to the rotation of that object. So, it is again a force which will be
acting about a point with an arm or we call it lever.
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So, that will tend to rotate an object or bend an object. Say for example, I take this model
this is you consider for this timing is a high-rise building. So, it is fixed to the ground
with some foundation and this is open end. Now when we put the pressure and we put
the pressure from one direction. So, it will try to bend it as because it is anchored at the
bottom.
So, we will only see the bending as an option, but at the same time if something is like
having some pivot point to my hand and I put the force here and this is the lever acting.
So, it will give a rotation. So, all the propellers and other thing the wheel, that is acting
on the moment. So, in this slide we come to know the force is the action which can either
change the shape of the object, permanent deformation of the object, or else it can move
an object a static object to the kinetic one or the reverse; something is in motion so, we
can stop it with putting the force it is applied.
So, say for example, when we are driving a car and all of a sudden, we have to stop. So,
we put the pressure or the force on the brake and it will stop the car with desired distance
and there are different formula how to do it but basically, we know this force and the
moment if it will try to bend an object that is way we are I have shown this.
In this example where like this particular wind direction can try to bend it, and when it is
like simultaneously sways like wind pressure is high here it will try to bend this side or
during the seismic activity the plate will try to move and it will try to maintain its
original inertia. So, like that it will be like you know both way swing and there will be a
deformation.
So, it may be a bending or else I put extra pressure on that. So, I will show with some
picture there also we can see that due to opposite direction force with a particular you
know point and then a lever. So, it can bend and whenever we have a pivot point like this.
So, it can also give a rotation. So with that let us move forward.
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So, here I just randomly picked up some of the photographs and put it here to just get the
idea of what is happening here. So, these are nothing, but like stacking up the bricks for
use. So, in construction site often you will see that how these being stacked up. Now the
thing is if this is the ground level.
So, if you consider the dead load and we already know, what is dead load that is the self
weight of that object or structural element so, it is putting some pressure on the ground
and when you put another one that will give additional pressure and like your force
profile will look like this. So, when at the bottom it is a huge pressure and it is acting
towards the center of the earth which we call gravity load.
Now, the other picture here what we see this is just example of pulling a trolley bag. So,
in this case also we have to put some pressure to bring that you know this particular
motion towards this direction and along with that it will have some pressure then the
reaction and then basically, that vector analysis for the force how it will be distributed in
the direction, but in this case this is the load to make it stable if this is the ground it can
bear the load if it is some table or so, it has some capacity to hold it after that it will
collapse.
So, this is a gravity load. So, here the load is going towards like center of our earth in
this case it is basically to change the position of that object and in this case this is
sometimes in you know like a small form in this case merry go round sorry, in this case
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what we normally do, we just use this particular point and this arm to create a torque and
it will rotate.
So, this is one example of the moment and these are two like the force one force is the
pulling force and this is the you know self weight gravity force acting downwards. So,
with this picture my intention is to make it little bit easier to understand the force and the
rotation. Now, this time it is your turn what I wanted to show here can you guess?
It is basically again a rotation. So, here you can see this is that pedal is acting as a lever
and where, you have you know this particular rotation being created and which is also
carry forward with this particular chain and your cycle rotates. So, we put the pressure
we give the moment to this particular gear and then it will and depending on different
action, now we have the motor how to start this, other one we have seen in that it was a
pulling force and here it is a pulling plus a push.
So, pushing this object to change the position for the movement. So, this is again a force
example and here if it is you can see it in closer look. So, basically this is the slab load
testing process where you know number of sandbags being put one upon another with
desired level of load that this particular member can carry. So, it is again acting on this.
So, earlier I have shown you that the brick stacked up on the ground, but if we just put it
on a table or a slab to test the bearing capacity or maybe the desirable ultimate strength
of this structure made maybe concrete, RCC or maybe some other steel member.
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So, whatever the load we put on this. How like, if there any change or deformation the
changing shape of this section. So, like as per the definition here in this case we have
seen that one example how like, this can change the shape and whenever you apply more
load to that you know the slab along with more sandbags so, definitely there will be
some ultimate or critical stress or strength label after that it will collapse so, that will
deform the object move an object push and pull we have seen.
The motion definitely we have seen that how applying brake we can stop moving vehicle
or we can start a motor to you know make a static one to the moving one and for the
moment it is basically again if we just see here that if it is uniformly put some load so,
there will be moment. So, say for example, in a building you have cantilever ok, the
moment you stand on a balcony or something like that it is trying to bend in this
direction.
So, it is creating a moment and that is so true if you see the you know the swimmer, they
give a dive in a somersault from a height to the pond. So, then again you will see this
particular moment. So, with that I move to like force and that is action and reaction. So,
we should remember two basic principles in this that force always act in pair if there is
action then there will be reaction along with that also you will see that in this case like it
will act in opposite direction.
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So, in this case this particular hand is pressing on the wall. So, we put some action there
will be reaction force from this. Now depending on the material we use, in case of taking
this brick if it is something like you know elastic material or sponge. So, when you put
pressure if the spring are installed inside, so it will give you a pressure back so, you can
feel it. Now this is a tug of war where you can pull the rope from two direction.
So, whenever you take the rope towards you. So, there will be a reaction back to that and
they are going in opposite manner. So, as to that principle work for the rocket ok. When
you launch a rocket so, it put tremendous pressure gas pressure to the ground and with
that it will have this particular upward force to go the rocket up and that is so true with
other aircrafts and other thing that can go with that.
Now, come to the static equilibrium that we mentioned earlier that in order to get a
structure very much stable. So, we have to satisfy the static equilibrium conditions, that
in this picture before going to any other thing. So, what exactly it is? So, it is looking like
a seesaw and like this is the pivot point and they are almost equally placed, but here this
is like bigger pebbles and here it is set of pebbles and they are making a balance So, that
means, essentially if this length is l and this is L if this is x the mass of these particular
pebble is x.
So, the summation of all this should be equal to x then only it will be stable otherwise
definitely it will go to the higher mass. So, that we need to satisfy even in a building or
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any particular structure we make on that and there are three basic condition that always
we need to check to determine the static equilibrium of any structure that is; net
horizontal force must be equal to zero, then net vertical forces must be equal to zero and,
Net moments should be zero.
Now what about the horizontal force? Like horizontal force is basically, suppose you
have a building and then there is some pressure ok, horizontal pressure to this and then
along with that there will be reaction from the structural element so, they should balance
each other. So, it may be in a linear form or maybe the help with the truss or structural
bracing so, depending on this height and requirement the size, scale we determine
different structural component which will balance out this and the net result, the
horizontal force summation is zero.
The vertical one is the same when we a take example of a table and you know heavy
mass on the table. So, it put pressure on the table the P load is given to that and this table
will give a reaction and that should be equal to P. So, one is giving pressure is P and
positive and the other one negative. So, whatever the positive negative that will balance
out to be zero and the moment is the same that is given here.
So, the moment created in this side and this side is balancing each other, if you reduce a
small small portion of that very negligible percent like delta x then also you will get
momentum here so, it will pivot. So, then as a result what will happen if it is not in
equilibrium so, it will collapse or it will overturn so, we have to be very much careful
when we design the structure.
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So, in this case these are the schematic taken from the book Structure in Architecture. So,
in this case this is again pulling the rope to each other and consider that both are giving
the same amount of pressure like force in different direction. So, basically then if we take
plus minus then it will summarize to zero so, whatever the point it will remain same.
Now you add another person to it in this category and then; obviously, this particular
point will shift towards this because then both will not be equal. This case is very
interesting than the earlier one where that particular pivot point was at the middle and we
have equal length, but here it is not equal length but still it is stable because of like when
we calculate the moment it is basically the mass multiplied with the distance.
So, in this case it should be equal to m1 L1 equal to m2 L2. So, this is we just call m1
and this is m2. So, in this case if you see that it is being given like 40 is maybe 40 kg are
like 50 pressure is being given and here 200, but 200*2 is the length that is 400 here also
400. So, even if it is not equally placed, still it considered to be stable. So, structural
equilibrium is maintained. So, as true with the body when it is weight lifting equal
weight.
So, reaction force should be equal then only one can hold it, if it is beyond that limit the
capacity, so one cannot weightlifter cannot hold it. Now, come to the type of load or
force we can say in this case like that load also can be referred as force. So, it may be
compression, it may be tension, it maybe shear, it maybe bending, it maybe torsion.
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So, grossly we can divide into 5 category and all will have an indication. So, if
something you know compressive force being applied, so, object will be shortened. If
tension, so it will elongate if it is shear it will slide to each other and if it is bending then
it is elongated may get bend and also shorten the other side. So, due to bending one side
will have compression the other will have tension. So, both will happen in terms of
bending and torsion is basically the twist. So, with this very schematic we can see that
how it is going to happen.
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So, when you just put pressure from both the end it will give you compression, when you
just pull from both the end then it will give you tension, when you give lateral force in
opposite direction. So, maybe wind load and one will give the load to make it in the
initial position, then it will be bending and then we will give the moment in the direction,
then it will be the torsion and the shear is basically the force acting in opposite direction.
So, before we really go into detail let us understand with this particular example. So, in
this case this is the bar and if I just put it there and I put the pressure. So, you can do this
exercise and hear it actually got broken because of multiple reasons. So, what happened
exactly I have another one to show you. So, when I put the pressure so, it has some
strength.
So, first of all it will try to compress and then as because both my fingers are not really
giving the actual pressure in the same manner. So, it will get different way and that is
why something bending happened and after that like as because, like my finger this tends
to towards my direction and this is towards your direction so, it also creates the shear and
it collapsed.
So, collapsing building may occur due to many reasons and the other example that is the
tension that if I want to pull it, as because this material is not strong enough or not elastic
enough to show that, but I have other you know tool to use it. So, basically I have this
weight and this is an elastic material you can see that two yellow color strip is given so
this is the distance and when you just float it you can observe that there is some
elongation.
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So, elongation and the distance between these two flag applying load and like releasing
load and then, you know when you apply load like this and when you release load like
this so, this is changing. So, this is one kind of tension that we can face of this and for the
twisting again it is the rotation.
So, I have a strip of cardboard and if I just want to twist in this direction the opposite
direction so, then you can see that how it will look like. So, for high rise building it is
really a challenge when different kind of you know wind load will come into picture so,
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that dynamic to be followed up. Now, the compression I have some schematic and by
intention I put it to just give you some information to you that compression this is the
cycle pump so, manually you have to pump it.
So, what exactly it does? Whatever they air it compress and then you can feel the
pressure that when you just give this thing and this is a table where pile of books are
being placed so, load is being transferred. So, it is giving pressure so, so that there will
be like if we consider a material so, each particle due to compression they will come
close to each other.
So, this is something we can say the compression, this is for the load again it will give
some pressure on that the compression is being put on that. Now, here it is the tension,
already I have mentioned with the spring. So, with this material even it is steel.
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So, there will be some deformation after certain yield stress, will come to that also this is
the crane and here basically all these cables they are putting in tension and these are the
compression. So, they are balancing each other to maintain the equilibrium. The shear
already I have shown with the thermocol the way it got broken. So, this is the same thing
and that to be honest also like when you tear a paper.
So, that we put pressure in the different direction and then we get the results. So, here
two pictures that you can see this is again a failure of column due to shear. So, it is
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moving this direction and this direction and it also depends on the rigidity or stiffness of
the property will come into the later stage to discuss it.
The bending again it is very clear and this is you know laboratory tests where load being
applied on a wooden beam and you can see the deformation and cracks developed here.
Now in this case again let us understand this, where this is the bar and we put pressure
from that. So, it will have a sag. So, sagging moment been created, but interesting fact is
that, so at the top portion of that ok. So, it is shortened so, as bending said that one end
elongates and one end shortened.
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So, this is the shortened. So, compression takes place here the upper end got elongated.
So, in this case it is the bottom one is in tension so, compression and tension. So, this is
very useful information will again come back to this for designing the reinforcement for
the beam and column and this is again a real photograph where like excessive bending
you can observe the deformation. So, this part is basically tension and this is the
compression.
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Now, the torsion the very good example that in daily basis when we just squeeze or twist
our towel to you know remove the water into it during washing our cloth or towel. So,
this is basically the torsion we are giving pressure in the opposite direction and it will
give the twisting form, applying this, though this building is very stable giving this
twisting form to just have this. So, this is again very much important specially for the
high-rise building, where the lateral load will play a crucial fact.
So, in quick recap what we have understood, one is your compression when we press it.
So, that is basically you know the particles they come closer to each other and then, we
got the tension where we just pull it and the particles, they go away from each other.
Then we have bending. So, in bending what happens? So, applying load this was original
position so, this portion shorted so, it is compression like this and the bottom part is
tension it is there and the shear is basically, the force applied on excessive force applied
to it in opposite direction the lateral force so, it will develop a slide.
So, it may move this side it may move this side for normal beam to the high rise, this is
another problem we have to really take into consideration and the other one that we have
seen that is the torsion. So, when we twist a building like this ok. So, give a motion to
that with the example. So, these are overall property of the structure that we are you need
to understand.
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Now, come to the stress in this case stress is normally defined as the force per unit area
and when that is being created by compression it is called compressive stress when it is
due to tension; it is tensile stress, when it is due to shear it is shear stress. So, in this case
it is tensile; here it is putting pressure on that compressive and here it is basically shear.
So, compression tension and shear we repeatedly we will be using these terms in our
upcoming lectures to know the different structural property. Now, the strain is like you
can see through the GIF image what is happening here and also the same thing like with
this particular model. So, like in this case it is as because I have used a rubber. So, it is
giving you some motion up and down and you can see the distance between this when
we do not apply any force. So, it is short and now get elongated.
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So, there is some deformation. So, that deformation is basically if it is L and the
deformation is delta L. So, this is basically the strain and along with that the unit strain is
calculated by your change in length by L. So, this is very important and it act depending
on that you have some ultimate strain and stress and when you compare when we
develop the relationship between stress and strain we get elastic modulus.
So, in this case, what exactly it is? It is very simple, this is basically, stress by strain of
the material. So, for this you can calculate it and this is also known as the Young’s
modulus like developed by Young. So, that is why also like we can select the material
which can have the higher modulus or something which will depending on the load
applied the deformation and all.
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Now, the other one is related to the Poisson Ratio. So, it is the ratio between lateral strain
by axial strain. So, if we just take an elastic material or something. So, here you can see
that earlier shape was like this as square one and when you take it, so, there will be
deformation, there will be increase in length. But as well as there will be you know
decrease in the thickness. So, in this case you can see that a cylinder when we pulled off.
So, what is happening the length is increasing, but the radius it is getting deformed you
can practice with some having thickness some tube. So, you can just try to pull it so you
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can see. So, that particular lateral strain so, lateral strain means the deformation. So,
earlier whatever the size and then you have delta L by say L and then this distance
maybe this is L1. So, this is again you get the increase, the change in the longitudinal
strain or axial strain and get it the ratio.
So, it is also important to know this aspect of the structural property. Now, come to the
thermal load so, apart from that also due to the excessive heat gain either from some
friction or through sunlight. So, there will be expansion. So, depending on that there will
be thermal expansion. So, for that reason also from our childhood we used to know that
why this gap being created.
So, this expansion gap is being created in the railway track, as well as in a building
where the thermal for a huge building where the material is really the material used can
get effected with the excessive heat it can change in cold climate or something. So, as
true with the electrical tower, where in winter we have almost this kind of arrangement,
but during the summer days during cold time it is being little bit tight when it is in
summer so it expands.
So, we get a sagging to this. So, we have to encounter this you cannot take this length as
universal. So, that like it will have developed some strains sometimes it will be
developing tension, so it may collapse. So, thermal load is another important thing and
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along with that everything should satisfy the 4’s of the structure that we already discuss
that is your Strength, Stiffness, Stability, and Synergy.
Where strength will prevent your structure from breaking; stiffness will prevent it from
the deformation; then the stability, deformation means it may be the horizontal or the
buckling. Buckling is basically when you have this vertical structure and put the load and
this particular bending. And then the synergy is overall arrangement or everything in
order to give the final outcome.
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So, in this what we have learned? So, we started with force, then we know this action
versus reaction and in this also we have studied that force always act in pair and in
opposite direction. Then we come to moment and different kind of result of momentum,
and then along with that we also studied the compression, then tension, then your
bending, then shear, then you have the torsion ok.
And along with that we also studied the stress, and then strain, and their different
relationship with the young modulus, and then you also know the Poisson’s ratio, for the
lateral strain and axial strain then along with that also we know that thermal load and,
then basically we got some basic property of the structure by which we will be able to
select the right material for right resistance.
So, that overall, your building will be stable, it will have the enough stiffness enough
stability for the arrangement and overall synergy between them to your building more
safe from any other externalities, any other applied force and it will be proper resistance
to all these external forces. So, with that I conclude here. Here I have included some
books where you can find it is basic books of structural mechanics, normally in you
know engineering we used to study it.
So, you can go through it and the next what we will discuss is basically the structural
requirement and again with that I thank you all for attending this course and hopefully I
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have really covered something and then we will move forward to the requirement of
structure.
Thank you.
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Lecture - 12
Structural Requirements
Hello everyone, welcome back to the online course Structure, Form, and Architecture:
The Synergy and now today we are at Lecture Number-12, which will be basically focus
on the Structural Requirement. In lecture number 11 we have seen different basic
properties of structure starting from the force, then stress, and different kind of force like
compression, tension, torsion, bending, shear and like with that background now we
move forward to the structural requirement to get structure as per the design, as per our
requirement to bring our architectural design into reality with satisfying all this need.
So, at the introduction of that, this is again a repeat slide to the earlier presentation, but I
intentionally put it in this to start with that the basic satisfaction that we should get from
our structural design component that my structure will give us enough strength to prevent
breaking of the structure, it should also give the stiffness so that it will also prevent the
structure from bending and again get it like deformed.
And then the stability is another important thing that the structural form we create or like
not a single structure maybe the structural component, that combined together will have
a form that will be stable. So, that it will prevent the collapsing of the building or the
structure and the synergy is above all like the right mix of everything to bring the
structural system, that will act together to satisfy the need to have a proper and optimized
structure for our design.
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So, with that this are some text taking from the book so, here what it says, that what
exactly the requirement that a structure, for what reason we need a structure. So, the
basic or primary function of a structure is to support the building against all imposed
load into it. So, here what it says like to perform its primary function of supporting a
building in response to whatever loads may be applied to it.
A structure possesses four properties. So, in order to resist everything like all the loads; it
maybe the dead load, it may be the live load, it maybe the thermal load, it may be the
lateral load, dynamic load, imposed load, then it may be something else sudden load
whatever load we have discussed during that lecture of different kind of loads are acting
on a structure.
So, the structure should be you know resistant enough and for that they must have four
properties, what are those? Number 1 is static equilibrium. So, in the earlier presentation
we have seen like how to maintain the static equilibrium, there are some conditions to
get all this net force equal to be zero then net moment also need to be equal to zero and
then it must have the stability in the structural form and its stability should be there to
prevent from collapsing and along with that what they need? They also need adequate
strength, the material we use that should provide the strain so that it will not really you
know affect the building when load is applied and it will not break very easily.
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So, it should go with the applied load all the calculations to be done accordingly and we
have to decide the materials and the proper proportion so that it will have the adequate
strength. And along with that this overall things should have the adequate rigidity so, that
it will also play that stiffness and it can deal with stress and strain developed over the
time like it may be due to the static load, it may be due to the dynamic load like
earthquake or wind load maybe the flood load or maybe the rain load.
So, four properties; equilibrium, then stability, then strength, and then rigidity. So, we
will talk about these four properties which has the requirement of structure to support our
building to fulfill its primary function as supporting the building from all other applied
force onto it. So, equilibrium, geometric stability, strength, rigidity that already I
mentioned.
So, we come to the equilibrium. So, in this case this is already been discussed here we
see another look into it. So, net horizontal forces must be equal to zero, net horizontal
forces must be equal to zero and moment is again equal to zero. In this case also we have
seen the same example; I have explained it earlier in the lecture and this is like
something really funny. So, what exactly? So, both are having different weights. So, like
they are balancing each other and you know they are lifting it.
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So, in this case we have the examples one with the seesaw the other is balancing it. So,
again the thing is like how to manage it. When we are talking about the equilibrium due
to moments, we have to remember that moment will be created by the mass multiplied
with the length, length from this particular point, the pivot point. So, L1 and this is
maybe the L2 from its cg or center of gravity.
So, this is m1 and this is m2. So, in this case in order to make it stable it always should
be m1 L1 equal to m2 L2. In this case this is one like we can say some problem given to
you like this is the point where this distance is 3 meter, this is 5 meter ok.
And I just give you the weight of this particular kid here is say 40 kg. Now can you just
quickly calculate and give me the result in order to make it stable what should be the
weight of this particular kid? You take few seconds and it will easily be done.
I have given already the required condition to get it stable. So, can you do it for me?
Yeah, I think you got it. So, how to do it? So, here the thing is the moment created in this
is basically 5 multiplied with 40 and here we do not know we just assume it to be x, then
x multiplied by 3.
So, x will be basically 5 multiplied by 40 divided by 3. So, whatever maybe the mass
though I have taken randomly. So, you can get some fractional weight. So, anyway, so
with that we calculate weight of that in order to get the equilibrium into this.
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Now, this is another example many a times we also experienced it. So, this is really
talent to do this, but here the basic principle the physics play the role to balance it out. So,
the balancing with this stick this has tremendous importance which will actually adjust
the center of gravity. So, that it will align with this particular rope to get it stable.
So, it is in an equilibrium condition. So, though it will sway and this is really challenging,
it needs expertise and practice over the years, but then also like we really can see in this
picture, how they are balancing with this. So, balancing is very important it may sway in
this direction, it may sway in this direction or it may like due to this force, it may get a
couple it can rotate. So, how they will balance it with the reaction and action is a
challenge in this to make the building in equilibrium.
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Now, come to the building, as we discussed in relevance to the architecture. So, this is a
Cinepolis Headquarter in Mexico you can see this is another example where like the
heavy mass you can see the projection both the side and how it is balancing with the
centralized mass.
So, it is very important to do say for example, if I take these two again like this is a very
lighter material. So, I take it as a base. So, I can fix it up like this? No, I cannot because
it will fall, I cannot glue it. So, with the normal position we putting it, it is not possible.
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But if I put it at this particular moment. So, it is giving some balancing. So, anyway; so
looking at this example in this building, we can see that how it is making the equilibrium
and it need not to be equal like a balance sometimes your building may have a building
like this with having the counterweight and that we see in the crane. So, whenever a
crane is acting lifting up the material or so, you must have seen like in that arm whether
this is elongated. So, they are always fixed with some heavy weight.
So, that it can easily work on that, otherwise it will collapse. So, maintaining the
equilibrium, static equilibrium we have to design that. So, either this portion you have to
make lighter weight this is heavy weight, to balance each other because the moment you
put it. So, it will create moment in this direction. So, that we have reaction it can give an
action and reaction that will finally, to be equal to zero the summation, the resultant
should be zero so, in order to make it stable. Now, move to the next example this is the
Gateshead Millennium Bridge where the structure visually looks very much unstable if
we remove this.
So, two structure going each other direction. So, there is a feeling that it will fall both the
side, but it is tied up with the tension cable which will make this structure stable.
So, it is balancing out with this. So, enough tension is developed in this direction and
then it is transfer and then there will be some compression this bottom, which is making
it out as in a equilibrium stage and then it is standing.
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Now, come to the geometric stability, it depends on the overall arrangement of the shape.
If it is a single object like this, so, it has no issue I can put it here, but on my hand if I put
it here, you can easily guess that the surface area that particular orientation is something
which is stable. Now, if I want to make it like this, though it is stable, but not as much as
this because the grounding the anchoring to the ground earlier it was this is more than
this one. But now I just want to like tilt this building and put it on one of the corner. So,
its really unstable.
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And in this case this is the frame you can see that where these you know these are not a
single mass rather the four components they fixed one after another, and then applying
force into it can give you the bend so; that means, this particular arrangement is not
much stable. Now, in that case I just anchor this portion. So, bottom portion will have no
movement, but this will again move into this direction. Now, what are the options I can
do? Instead of this, I just make it in a monolithic form.
So, then I can protect it or else, I just make some diagonals connection maybe one or two.
So, then it will make stronger. So, then basically this property preserves that geometry of
a structure and which will really basically act together, it may be a single object as I
mentioned or it may be multiple of such. So, basic idea to get a proper form and shape
which will give the stability.
Now, this is the same example as I mentioned that earlier, it was something like that and
then this is connected. So, then that particular arrangement is giving more stability. So,
this kind of arrangement is called bracing. So, we will be using this bracing term quite a
time, when we discussed about the high-rise structure because in order to protect from
the lateral load which is something like that. So, we need such kind of development.
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Now, geometric stability, these are some schematic or theoretical thing. So, looking at
this particular arrangement. So, this is a sphere and this is some your convex surface.
So, you put it there and it is acting like that. Looking at this do you really find this is not
attached. So, that is why I have given in different color. So, it is really looking very
unstable why? So, looking at this it always gives a feel that this ball or this sphere may
fall either this side or this side.
Compared to that this one is still considered to be stable, but it is basically the neutral
because again this particular sphere is just connected to this in a single point, if you
theoretically see that if this is having no deformation. So, if you draw. So, only one point
resting on a point, but still as because it is a flat plate. So, it is if no external force being
applied to it, it will be like this only.
Say for example, when in a cricket match someone hit a boundary. So, till it has that
particular friction and the force it will reach to boundary, but after it stops somewhere, it
will not move here and there unless someone adds some additional force. So, this is
something like that. Compared to that it is giving a sense of more stability because we
have this concave surface and with the cg even you put the ball here, it will come here
and get stable. So, there will be some periodic motion, but after all it will settle at the
time.
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So, it will give the sense of more stability, but in practical life what we see that, we can
go with this kind of arrangement even with some other adjustment to the structural
system.
Now, in this geometric stability. So, if we just take example of a pyramid. So, very stable
because at the base it has a connection, and then it that you know cross section that
reduces and it is a peak of that. So, it is very stable, but what about the inverted pyramid?
So, looking at this itself it is looking very unstable and here the picture I have shown that
to protect it to give a sense of stability, we create another set of like truncated pyramid or
something like that to give the stability. But in reality, in architecture, we have seen
enough building where this kind of form being created. So, adequately the foundation is
to be designed, adequately the other material for the construction to be adopted so that
even if visually unstable structure can give you the actual stability in the ground.
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Now, geometric stability broadly classifies to resist what exactly it will help. So, if I say
that this is very stable so; that means, it will resist the displacement, it will not really
move here and there overturning of the structure that it will just overturn how it can be
again I am taking this example. So, if it is not stable say for example, instead of like
putting my hand. So, here it is being placed like this already tilted.
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So, with the minimum force applied to it, it will overturn and buckling already I have
shown you that like when you put the pressure. So, how it will get this particular bend
and then finally, it may collapse.
So, move forward with the displacement, here if you see in the GIF image it is very slow
but here you can see that how it is going to act when you have applied or you consider
the wind load. So, during the wind pressure in this tall structure it will give a bend and
due to that it will have so, in original position. So, as true during the earthquake when the
motion will take place at the ground. So, ground will start moving, it will propagate at
the top and then one will go this side the next moment the upper portion of the building
go in this direction.
So, basically then there will be some kind of oscillation. So, due to wind, due to your
earthquake there will be oscillation and if the proper arrangement has not been taken care.
So, your building will have you know permanent deformation, it will have displacement
from this position to this position, it may be a permanent bending from the bottom, it
may just go for the overturning. So, this is all about the displacement.
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And here you can see the overturning where it was a cap failure of the foundation and
other things. So, it is really very dangerous where like you may not have considered like
other soil condition, the water pressure or the soil pressure and that is why this kind of
thing may happen and it is more prominent when you have high rise building with the
soft story means you have at the ground floor some of you know void and all.
So, it has to have some kind of anchoring at the ground if not. So, this may collapse with
the lateral load or sometimes even if it is unequal settlement. So, it may also overturn.
Say for example, you have a building like this where you have the foundation like this
and there the settlement is more in this column and this is not. So, this building will tilt.
So, the Leaning Tower of Pisa is one example of the settlement load that already we have
discussed, but with you know maximum like if you not care about this. So, this is the
result in front of you.
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So, overturning due to unstable. So, there it is the collapse. So, this is a testing model and
actually during the earthquake this is the case. Again, what I mentioned that heavy mass
on top of the column is very much dangerous. So, for the earthquake prone area anyhow
you have to really go with some good structural arrangement like shear wall or else you
do not go for the soft story otherwise, due to the motion it will happen. So, what exactly
happens during the earthquake?
So, the motion created at the you know underground, the epicenter and then first it goes
in this direction the next moment is this direction and it will take much-much lesser time
the way I explained the time I have taken to say this. So, with very fraction of seconds, it
will move in different x y direction and it may go even in the longitudinal and lateral
direction. So, in that case what will happen? Your building will move to the left and then
the top portion is trying to be like same and then is propagate it will go to right it left.
So, haphazard moment will really shake your building and then those joints if it is not
properly taken care of. So, it will collapse. So, the collapse are in the you know first slide
we have seen that a beam is being placed like this just put on there. So, if you put the
applied force so, it will just try to bend and it may collapse. So, additionally we have to
support it.
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Buckling is another one, where one end is fixed and the other side you put the pressure,
you see that in this case what is happening. So, earlier like this is the structure and when
you put the pressure. So, first it will try to get shorter.
So, it is basically you can now say this is the compression. So, it is getting the shape
some lower position, but when it is already been compacted then there is nothing to get
compacted more. So, what we will try to do? So, then there will be the bending like this.
So, here you put the pressure. So, what is happening? It is getting shorter height. So,
there is change and then finally, the bending. So, this is another problem to make your
structure instable and this is also referred this particular buckling as the lateral instability.
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Now, what are the ways to protect it? So, one is a very simple way that you connect
those points with the diagonal, it may be one direction, it may be two direction and there
are some way like the minimum requirement of this particular bracing or sometimes we
also call it wind bracing, sometimes if it is placed horizontally below your what we call
the bridge over a river.
So, we can see those kinds of horizontal bracing which will also help. You can also go
for some kind of diaphragm to connect all these points. So, it will also give stability, we
will not rely on simply, post lintel kind of structure and also it will depend on the
thickness and then sometimes you can also go for a rigid frame. So, where you can see
that it is not jointed, so it is rigid. So, you just make your frame, the portal as rigid
structures so that it will not really allow to get the deformation. So, it is also going for
some kind of stability to the structure.
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So, in this case if you see that this is a high rise building additional to the your vertical
and the horizontal member beam column member, the frame. So, they also use this
particular bracing to give extra support to it to resist against the lateral load. This is so
true in this and here you can see this is the rigid frame at this corner. So, basically this is
a section where it is being rigid.
So, it is being fabricated normally in the you know for the warehouse, manufacturing
unit. So, they can go with that where they really face this kind of difficulty for you know
resisting against the load.
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Now, come to the strength and rigidity. So, strength is the property of any structure or
object, which will prevent from breaking. So, that we already know and for that what we
need to do? Basically, how to design the structure having that strength and rigidity so,
first is the assessment of load.
The moment we get any design assignment, so we start developing it with the concept
and finally, putting all requirement all human information there we create the space and
then what is happening? So, we design the structure and we calculate all type of loads to
this particular section. So, what kind of load is applicable? So, for a region like Delhi or
something where snowfall is not really predictable.
So, we will not calculate that, but along with that the other thing the extreme temperature
variation the thermal load will be one crucial thing, it is also in really you know seismic
prone area. So, those kind of you know features to be added all kind of probable load that
may act on a building, we have to calculate we should not miss a single otherwise what
will happen? So, the moment you get that particular load all of a sudden which was not
taken into consideration your building may not get the stability.
Though we have we take some factor of safety or we go for higher side design, but
definitely we should not miss out the relevant load. So, assessment of load is the first
step, then the structural analysis calculation. So, we accordingly we design alternative.
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So, during that time we create different kind of arrangement of beam column putting
beam, column position and all. So, how it performed? How the building will perform
against all applied load to it? So, we do the study and then to get this rigidity and getting
the proper stiffness and adequate stiffness and rigidity to your structure we also go for
element sizing calculation where we pick up the cross section, we pick up the you know
the material and they are equivalent cross section which is required to make the structure.
Like we know RCC there will be concrete, now in concrete what grade of concrete will
use? Whether it will be like M20 or M25, M15 what are the different grade of concrete.
So, basically it depends on the mixture also like this grade means like M20 means after it
is curing, it will able to have the compressive strength of 20 Newton per millimeter
square.
So, like that you can go for the higher side and then mix of your cement, sand and stone
chip. So, that will change. So, it may go from 1:1:2, 1:1.5:3, 1:1:4. So, depending on
different grade of concrete we decide it. So, as true for the cross section of like the rebars
or reinforcement bar whether it will be the 16 mm dia or it may be like just for the stirrup
like whenever we make this you know reinforcement. So, what we normally do? There
we connect those things with the stirrup of. So, this will act to prevent it from the shear
failure.
So, what will be the size of this rod? What should be the size of this rod? Their binding.
If we go for some I section or C section of the steel member. So, as per the code what
should be that thing so, that we can calculate everything on that accordingly which will
take care of.
So, these three part is very important we know the requirement, design the building and
then we try to calculate the all possible load that may act on the building, then
accordingly we design the structural element, putting the position of the column beam
and then we go for simulating under different load condition. And along with that we
also select the cross section and the material which will give the rigidity to the structure
to prevent against the bending and other option.
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So, in the assessment of load is basically calculate everything. So, starting from the self
weight of the material which is referred to the dead load, the live load, that is basically
the load of the people and as well as the furniture’s which are movable in that and some
of the dynamic load is basically the wind, it maybe the earthquake, the seismic load so,
everything is taken into consideration.
So, where we will make our building based on that we take it and whenever like if we
want to make it in a coastal region, where like storm or the wind from the sea will be
more prominent. So, we have to take some aerodynamic shape or size. So, depending on
the structure whether we go for this kind of structure, shell structure or maybe frame
structure that is really required.
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Now, in that second stage is basically the designing the structure. The column where we
have to provide the shear wall, the concrete wall where we can remove it so, it is
depending on that calculation how it will go.
So, in this particular phase, we just try to check to optimize the structure that is required
because sometimes in architecture we want some huge cantilever to be made in the
building, but during this analysis we find that it may collapse.
So, we have to adjust it with the say counterweight or maybe something like it is to be
made not the regular RCC work or reinforced concrete work or it may be done with the
some steel framing or space frame we will come to that also like how you can go for this
kind of structure.
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And then basically the selection as we mentioned that cross section, that will give you
the adequate the moment of inertia that it take the stress or stain that it can hold along
with the material whether it is like the steel or stainless steel or type of steel or some
composite material, that will pick up and then we will determine the rigidity of that. So,
along with that these three steps the assessment of load, then calculation regarding the
structural analysis and its performance along with selecting the element size, we will
figure it out this strength and rigidity part of the structural requirement.
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So, in the summary. So, it is very simple we know that the requirement is basically we
have to satisfy four properties to make our structure support it started with like what we
normally call that is the equilibrium, and then it is the static equilibrium, then what we
have seen this is basically like geometric stability. So, how your structure can be stable,
which particular form you can take, then you have the strength and like rigidity.
So, strength and rigidity it depends on the load calculation the you can calculate the load
and then the corresponding structure and then finding out the suitable cross section and
the material as well so, that you can encounter with all possible load that may affect your
structure and can make your structure unstable. To make the structure stable equilibrium,
so everything will play together. So, this is very important you know discussion that we
had in this lecture.
So, these are the structural requirement, in order to make your structure you know
resisting against all imposed load. So, equilibrium it maintained the three condition all
horizontal force should be zero, summation of that the resultant the net horizontal forces
should be zero and then net vertical force should be equal to zero and then even the
moment should be equal to zero, then we will get this static equilibrium otherwise my
structure will not be stable. And in order to make the stability different form we
discussed, it may be like the pyramid or it may be inverted pyramid, it may be a single
object or it may be a composition.
So, depending on how you calculate to be done and strain and rigidity is depending on
the all possible loads, selection of the material, different structural arrangement and its
performance against applied load to it. So, these are the requirement.
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So, this is the further reading to that and you go through it and also like in the earlier
lecture I mentioned about some books on structural mechanics, that you can also go
through that so, that it will give you some insight that will also you know freshen up
your idea that only do we had in the school level of the structural mechanics or in the
earlier stage of our course.
And then next lecture we will be discussing on the structural arrangement, on different
kind of arrangement how their pros and cons to go with that arrangement, where it is
from form active or it is inactive post beam or maybe post linton we will discuss on that
and till then I again thank you for taking part in to this.
So, thank you.
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Lecture – 13
Structural Arrangement
Hello everyone, welcome back to the NPTEL online course on Structure Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today we are at Lecture Number-13 which is basically will
be talking about basic Structural Arrangements. So, in our previous lectures what we
have seen, different kind of forces that is acting on building components and on applied
force how they are reacting like compression or tension or torsion or bending. So, on that
basis in this particular lecture, we will be discussing about some basic arrangement of
structural elements.
So, before we start this lecture, let us again quickly recap what we have covered in the
previous lecture, that is talking about different structural properties. So, we know that if
some object is placed like that and when we just put pressure in this direction so, the
particles they will come close to each other and that is the compression,
And if you pull that particular same object so, then those particles they will try to go
away from each other and that will form the tension. And whenever it will try to bend;
so, that will be a combination of both. So, on applied load on this; it will try to bend like
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this. And then basically, in this upper portion, it is compression and the lower portion, it
is tension for this kind of sagging moment. But that is just the reverse if we have like a
cantilever and something like this and then we apply load on that. So, it will try to bend
like this. So, in that case the lower portion you have compression and the upper portion
will develop tension.
So, these are very basic forces and accordingly like how our structural element will
behave that are very much fundamentals to know about the structure arrangements. So,
with these basic concepts of compression, tension and bending, we will follow up
different kind of structural arrangements and basically the structural elements.
So, in this case, like here, I have given two examples. One is just very common in our
day to day life, we use it, that is a table and the other one is great example of Parthenon
from Greece, but there are similarities. And, I know, all of you can find the similarity. It
is basically in this case also there are some piers and we can compare it with the like
column of a building and then we have a, slab over it.
So, this may be made of wood or compressed wood or MDF wood like for furniture and
whereas, in the building the material like we change it to concrete steel or brickwork
depending on the span, depending on other calculation that we have studied that in order
to get the requirements. The structural requirements that we have to go through the
assessment of load and then finally, we calculate all probable impact on that.
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So, in this case again it is a series of columns put one after another and it is holding a
beam on that. So, the structural arrangement is pretty similar. In this case, we may use
some carpentry joints, sometimes in some cases we just use adhesive to just club two
elements together when you make like the model for our architectural design or we
create any handmade thing, then either we go with the joint or else we use some adhesive
to fix them up, but overall the concept of this arrangement will remain same. There will
be two major components, one is basically, the support and the other one is the element
that will be supported.
So, in this case, we will have two major component one is supporting structure, the other
is supported structure. So, again I repeat; one is your supporting and one is your
supported. So, supporting structure means which will essentially carry the load and will
support and the supported means which actually transfer the load to the supporting
structure. I make it very simple in this case if we consider this tabletop; so, this is
basically being supported by these four supporting members.
In this case, all this column, they are supporting members and this overall like whatever
we put up on it, like which will transfer load basically I refer to the slab and this
particular support will definitely affect all the designs. So, that is why we should also
know the kind of support that we have to give to make our structure stable.
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Now, in this case, I have given two different pictures side by side and I just want you to
guess like what could be the reason to put these? Okay. So, maybe you can find it out
very easily where it is something a very low; low height structure and made of brick
masonry, you cannot see any such concrete column or something like that; fully made of
brick.
So, this is one kind of support you can get and the scale has changed now this is a
multistory building, where as of now under construction building, it is only showing the
beam and column and the slab. So, you can see this thing like as a column, then the beam
and then the slab. So, depending on our design, depending on the span, depending on the
load that will be imposed on it, we will determine like the size of the structure, material
of the structure as well as the kind of support to be given to the structure.
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Now, in this case again if you see these the structural supports, there a different way we
can fix it up. One is of them is roller type. So, roller type support, we can see in this, that
one end of the structure will be resting on a roller and normally this structure being used
for a bridge. So, that during this particular movement, the oscillation, that can roll over
it, and it can transfer.
So, in this case what is going to happen, in degree of freedom for roller horizontal
movement is free because it can go this side or this side on that. But vertical moment is
not like free it is fixed, but the rotation; definitely in that case it may happen with this
particular point it may rotate.
So, when we go for a pin jointed structure, then in that case both horizontal and vertical
movement will be fixed up, but the rotation still on, with combining these two can do
that. But when you go is for a rigid frame so, then all this movement will be fixed. So,
sometimes based on the requirement, based on the load calculation and the purpose to
(Refer Time: 08:47) the building we will select up this structure.
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Now, in this case in order to make it more clear to you, this is the example of a bridge at
the one support you can see, this is a roller type support. A joint in one end where this is
the other one this is your pin joint and here it is fixed to the wall and neither of the pin or
roller it is basically the rigid joint. So, depending on that also we will have the
arrangement.
So, in the previous slide and this slide, our main intention to understand the type of
support that we can develop and what are the, flexibilities in that? So, depending on
where we do not want my structure should move either horizontal or vertical or even
there will be no rotation. So, we will go for a rigid type of support.
Now, come to the basic structural elements and which are very important because once
we know the elements, then we will think about their organization, their arrangement.
So, some of the elements will basically take the vertical load, some of the elements will
take the, horizontal load or the lateral load. So, these are very important. So, in this slide
if you see these are very very basic elements of a building.
Now, here I am not talking about any material to be specific, but as per their
conventional existence and their purpose. So, we can see basic four types of elements in
a building. So, we start with the wall , then slab, then beam, and then column.
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So, in this schematic model just I want to show each of them. So, basically, I represent
this as wall with a brick, but this wall can be made of any other material as well. It may
be like concrete block or some composite block wall or maybe it may wooden wall. So,
depending on the position, normally wall is short; it is a slab which is up standing. So, if
you have a slab like this with the thickness and you just make it stand on its edge so, it
will become wall.
Now, come to the next it is the slab, that you can see this is basically the slab, ok. So, this
is your wall. And beam is basically, it is in connection normally for the frame structure
and all; we make it as a frame with a vertical and horizontal arrangement. So, this
portion where it is actually carrying the load of the slab and transfer it to the column, it is
basically the beam. And whenever we go for this kind of frame structure with column
and beam, the purpose of making this wall is not to carry the load essentially, okay.
So, whereas, in case of a load bearing wall, load bearing structure, all load will be
transferred to the foundation through wall. So, we will come with some example, but in
this case, this is beam. And the next one is the column, and you can identify it easily that
this is the column. Now, this again I am saying these are very basic elements and we will
just try to know the concept and different kind of arrangement which are very basic in
nature.
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But, nowadays in the modern building those arrangement a basic component may be
same, but the arrangement the material and the way we execute it will have some
difference and we also can name those things in a different manner. But basic
arrangement that will learn through this particular lecture will have a relation, strong
relation from the ancient age to the modern age and it will be clear once we discuss that.
So, basic four elements wall, slab, beam and column.
So, again slab is responsible to deal with the horizontal force and then beam is again
horizontal and also vertical both and then column is basically vertical and wall is again a
vertical. So, now, when we are talking about load, so, what exactly this load transfer? So,
whenever we create any structure, we have learned this thing that there will be some self
weight of the material referred to dead load and there will be some movable objects like
we human being, furniture’s that will be the live load.
So, again along with that there are some other loads; so, all loads will be applied to the
structure, either horizontal in nature or it is gravitational. So, it may act like this or it may
be just like wind load, a lateral force to it. Now, when this load will be implied to that, it
will transfer the load to the associated member to it.
So, if it is on the slab; say for example, in this I am standing on this slab and I am
carrying some, I put some weight on that. So, this will be transferred to the beam, then
beam will transfer to the column and column will go again and again and then finally, it
will transfer load to the foundation and foundation is support it again with the soil.
Now, finally, we transmit all the load to the soil, and then whatever the reaction will
have.Then we have learned about the static equilibrium. So, by which we can maintain
the equilibrium and our building will stand stable.
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Now, again as we know the component with combination and permutation. We can say
about three basic structural arrangement start with the wall slab where there is no role of
column and specially, it refers to you are traditional load bearing wall. And, still we
invented those the concrete and the, concept of the frame structure and other thing. So,
most of the buildings in history we have seen that it is basically the wall slab kind of
structure which is load bearing again.
The next category into it is post lintel or post beam; so, post refer to column; normally,
we had these terms like light post, goal post. So, basically this is a vertical member and
then when it is lintel; so, this is again a horizontal member. So, these are post and this is
lintel and then we name it alternatively this is post beam structural arrangement.
So, again in history, also we have seen this kind of thing even in the Parthenon it is post
lintel type kind of structure. Then post slab is something different where there is no role
of the lintel. So, directly we support the slab with post or the column. Now, this joint is
very interesting now, how can it be. So, we will show you some of the example like
where there is no such a lintel or bend is directly supported. So, on top of some support
we just put it.
So now, if we go back to this example; this furniture example. So, here if we consider
that this is the thickness of the tabletop. So, here you can see that it is being constructed
with this particular portion of say the material the table top and it is been just been
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supported. And now, the connection it may be a joint it may be a carpentry joint or it
may be fixed with some nail or it may be fixed with some adhesive that is a different
way of attaching it, but basically these three types of arrangement are there.
Now, come to the wall slab structural system, again this is a very representative
structure, and this is just for showing you the purpose that here you can you are not able
to find out any column or something like that is full wall. And the, for the load bearing
kind of structures, definitely the thickness of the wall at the corner or wherever we go for
some kind of connection, we can change the thickness of that accordingly and on top of
it we put the slab.
Now, this slab it may be of concrete it may be in earlier days we use some wooden batten
and then sometimes I section and on top of it we just create the slab. Now, in this case
what exactly happening the wall acts as a vertical load bearing member. So, whatever the
load imposed on this, that will be distributed depending on the arrangement. I will come
to that discussion.
So, it will transfer load to the wall and wall will transfer load to the foundation. So, here
it is the live load, dead load and additionally plus all other kind of load that is applicable
for this building or structure when it will be built, then it will basically go through the
slab, then the wall, then foundation and then soil, this is the hierarchy.
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Now, this is one example where you can see that there is no such column and you can
see this is just like brick pillar, but most of the cases is just resting on this particular
portion this slab on wall. So, this is one composition.
Now, the arrangement of wall is very crucial because when you go for load bearing
structure, we will have some restriction on the span selection or else we have to create
our structure, like the thickness of the wall so huge. So, sometimes it may be a very
regular formed structure where like basically you create it is in symmetry. So, all this
wall, like with little bit punchers somewhere and all for the wind opening and all so, we
create it.
But, again for the load bearing wall the proportion of the opening should not be like
really high, because then that probable load that it could carry will be hampered. So, this
is one obstruction, but this is somewhat which is more easy to build up, this load bearing,
but sometimes it may be something like you have the longer side the wall thickness
which are essentially carrying the load, and then maybe there are some internal partition,
to create some interior space which are not load bearing.
So, whatever the slab will be resting on it so, basically that will be on these two walls.
So, looking at the span we have to design accordingly this particular thing. And again,
that has some restriction because when you go for this load bearing structure so, heavy
mass will be imposed to that and there is restriction on height as well. So, there a study
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where we have seen that it may go with proper treatment, but normally we cannot go for
a high-rise building, because then this function, this arrangement will not really work
again all imposed loads to it.
And now, the next example is a very famous creation and it is the example from India;
the Indian Institute of Management Ahmadabad, again it is a load bearing structure
where the use of this expose brick wall and all is very beautifully placed. So, come back
to this again the basic idea to make this kind of arrangement, it is not to go for really
some inferior kind of structure where it will have some limitation, but this is just the
arrangement.
Now, if you transfer this thing, we just change this particular wall like from brick to
something else and then we improve this strength and the rigidity of this material, then
this height restriction can be waived off and then we can go for a higher side.
Now, come to the next type of the arrangement where already we discussed above the
Parthenon which is a post lintel or post beam kind of structural arrangement. So, two
components; one is the post or the column which act as a vertical load bearing member
and the other one the lintel or beam is basically your act as a horizontal load bearing
member. So, what exactly here it is going on, this slab is now become supported
structure and supported by beam first. So, wherever load, suppose again, I put the load
some furniture and other thing here. So, it will transfer the load and distribute based on
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the arrangement based on the design how we fix it; say for example, if this is just a
square grid. So, the load will be distributed like this. So, it will be equally distributed if it
is homogenous material and all the construction remains same, but if it is something like
rectangular then again it will have some distribution like this. So, this portion will go like
this, go like this. So, load will be transferred to the beam and then what will happen here.
So, beam will transfer load to the column and column will transfer load to foundation.
So, that is the overall transfer of the load and here the role of this brick work is basically
to create the division, create the privacy and protect your building from outside
environment. So, essentially it will not act as a structural member and that is why with
this structure, we can really reduce the thickness of the wall considerably. So, normally
for earlier structure for the brick work we may have like one meter thick, three feet thick
wall for old public buildings and some buildings of earlier time. But now, we can reduce
it even we can go with the 125 mm thick, 5-inch-thick, 10-inch-thick brick work for the
external and the for internal even we can reduce further. And as well as, the advantage of
this particular arrangement that you can even keep this particular thing open, like the
proportion of opening will be more. The chances will be more to give proper opening
and this particular thing can be filled up with some glass or something, some still
member glass material. So, that we can also enjoy the environment even we are inside,
we can see through those glasses. So, this is one advantage of this particular structure.
But, again we have to remember that arrangement the spacing of the beam it may be
regular of a simple building or it may be little bit what we call asymmetrical that we can
have a building like this where the shape is something like that. It is not in absolute grid
so, then in that case will like go for some kind of other arrangements.
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So, here you can see two examples where, this is very clear that we cannot see any wall
on it and still it is stable and still under construction and this is the finished building. So,
this particular wall is just giving some protection, some privacy for the interior space and
this particular opening created at the top is giving light or ventilation inside, but basically
overall it is the post lintel structure.
So, these are example of the modern buildings where we follow it with traditional
concrete as a material. RCC like reinforced cement concrete is acting as a material. But,
again we should not really restrict ourselves to understand that these types of
arrangements are only is possible with this concrete.
So, again I am saying that material is something where it will be decided based on the
purpose, based on the load and the requirement and the other parameters based on the
cost also, but overall arrangement here is basically the post lintel or what we call in this
case the post beam structure.
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Now, come to the third category, in this case as I mentioned there will be no lintel on
something like this particular band. So, here it is a multiple column placing here and on
just top of it this is been placed. And, in this case all these columns that we place here
that will take the vertical load or vertical load bearing members where this slab is
basically the horizontal one. It will again transfer the load and it will transfer load to the
post and column and then foundation through soil.
So, this is the arrangement, but in this case this particular joint we can have different
options. So, first option that we can go very simple one that this is your slab and this is
your column; very simple type. The second type we can have some drops so that it will
give a shape like this, the other one it maybe we can create some capital on top of it.
So, it will hold like this and then it may be a combination of all these like we have a drop
and then the capital and the column so, the arrangement will do. So, normally this kind
of structure we see as a like shelter, temporary shelters, some bus shelter, bus depot,
terminal, these kinds of structures are been implemented.
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This is not really something which will have inferior quality, but if you see this building
as a great creation where you can easily identify with this image that there is no such
beam. So, slab is resting just on top of this circular column or post.
So, post-slab is another kind of arrangement and if you change it like you change it to the
steel and then the other one maybe some steel or this you change it to wood. So, material
again may differ depending on the requirement or the purpose, but overall, this
arrangement is also possible.
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So, that is all for this particular lecture. It was brief, but then also we got to know some
of the basic arrangement. So, we started with wall slab and then we have your post lintel,
then we have post-slab, and I have shown you some of the images like some construction
images randomly picked up some of the existing buildings and good architecture
examples, and, then I also want you to also make this list exhaustive you such a, such
buildings where this can be this is already being implied it may be from some historic
building, it may be in the recent time buildings and all.
Now, someone may ask me that ok, whatever these forms are being created so, what
about when we have this kind of structure; some structure like this; so, where this kind of
arrangement like when it is nothing followed the three of the criteria.
Yes, in that case we will go by the form and it is form-driven or form active structure or
form the impression where there will be not a specific structural arrangement. There is a
series of structures they are acting or they are arranging in such a manner that, that can
create this particular shape or the shell structure or maybe some other pneumatic
structures.
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So, in coming lectures will be covering that these are again the same study material. So,
with that I conclude here and the next lecture that will cover up, that is also interesting
that is basically different structural forms how we developed, the relation with the
internal force that it acts with and how these shapes can also affect the efficiency of the
selection of that particular structural shape. So, with that I again thank you to take part in
this particular course.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 14
Structural Forms and Shapes
Hello, everyone. Welcome back again to NPTEL online course on Structure, Form and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today, we are at Lecture Number-14, and it is all about the
Structural Forms and Shapes. And also particularly like it will have relation with the
structural efficiency. So, in lecture number 13, that we have seen different kind of
structural arrangements like post beam post, then post slab, then wall slab and also we
have seen different kind of elements of that.
Now, those concepts the previous lecture’s concept, it will be helpful in this particular
lecture. So, we will try to understand in this perspective. So, we have discussed the
structural form or something in relation to architecture earlier, but here it will be
something different where we will discussed about the basic shapes determination and
the efficiency subject to the load applied onto it. So, let’s start it.
In this particular area that we all know the structural form or sometimes we also mention
it as a shapes so, that in relation to the pattern of the load it carry the internal load that
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will give some kind of form. So, the first point that it mentioned that it is basically the
shapes of the structural element and the pattern of applied load. So, pattern of applied
load means it is we are not talking about dead load or live load, it is basically the force
that we talked about in previous lectures like compression, tension, torsion, bending,
axial load like that and then it will basically determine the type of internal forces that the
structure that gives.
So, whenever we apply force that we already know that force is always acting in pair so,
if there is action then there will be the opposite reaction and also the influence the
magnitude. So, this will also depend on the material property; like one is the load type
compression then what will be the magnitude? how big it will going to make the impact.
Then this load type and magnitude of internal force due to given load affects the
structural efficiency. So, now we have to understand like in a structural component
whether it is beam or column or whatever the structural element we will use to make the
arrangement and erect the building as per the design then on applied load how internally
those elements are acting and based on the magnitude how we can define the efficiency.
So, that if we understand the right shape that we can picked up so, that will make the
structure efficient.
So, many casse just we go for a very heavy mass or huge structures so, indirectly that
will add up to dead load. So, we will come to that also how we can think of an what is
the logic behind modifying that thing? So, in this lecture we will basically know three
different types of structural shapes and then we will discuss about how to improve say
profile or the cross-section of the structural element which will improve the efficiency.
Efficiency means it will not really be compromised the load taking capacity, but as the
same time the material reduction and also load reduction indirectly because if you really
improve the section instead of solid beam if you can really go for something like with the
hollow beam where we can you know in a substantial manner we can reduce the dead
load and at the same time we can also carry the load it supposed to take, then that will be
efficient.
Then quantity and quality of material will be determined on that. So, if you know the
what will be the load or the type of force will be acting to that element we picked up,
then accordingly we can design the quantity or materials what kind of composition or
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maybe also the quality like depending on elastic modulus or maybe all other property
that we have discussed earlier so, that will be determined to this.
Now, in this case this is also taken from a book Structure and Architecture by A. J.
MacDonald. So, this is another very pictorial and very simple representation and that this
lies will be the basis of our further discussion in this lecture. So, what is happening in
this case? So, we can see this is structural element we can say a column and in this case
the load is applied in this fashion.
So, can you say that what kind of pressure is being generated in this case? So, this is
basically a compressive force that is going to take place where it is the tension in order to
retain it is original position; it will try to resist again that. So, then there will be the
opposite reaction so, that will be developed.
Most importantly in this case all these forces, they are acting on the same principal axis,
with coincident with the principal axis. So, if this is your object, this is your principal
axis and load is acting on that. So, only in this case either compression or tension will
take place. So, this is one.
But, if you make this arrangement like this while load being applied from the top so, in
this case basically the bending will come to picture. So, perpendicular to the principal
axis; in this case principal axis is this one, the main axis; and then bending type internal
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force will be developed. So, whenever there is a bending so, two kind of scenarios will
see that depending on the load if you take the same example. So, compression and then
the bottom tension; this is second type.
Then come to third type, where it is may be a staircase of the roof it is neither on
coincident with the axis or neither it is perpendicular. So, in that case it will be
something really inclined force. So, these are very basic forms, but if we just club this
together and try to visualize the application of this kind of a arrangement we will get
many. So, this can be some column, this is some beam, this is something staircase
specially this one and this is may be a part of the roof if we complete the picture and
connecting the dots. So, these are the basis.
So, again with that I have again a thermocol just for this time we consider this is the
same object. So, if we just really want to see that this is basically the principal axis and
when you apply load like this so, either it will have some compression. So, this particular
internal force will be created and if I want to pull it in the tension. And when you put it
like this so, it is more like bending if you apply load on this and when it is slant.
So, then there will be some inclined kind of force acting on that and then we have to go
with some vector analysis to find the component acting on horizontal and vertical
direction that already like we know some of that particular calculation that in physics.
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So, based on that principle; like based on that kind of force that the type of force and
then also the magnitude so, we have three categories into that one is your form active
kind of shape, one is your non-form active and the other one is neither active neither
non-active, it is somewhat in between semi-form active. So, these terminologies are little
bit unusual in this case, but I am sure that after this discussion, after few slides we will
have a better understanding on what exactly they are going to mean.
So, before I go to discuss each of them with some specific example, let us focus on this
slide which is very important slide where we can see three types. Now, looking at this
you have to get the idea like where they are different? The first one to get form-active.
So, the purpose that the internal force that created in the structural element should have
either compression or tension and it act with that axis, it may be inclined when it is pitch
loop or else it is a simple one. So, in this case it is basically the same.
So, here if you see that it is this portion will have like this particular way of acting the
force whereas, in this again, this form we have those elements where we can only have
this compression or tension that is also in the truss we can get it. And, this is another arch
where it is again a compression where all this load will be transferred to that particular
support.
Now, come to non form-active as we mention that in this case, we will basically see that
it is a bending in nature. When your forces are acting just perpendicular to your principal
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axis of the structural element and different magnitude when you can make it flat so,
again it is a bending. And, again you can see that depending this may be a point load this
is two point loads and this is a regular point load that sometimes it may be like uniformly
distributed load.
Now, in between these two that is semi-active so, where in that case the load being
applied so, it not at the point. So, it is at the middle so, it is like a flat. So, this portion
will have some bending so, it is a combination in between. In this case in state of making
this like very pointed so, here also we can get some curvature. So, this portion will have
some bending and again it is in between. So, if I just fold it, so, we will improve it
towards the form semi form-active. So, it will come in a resultant of semi form active-
form. So, it will be clearer once we just see some of the examples of this category.
So, what exactly form say form-active shape? So, this is structure in which the internal
force is purely axial; that means, either tensile in nature or compressive in nature and it
has relation with the shape and its longitudinal axis and pattern of the load. So, in this
case axis is this one, in this case axis this one, this is also axis, this is this axis, but this
composition looks very similar, but if you see carefully the applied load is something
like that. So, in this case compression, in this case compression, this is tension this is
tension. So, this kind of element the form we select is basically a form active. So, criteria
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to say a form like a structural shape whether it is form-active or not is basically the
internal force is purely axial either tension or compression.
Now, take this picture as example. So, what exactly. So, you consider this as a rope. So,
you just fix two points and just put rope like this. Now, if you just let it be like this then
probably it will take a symmetry depending on the self weight and you get some point
like this the curvature is same. But, at the same time you just apply load to this so,
probably it will readjust to the point and you get something. This is the first option. This
is the second option. So, it will adjust its shape and where either it will of tension these
are of tensile form active shapes that we also say in suspension bridges or cable
suspended structures. So, there we can get this kind of form active. So, where it is
basically showing the tensile nature of the internal force been created.
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You just make the mirror image of that so, it will be the compression, very interesting
and in this representation this is a pitched roof and also in the earlier picture we have
seen like here it will be developed so, it will put some pressure on that so, it will try to go
apart from this, so tension here in this case we will try to compress it. So, in this portion
we will get compression in the system. It is just with the two points load and this is
something with some arch. So, that also we can really get it.
The adjustment can be done not only limited to this suspension bridge or may be of these
kinds of arches, it may also be extended to the shell structure some pneumatic structure
where it can be adjusted. Say for example, this is just air packet that normally we used to
get when order something or when you pack something for the delivered to for safety of
the product. So, it is full of air, but the main reason I just want to show that in this case if
I put pressure. So, accordingly it getting adjusted so, this portion the compression been
created. So, if I put it here, accordingly the profile got changed.
So, if I just want to draw the same thing like when it is just a packet is something like
that I put the pressure so, it will take the form like this; if I put it there so, it will be
something like this, if I put the pressure so, it will be something like this. So, whatever
may be that pneumatic form this is also called a pneumatic form we can create with this
form active shapes. So, this is one kind of shapes, and if we want to know the efficiency
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so, these are the form where will have maximum efficiency because that in this case only
one will be taken care of and it will have this adjustment.
Now, in this case if you see this is one suspension bridge in New Zealand where you can
see this particular beautiful structure been created like again a rope. So, it is fixed up in
two points and then it is getting adjusted whenever it is required. And, sometimes even
for temporary bridge we also make with thread like rope and some wooden materials. So,
this is one example of form active shape.
Now, come to the other one like this one basically it is representing this tensile type that
we have seen in this particular picture. So, we just represent it with the case like case
study on that.
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And, then this one is just the other one that the compressive arch. So, here you can see
this particular form being created very beautifully. So, see this particular efficiency. In
this case this is another example where you can see the very minimal thickness and all it
is giving tent kind of shape. So, again it is a form-active shape. So, this kind of shell
structure or something which will help us to go for form active and that can be also
created with membrane.
So, the next example already I have shown you this picture in some other context, but
here we are discussing with the form active.
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So, here again basically in this membrane the tension is developed and only when the
member is consider this post this is a compression. So, again it is form active, and you
can see the efficiency like definitely the thickness and other thing will be really helpful.
So, kind of stadium design, kind of arch design where we can really go for this kind of
form.
Now, come to the non form-active shape. In that picture we have seen that in this case
the relation is like it is perpendicular the load applied on the element is perpendicular to
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the it is longitudinal axis or the principal axis and in that case purely bending moment
and shear force that is the main internal force that being created due to the relationship
between the form that is when placed like the element being placed and the applied load
on to it.
So, this is the case where you can see that this is something like a beam supported and
then the load applied. So, it will have the bending and then the shear we will get it some
bending moment and then you have some shear force diagram to this if it is something
like two ends supported. And, this is another one where it is representation of a tall
structure where lateral will place. So, this is your principal axis and then it is acting
perpendicular to it. So, again it is something which is non form-active so, where bending
will take place in this case.
Now, if you take this example this is just a bridge and this a random example I have
taken from internet, but you can see such many where it is more predominant of this non
form-active shape that been used in various structure even in the building as well where
is basically for the bending and shear force will be the prime considerations and the form
and it is shape will go with that relation.
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This is from the building where again it is something like you have series of columns and
you have this beam. So, it is post beam structure, but again in this particular phase we are
now considering the purely bending and other thing into consideration. So, again, it is
non form-active shape kind of relationship.
So, now we know two types of let say one is form active another is non-form active. So,
in active what is the reason I am just repeating it. So, there basically you will have pure
axial internal force that is either on tension or compression and we have seen the
example of your suspension bridge as well as this arch, we can also have some
membrane structures and cell structure. In non form-active is purely a bending and shear
force that too is most commonly being used in the building or in the fly-over where those
beams post a kind of structure is being placed. So, post beam post and you can more
often it is basically non-form active shape.
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Now, semi-form active shape is in between form active and non-form active. So, it is
basically a combination of both axial thrust and the bending moment, shear force. So,
you combine all together. So, in this case what is happening like definitely we have some
kind of this particular form where this is a separate post and this is a post how they are
connected to make this arch.
Now, in this case what is happening how it is in between because if you go separately
with this post and all so, it will give you some of making one member of this arch and all
it will give you the form active shape. But, at the same time if you just make it flat with
this giving a support so, it will give you the non-form active, but in this case we are very
much choosy about selecting the material like whether we go with the solid rectangle
cross-section of that or instead of I section or maybe a box section.
So, the reason is we can build with anything because it will have some purpose to carry
some load, but in these three cases things will differ we will come to that, but for this
time being it is in between.
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Now, if you see this structure this is the same example maybe like replica of this kind of
structure that I have picked up so, where this is basically showing us semi-form-active
structural system.
Now, how to improve the efficiency? When definitely we talked about the efficiency,
then the form active will have the maximum and when you go from non-form active it
will not that efficient.
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Now, the reason. Now this slide is very important like in the previous example, when we
started this lecture so, we can have this three types of cross-section can be used for
thestructural arrangement. Now, what is happening here? In this case if you go for a solid
section so, based on this particular shear force what is happening this case that whole
portion will have; outer fibers will have the maximum force. So, that means, in this case
high bending stress occurs at the extreme fibers only and most of the internal component
ok. So, they will have something which we can say that they are under stress ok.
So, basically most of the material carries a low stress and therefore, inefficiently used,
now we just remove it. If we change this solid section to I section what is happening still
at this stage we can have the similar kind of behavior structural behavior, but at the same
time we can reduce it and when you go for a box section again we do the same.
So, if you see this particular efficiency; if you go with this kind of thing like the
reduction of the material because some of the part is not really very much responsible for
bearing this particular stress and all. So, they are caring less stress and that is why that
can be removed ok, logically so that we can get a better profile which can be used.
So, that is increasing the efficiency. Now, efficiency in terms of we are reducing the
material; that means, direct implication that we can say that there will be reduction in
cost of the material, in other direction that will also reduce the dead load. So, we will
have some reductional load, but again we are not compromising the capacity the bearing
capacity of the member because that is being selected based on proper analysis that
element selection that we have discussed in last to last class that when you select the
cross section we go through that how it will behave against the applied load on to it.
So, the improved cross section like I section or a hollow box efficiency is increased by
eliminating most of the under stressed material and we create it hollow. So, this is one
approach by which you can improve the shape of the cross section.
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Take other example. In this case it is a you just very thin plywood in this case it will
have this particular bend. So, whenever this is having the bend so, at this stage it is
basically non-form active and to give support we could have two options. We increase
the thickness like this which can really know hateful to make it stable, but here what we
had done increase in cost of the material as well as we have increased the what we say
the dead load.
But, compared to that if you go for something like folded plate then basically the
thickness remains same, but we can substantially reduce the material because which are
not really needed because of the most of the important portion of the element where it
will take the essential stress to make your structure stable and safe. So, some of the
portions can be removed easily.
So, if you compare this thickness and this thickness is same, but you can easily compare
how much reduction being taken care of how much material we have reduced from this
particular block. So, this is very useful to make your structure efficient. So, these are
something where improvement can take place and we can convert it to some kind of
purely non active form to semi active or something like that.
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So, let us take this example this is one railway station I have picked up. So, if you see
this particular members this particular truss so, it could have a very solid profile right,
but essentially if you see carefully that it has some punctures to that can be developed.
From I section also if I just want to reduce it. So, in that case we can have some of the
punctures in between.
So, basically and that cannot be just like in order to reduce the weight or something to
look very interesting in terms of design that has to be done with proper justification and
we have to select that logically with calculation. So, that there will be no such
compromise on carrying capacity or the bearing capacity of the element which will be
used as a supporting structure.
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This is another one, where this is now being common where we have seen to create large
span in state of a heavy beam we can go with very simple space frame. So, compared to
a solid section so, a truss can give you more efficiency to come up with the solution and
this space frame is another where we connect the truss in 3D. So that it can really solve
the purpose, that is reduction on the self weight and you can see the span also this being
used normally for the airport, public station and it is possible. The purpose here is not to
really have the floor on top of it or heavy load. So, it just a cover so that we can go a for
a light roof structure. So, this kind of arrangement can give you the efficiency.
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Now, if you see that we summarized here in this case like we start with the frame like
form-active shape like your tensile membrane structure that we have seen in the Sky -
ong structure in Arizona or maybe some arch that we have seen. So, these are much more
efficient on because that we will handle it very carefully.
Now, when you go for the semi from-active so, it is in between, but we still have some
chances to improve the cross sections in state of a solid hollow beam here only that truss
portal being used. So, earlier it was just a solid member and now, we just transfer this
thing in truss. So, there is reduction in the cross section, reduction in the material and so,
true with the reduction in the weight.
Now, come to the non-form active where it is basically your post beam kind of structure
something about post, then the slab and in that case instead of huge slab and thickness
we can have waffle slab where you can see that it is giving adequate strength we can
reduce the material wherever the portion or of that element is under under stress or not
really carrying this critical stress and other things.
So, folded plate can be one of the options to transfer it and then we can also go for the
space frame structure to again create the volume. So, wherever we want this thickness
we can have, but depending on the calculation and proper selection. So, it needs very
careful analysis to select the element cross-section and without compromising the desired
stress level that it should take when load is applied on to it, and we can reduce it or the
cross section material in in many purposes one to reduce your the material use and that
related to the cost and as well as the dead load. So, we can optimize this thing with some
improved cross section. And, if see now in this direction so, if you go for a normal frame
structure with the beam column, that is not as much efficient than if you go for some
shell structure and membrane structure but, we cannot create these all the time because
of some other purposes because when you go for the high rise building so, floors are
there on top, so, we cannot. But, wherever there is a chance that we can create this kind
of structure to create the span or something like that we can really go for this form active
space and wherever is possible we can really improve the cross section to be used as
element. So, this is the overall discussion that we have.
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And, then in summary so, what we learned, form-active, the other is your form non-form
active and one is your semi form active. So, these are three different things and one other
thing is the improvement in their cross section and longitudinal profile to improve the
efficiency. In terms of efficiency if you go like this is the highest, this is the medium and
this is the low efficiency. And, in this form active , internal load will be axial in nature
and when non-form active bending and shear force will be the picture and here it is a
combination of axial thrust plus bending plus shear force. So, that is the overall thing.
In short if I just tried to draw a picture, an arch or may be suspension bridge these are all
of structure of the form active. In the non-form active it is just the pillar that tends to
bending, so, that is non-form active. And, semi-form active is the frame that we can use
and in order to improve it we can reduce it, we can replace it with the stress and all. So,
that way we can improve the efficiency.
In this lecture we learn that the relations efficiency of the structural element to be used
depending on the form selection and how you can improve that with some analysis. So,
with this I conclude here.
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And, these are the few books that I also referred in previous lectures. So, go through it
and with that we conclude and next so far we mentioned about the structural material so
many times. So, we will focus on that in the next lecture. So, till then I again thank you
all to take part in this course.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 15
Structural Materials
Hello, everyone. Welcome back to the online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. So, this lecture we will cover up different Structural
Materials. This is Lecture Number-15. So far, whatever we have seen over last lectures,
so we study about different structural form and also, we know the structural property like
acting depending on the force applied on it. How the internal force will behave? like
compression or tension or torsion but also that time I mentioned about that it will depend
not only with the geometric shape that we select for a structural element, but also the
material because, material will have certain properties which will actually give you the
hints that whether it is suitable for your structure or not. So, we start today’s lecture
discussing on structural material.
So, selection of structural material for a structure is the most crucial aspect for the design
because, when we discussed about the elements selection for a structural member then
also we talked about the material because, the material based on its’ property that the
density or the particles how they close to each other or the porosity. So, it depends on
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that structural material we can achieve some kind of stability in the overall arrangement
and all.
The strength of material affects the load carrying capacity, no doubt about it. So,
whenever a material we use of material having high strength will have high resistance
against applied load and it will not collapse easily. So, it will also affect the decision on
making the span that you can design with that material or the height of the building, or
height of the structure that you can determine based on the material selection. It also says
the physical property of the material that determine the internal force and how good it is
to act on that.
There are few materials which will help in compression, there are few material will come
to know which are good for the tensile force. So, we know compression and tension so,
based on that, here also we will just recap some of the things. And, then basically it will
be the one of the crucial part while design structural system for a building.
So, basic few properties are the six properties that will look for a building material or the
structural material like the strength, then density, then hardness, ductility or the
brittleness, elasticity and toughness. So, these are six basic properties of a material we
are looking for.
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Let us start with the strength. So, this is the ability of a material withstand loading
applied on it. What exactly this sentence means? So, strength of a material means it is
basically will determine the ability when you apply load on it. It may be tension, it
maybe compression, it may be a bending, may be torsion, but like to resist again the
applied load is determine the strength of the material. So, the compression is another
strength where ability of a material to prevent structure against pushing load.
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So, when I take this example of the pen so, we try to push them ok. So, I put pressure
with my finger to this. So, this pen will try to compress depending on the strength it will
have response to that. And when we go for the tension one so, it is the pulling one. So,
push and pull. So, when we try to pull this pen like from taking this particular part away
from each other so, that is basically the pulling load applied on it.
So, it will depend on the strength that how it will react, it will resist with that or not. But,
definitely depending on a material and it is physical characteristics the limit of the
compression like through resist against compression or resist against tension will vary.
The next one is basically the material density.
So, exactly this is to be determined by the mass divided by the volume. So, it is in SI unit
you can say the kg per cubic meter. So, normally if you get a material where you have
high density high mass on this like say if I compare the same amount of volume and one
is your wood and other is thermocol so, the density, and you compare the same volume
of steel so, you can easily compare the resistance that it can give. So, higher the density
is the higher performance and higher strength. This is in general and again it will give the
great protection.
So, if I take 1 cubic meter of thermocol and 1 cubic meter of wood and 1 cubic meter of
steel. So, you can get some idea you can all can answer that which one will have higher
strength to to get withstand with the applied load and the answer is very simple it will be
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the steel. But, if I compare it with some say take another example the thermocol and like
clay block, again clay block will be more and then like that we will determine that based
on our need, based on the load resistance that we require to make our structure we will
select the right material that based on the density.
So, density is basically we need to remember this is mass per unit volume. So, if you
take the same unit so, when your mass is more and compared to the material the
compound is a far away so, you will be selecting the higher density. But, along with that
there are problems when you go for higher density so; basically it is very difficult to
handle with it. So, it is very easy to work with thermocol. So, normally for making
models and all we use some lighter material to that. But, at the same time if you want to
do it something like wood or maybe some metal so that it will be difficult.
So, in case of the higher density the material weight in given unit volume so, weight will
be more and then hence it will be difficult to work with and that obviously, having
impact on the cost. So, whenever you go for such kind of material cost will going high,
but it is again as general statement, but sometimes you may find that the cost of a
lightweight material is even more than a heavyweight material, but definitely in that case
the lightweight material maybe superior in terms of resisting with the applied load on
that particular portion of the structure than the heavy material. So, the second property
density is another important to select up on the material for that.
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Come to the third property that is the hardness. So, this is basically the ability of a
material to resistance against the permanent deformation. So, if we say, that this again I
take this example of the pen I have so, this pen is very hard. Why I am saying that when
I try to apply the load so, it is not bending with this load, but definitely if I put more
pressure then it will go for the deformation. But the property that is actually resisting this
particular force are not going for a deformation is called hardness.
Now, if you take instead of this pen plastic this made of plastic you take a piece of
thermocol maybe look like a pen and then you do this experiment. Then probably you
say that hardness is very low. You take wood then they will have something. You take
like steel you will get something, if you take aluminum compare to steel then you get
that steel is harder than that aluminum.
So, this is very important that the hardness will resist permanent deformation under a
sharp load and also it is related to the stiffness and temper. So, in that case what we can
say that tempered glass normally we being used smart phone and all, so, it will give the
stiffness. So that stiffness what we know that due to the stiffness it will prevent even
buckling of something. So, deformation to resist.
So, also provide resistant to building bending as scratching and also you have this
abrasion or cutting. So, take example of a diamond. So, if you see diamond so, it is very
hard to make a scratch or even to cut. So, that is an example of the hardness. So,
sometimes it may apply to the hardness of the structural material or sometimes it may be
the non-structural material, the glass that we look for. Greater the hardness of the
material, greater the resistance. So, always we look for a material of higher hardness
while selecting it for this, we need to prevent that permanent deformation.
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Come to the ductility and brittleness they are used side by side. So, we need to know it
very carefully so that we can understand the term exactly. So, ductility is a property of a
material which is ability to deform without fracture. So, what is fracture? Say, I just try
to pull this. So, what will happen, if I put enormous force ok so, what will happen? So,
first you will see that there is some deformation, it will not immediately break.
So, you will find that the thickness of this particular cross section of this pen getting
reduced and then after certain time it will actually break. So, that is basically the fracture.
But, at the same time if you take an example of a chalk to put the pressure, hardly you
will find any deformation it cracks. So, there are materials which are good in producing
that they will deform before fracture and that the property is called ductile property or
this overall event is your ductility.
So, if you see this image so, this is electrical wire. So, when you just try to pull them or
just to give the deformation. So, it will not really break. So, here this is one example that
you can get it. The other one there are materials which are very brittle in nature, say for
example, a glass. You try to deform it, you put extra force it actually breaks. So, here
also these are some of the metal where they are not really giving a sign of the
deformation, they just breaks. So, materials with high ductility is preferred as they are
more able to indicate the structural failure, very important.
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If you make a building; so, building is to protect us, definitely. But if there is some
abnormal behavior due to some faulty design or may be due to some uncertain activity or
maybe there is a huge earthquake. So, there oscillation starts and building will try to
collapse, but it should give some time, so that we can just go out and put ourselves in say
in a position which alternative we call evacuation. So, they will elongate the evacuation.
So, when we use such material having good ductility, they will give us the indication that
this structure is going to fail. So, it will give some time. So, it is very important feature
of any structure material that we should use.
The in the other hand the brittleness is the property of a material which can break easily
without significant deformation. You take a biscuit you just give pressure, breaks and
this is one example like definitely that will not a structural material. But the materials
with brittleness basically absorb relatively little energy prior to fracture even those in
high strength. So even this material is having high strength because of the high density,
but the property is something like that this brittleness so, it has a relation with the
temperature deviation also. So, some steel if you like put it in the frozen temperature will
become brittle.
So, we have to see that it is not a particular property of a material that always give me
the best result. So, in this case looking at this particular metal, this particular cylindrical
pipe. So, strength is good, but when you apply this particular thing specially the tension.
So, due to that cooling so, it will immediately crack and not give any indication. So, this
is something very important. Even the glass, it will not really deform and depending on
the glass even we can also improve all the ductility and reduce the brittleness so that we
can use it as a structural material.
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Come to the elasticity that already you explained in some of the property where it is the
ability of a material which will deform for a applied load and when you release the load
it will try to get back its original form. So, if a material can really do the 100 return back
to the original position. So, we can call it is perfectly elastic and where there is no such
property is inelastic. So, this is basically the concept, but in reality, we cannot have such
material which is totally like 100 percent elastic.
And, the formula like we use, the elastic modulus which to be calculated by the stress by
unit strain. So, stress is force by area and strain unit strain is the deformation. And, so in
this picture I just want to show you; so, this is the actual length may be L and now after
deformation so, this is delta L. So, strain will be in the unit strain here it is delta L by L
and the force applied like if this is the case and the area then force by area is your stress
and then the ratio between these will give you the modulus.
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Now, come to the toughness ok. So, we discussed about strength then we discussed about
hardness, density and in this case elasticity, now the toughness this is the ability of a
material resists fracture when stressed, what exactly it does mean? So, we let us clear this
from this image.
So, in this case this is also the ability of a material to absorb energy and physically
deform without fracturing. So, when we compare it to the brittleness, it will absorb less
and break immediately. It is just the reverse. So, in this case if you say the building
material is tough so, we hammer it. So, we are putting extra pressure and it is anchored at
the bottom. So, it is not really breaking at this particular load and it is giving a
deformation bending. So, this is a tough material. When you consider the brittle the
moment you put a pressure it will absorb very less energy and then breaks immediately.
So, this is one GIF image that I have taken from this website given here. So, this is small
piece of the material and there is a pendulum kind of movement. So, we put a pressure
on this and this is basically the exposer. So, if this particular piece of metal will just
come out with this deformation, we can say that it is having the good toughness, but if it
breaks into pieces and not passing this experiment is not having the toughness. So, this is
also important parameter.
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Now, looking at that over the years we have used and even in the prehistoric age and the
contemporary architecture, we have seen the use of different kind of materials. So, here
we will focus on that, we start with the timber. Timber can resist tension and
compression as well with equal facility and does the bending. So, it will act really the
wooden batten they can also take this particular tension at the bottom if it is a like slab
and the compression at the top, it is also lightweight material compared to other in that
category, and high ratio of strength to weight.
So, whenever you view some material, the achieve strength also compared to the weight
because whenever you go for material a itself having high self weight so, that will add on
to dead load. So, we want something which will have good strength, good density, good
elasticity as well as it will have the lighter in weight so that it can really go with that.
Can be relatively easily joined together, because like wood are produced from the tree
and it has a limitation. So, to create huge structure we need to join multiple such pieces.
So, this join is very easy with different kind of
cross joint then dovetails joints. So, different carpenter join we can make the structure
huge. It need not to be single piece wood structure, but the other important thing is that if
timber is used in a proper way or treated way so, it can be reused; a portion of that or
maybe like we can go for it like reusing that kind of building material in future in some
form or other form. So, it is renewable.
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But, the disadvantage with the timber, yes so, it is susceptible to fire. So, it is having
thetendency so, if something somewhere the fire is main andconcern and so, lots of
accident happened for this particular fire think thing. Recently we have observed some
damage due to fire for the wooden structure, some historic structure. Then, also it prone
to the moisture if it is not properly seasoned or some treatment or some kind of paint
being there.
So, along with that also there are problems with the termite attack so, we have to prevent
that and now exactly it is not really very hard to extend and so that we cannot really go
for multi storey building, a complicated structure in that. And, limits on the shape and
size that already I mentioned because it is not really available of infinite length or shape,
but due to the advantage of easily joint principal so, we can actually make this as per our
need.
So, this is one example of Olympic Indoor Stadium in Canada, so, they have use e
wooden structure. So, you can find that how? If you just take a close look or you can
search more pictures on this that how nicely they have joined this and these are acting
like the support like the beam and then they used this particular wooden member
structure member to create this kind of architecture.
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This is another example of that it is from the example of Chicago where like this is again
those external supports they are being created with the wood. But, the quality of wood
depends because in the market there are different variety of wood and again, like there is
a controversy like though we have mentioned that it is renewable, reusable, but again it is
something like against the nature. So, in order to get that wood we have to cut the tree.
So, normally it is not being preferred as building material.
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Now, come to the masonry. So, it is a composite material consisting of brick or brick like
block, it may be of mud or it may be of sun-dried brick or it may be the burnt brick or the
stone and which is bedded in mortar. Now, what is mortar? I guess you have idea, but
mortar is a mixture where normally we use some binder and then fine aggregates ok. So,
binder and fine aggregate means here when you refer it to cement mortar so, it is
basically the cement and sand, we add adequate water to make mortar in that.
If it is lime mortar, so lime is actually used in state of cement. Earlier it was there still the
cement was not there in the picture. To form the columns, walls, arches, vaults, domes ,
in till the Roman and other age architecture extensive use of masonry was there. So,
bricks as I mentioned it may be baked earth, it maybe the concrete brick. Nowadays we
are using it, like we use the concrete brick or also sometimes we use the compressed
brick, the fly ash brick so, as a material.
So, it is having good compressive strength, it will resist against the compression, but the
problem is with the tension. So, in tension it will actually not really good. So, the way
out is to add something more. We will come to that how we can add those. And, again it
is heavy material required skilled labor to use and that too increase the cost ok. So, it will
also increase the cost and here you can see how beautifully they can do it and with
masonry without any reinforcement or any other superior structural system there is
something the restriction on the height. And, again like if it is not properly plastered or
treated it is also expose to the weather that may damage it.
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The example is in front of you, this is the Great Wall of China, which is the masonry
work and the essence of which the importance of this structure.
So, come to the other one that is Cathedral, here also it is based on the masonry work. It
is from history.
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And, again this is something from India and again it is a masonry work of a stone. So,
this is a nice piece So, it been used regularly at that particular time when reinforcement
and other thing were not in picture.
This is another example where you can see that used of the brick as material and then
you can see that Fort Jefferson that how they have used this masonry work with the your
brick and then mortar.
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Now, come to the concrete. So, concrete is another invention in the history of building
construction and then the overall scenario has changed. So, it is a combination water,
then cement as binder, the this small aggregate or fine aggregate it may be sand. So, you
in place of cement we may also use lime. So, earlier they used to get this lime as a
material when large aggregate is basically the stone chip of different size. So, that is
forming the concrete and we refer it to PCC, so, basically plain cement concrete.
So, in this case there is no reinforcement and it is very versatile as because we are
mixing and when it is just mix it is in semi liquid form so, we can give any shapes. So,
there is no restriction on the shape and sizes. Then it is also good at high compressive
stress taking capacity, so good in compression, but poor in tension that similar to the
masonry work. Then having good fire resistance property that helps, that improve also.
Then, flexible with size and shape because of it is can be mold in any form and usually
takes longer curing time; this is very important the curing time. So, what is curing time
exactly? So, when we make cement with water, there is reaction. So, heat generates and
all. For that from the application to it is final setting time when it will able to achieve the
strength so, that particular time we need to wait for concrete.
So, mostly you if you see that roofing being cast with the concrete and after the next day
onwards they spray water or they just fill that particular roof with the water so that it will
get all the moisture required at that time of setting. Then, after its’ final setting so, it will
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not really allow the water. If you do not do that during this particular reaction so, there is
lots needs of moisture and it will develop some cracks. So, in order to avoid those cracks
we have to cure it.
So, curing will take time and unless we just give that time we cannot proceed further. So,
that is something we can say a drawback of using concrete as a building material. And,
as because it is poor in tension, at the same time it fails in shear unless reinforced. So, we
have one way out how we can improve it.
So, this is one example from the Colosseum Rome where this being used in history.
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This is another one, the great example again from the Rome, this is the Pantheon. So, the
huge dome being constructed with the nice framework, you can able to see that how it
being done and then putting the concrete as material. At that time, it was not the cement
one available so, they made it.
Now, come to the steel as a material. So, it is having good tensile as well as compression
and this tensile property actually help us to come out from different option. So, in this
case this also has elastic property that we discussed that it can get its original shapes after
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releasing the force. Ductile property, which also all these good properties with the steel,
and also flexible with the size and shape as because we can prefabricate, we can make as
per the design. But it is expensive. So, we are getting so much thing so, somewhere you
have to make a trade off. So, it is expensive to others.
But again, the problem is of if it is not properly treated so is the problem of the rust,
impurities in these and the fire. So, for higher temperature some explosion or something
so, it will be some problem. So, steel as a material is really advanced material, for that
we can go high rise we can increase the height.
So, one great example and this could be one of the eye openers of this kind of structure
using steel.
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Come to the other one this is again a ribbed structure where mainly the structure is
formed with the steel and then the glass has just to cover it up. So, Eiffel tower and this
building in Germany they are the examples where steel were used as a material.
Now, the reinforce concrete is basically, we take the advantage of concrete that is
concrete is good in compression and steel is good in tension. So, we take the advantage
between what are the advantages of individual one and group them together. So, if you
take a concrete block and you put the pressure on top, these are the supports it will try to
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bend very easily. So, tension developed at the bottom like when you bend it so, first no
tension will be developed at the bottom because you can see like the fibers they can go
away from each other and the top in compression. So, compression can be well taken by
the concrete. And, then if you add the reinforcement at the bottom ok. So, this will well
take care of the tension so, your structure will maintain the static equilibrium. And, can
form the frame structure for the multistoried, being used flexible with size and shape as
both the material can be used in any form, any shape.
So, this is a nice example of our reinforced concrete structure, the shell structure being
used similar kind of structure being used in Sydney Opera House. This is another
auditorium from Spain, there also the shell structure the reinforcement reinforced
concrete being used as a structure material. So, we can do wonders with this reinforced
concrete as a material where we can use both.
Apart from that there are composite materials which are now people looking for the
lightweight material to be used. So, instead of increasing dead load with the steel so,
glass fiber reinforced, then other kind of fiber, reinforced polymer being used then
plastic as a material then carbon fiber as a material. So, many such different composite
materials can also be used in this but, depending on the property where we use and
looking at the six properties of these ductility, elasticity, hardness, toughness, then your
strength, density. So, we will pick up which one to be picked up.
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Now, for the wood, so, it may be a raw wood, it may be a processed wood, it may be a
medium density fiber. So, depending on our expectation and the purpose we will use it.
So, these are some examples in random examples where GFRC is used then carbon fiber
is used which will really give the resistance of the axial strain, prevent the collapse in
shearing. Compressed earth can also make the structure not the high rise, but it can solve
which will reduce the cost and also make it very sustainable.
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So, overall today’s lecture, what we found that to select a material is very important
thing and we have to look for your strength, then you have density, then you have
hardness, then you have ductility, then elasticity and then you have the toughness of the
material. So, ductility or the brittleness is another property looking into that we also
discuss the timber, we used concrete, we used the brick or stone masonry, we used the
steel as a material, and then RCC – reinforced cement concrete together, then we also
discussed about some advanced or lightweight composite material.
So, with that we will see and time to time when we discuss various form or various type
of structural construction so, we also link it with theses materials. So, this is one of the
very important lectures that we discussed today.
And, for further reading you can refer to the books I have mentioned. And, next followed
up lecture will be the structural typology. So, we will again discuss that in the next
lecture, lecture number 16 and for that till that time I again thank you to take part in this
particular course.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 16
Structural Typology
Architecture: The Synergy. Today, we are at Lecture Number-16 and in this we will talk
about the Structural Typology. So, in the last lecture, we have discussed about different
material and their you know pros and cons, and also, we discussed about different
properties. So, looking at their property and then advantage disadvantages, so time to
time we develop different structural arrangement.
So, in earlier lecture we have discussed about like post column, post slab, wall slabs, so
this kind of different structural arrangement that being into practice and we create the
overall structure. So, in this it will be another interesting lecture where we just discussed
about different type of structures and then this lecture will be basically a summary or
may be a what we can say that a very brief introduction to different type of structural
system and slowly we will pick up one by one and we will discuss on that and their
application.
So, let us start this particular lecture. So, if you like try to make structural category, so it
is very tough. We cannot really have a single category of a structure because you know
when we discussed about the structural form that time also, we said that structural form
is something like not really giving the clear picture its better the structural system
because building may have more than one such structural system.
So, one may be predominant, but the other is also important as well. So, looking at that
position, looking at the material used, so in this particular lecture we try to divide it in 5
categories.
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What are those categories? The first one is a solid type structure, ok, the second one is
surface. So, then we talk about something having lower thickness and then the skeletal is
basically similar to the skeleton. So, given the back bone and then the remaining part of
you know overall building is just to protect the environment or making privacy and
etcetera like the frame structure and all.
Then also there is a category called membrane structure where we normally will be
talking about the you know tent, the cable, some pneumatic structure will discuss on that.
And the skeletal it is the framework and the truss different kind of truss, we will also
discuss each of them in separate lecture to know more about that, like how they really
helping us, like how they deal with the applied load where the compression will develop,
where the tension will develop, how it will act against the bending and the shear.
So, we will also discuss on that. But for this time being we just try to figure it out. So,
when we talk about the solid so, we just can collect it with the wall, then the arch and the
vault and then you have your you know what we call the dam. And then the when we
talk about the tension assist structure, so it is hybrid. So, not coming into the single
category it may be something like which is the hybrid of multiple such structural system.
So, we use the membrane, we use the like some skeleton and then we just make a fusion
of that. So, that is basically what we can say the classification into the category.
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So, in this before we really go, so solidity. So, it may be what we just told, like this is the
walls the wall structure, then you can support it with some buttress in you know like
earlier in history we have used it when we talk about a like the surface. So, we are
talking about different plates or the slab or the connection between your column, post
slab kind of combination.
So, this is another typology. When you talk about the membrane, so basically, we are
talking about to different membrane structure which is anchored somewhere and may be
supported with the mast. So, this is in this category. And then if you go for a like the
skeleton structure, so it is basically the frame that we make the composition of your
horizontal and vertical components. So, let us discuss with some examples. So, it will be
clear to us.
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So, in this wall are the simplest form and basically it is the compressive structure and the
way they will transmit the load is basically towards the gravity. So, whenever we create
any building and also finally, whatever load imposed on it we will transmit to the
foundation, it may be the step foundation for the load bearing or the isolated if it is
something made of the other type of foundation.
So, it transmits the load vertically downwards. The construction is normally the masonry
or in concrete, so when we talk about the brick wall or the stone wall. So, it is related to
the masonry. So, they put brick or blocks on the motarbed and they form this particular
structure. And can also act as a retaining structure if we properly ribbed it with the
reinforcement. So, nearly where we want that retaining structure may be at the bank of
the river or may be somewhere in the hilly region where to protect the landslide.
So, wherever we require, so similar kind of retaining wall can also be used. The sheer
wall can also be used in this category which basically is showing a mass and a solid
profile sectional profile of the structure and hence it is coming under this solid category.
So, here you can see a random example that I have taken. It is mostly the wall, the nice
masonry work that create all these openings and all. So, over all aesthetically it is
looking very pleasing as well as it is also solving the purpose of the structure.
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Come to the arch, fault, and dam, again arch is again a very useful like what we can say
the compressive structure where due to its curvature it transfers the load. So, load is very
well transferred and because of the symmetricity, symmetry of this arch it will transfer
the load to the supporting column and then it transmits the load.
So, as true with the vault where we can also get this kind of compression mainly in this
category, and same is true for the dam where it is being built very huge and it may made
of something like concrete, the retaining wall or maybe sometimes in earlier it is just like
a masonry. So, it is under the profile of the solid structure as a typology.
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Now, come to the surface one, in this basically it is not that much solid. So, what grid
says, that it is a series of members arranged at right angles to each other to form the grid,
ok. So, it is arrangement, but depending on the arrangement we may have a regular or
rectangular grid like this or maybe we have something which is skewed and sometimes
in 45, so that may be a diagonal grid. So, basically whenever we design a building, so we
design the beams, layout support to the column in different way out.
So, we make the grid and this grid you know this particular frame structure will really
help us to make multi storey. So, in this, the grid will decide about the span and also it
decide the direction how load will be transferred. So, the share, it shared the loads
according to the position and direction of the members which are close to it, which are
away from it.
So, if I take say one square slab in a grid, so basically if load is imposed here, so how it
will be distributed is basically distributed like this. So, it will transfer the load to the
beam and it is very you know very systematic manner. If the material is very
homogeneous and all the columns designed to support it are equal in size, so it will also
be distributed very uniformly provided that it is uniformly distributed load.
But whenever this point load it will self-adjust to its position. So, it is also can be used
for the large span where this grid can be formed and then also for the height. So, here
you can see one of that like how grid been used in this structure.
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Come to the second example under the surface where it is basically showing about what
we discussed earlier also that is your post slab connection. So, you can see that there is
no such beam or something just you the slab is resting on the post or column. So, plates
or flat slab are generally horizontal element as because we call it slab and with the length
and breadth. So, this is we just define it with certain area and its large in comparison to
the thickness. So, this is how you can define it.
So, whenever think about say 5 meter by 5 meter grid, so thickness is compared to that is
150mm, ok, so where it is 5000 by 5000. So, it is like that even it can be higher based on
the requirement and the material used. They designed to span in two direction at right
angles and maybe flat.
So, sometimes you know it is how you go for it, like it may be something we call we will
come to that like the one way slab or two way slab and depending on how we design this
particular thing like length is too big or maybe it is having equal share all the side like
squarish form, and then stiffening strip and you know the thickening at the supporting
column points that will also determine the characteristics of this plate.
Slab can be designed around lines equal stress, but formwork is elaborate and thus
expensive. So, we can really go for this kind of grid, but basically if that means, in the
proper calculation, that competition to be done and then also we have to decide about the
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formwork or the supporting work during the construction when the concrete and other
thing is in is initial setting in the semi liquid form, then we have to take care of this.
Come to the other surface category when again the thickness of you know that particular
form is so negligible compared to the span it can cover. So, shell or the surface structure
which are curved in one or two direction, so like it is may be of say something we just
bend a piece of paper in one direction like this, ok. If I draw it correctly, so something
like this.
So, we just bend it give a form of a vault, so that is one or it may be like two directional
where we think about you know in this case that one curve is in this side the other one is
this side. So, like we play with the parabolic hyperbolic or hyperbolic paraboloid form
that you know if you find the work of Felix Candela, we find that kind of use of the
curvature.
So, in that this curvature will help us to also you know resist the load implied on that and
also it can crease the huge span and also like due to the thin you know this particular
shell can help us to design. So, you can also think of a dome where it can develop it. So,
in this case a like the hyperbolic paraboloid shell being used in many buildings that we
can see.
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The structural forces in shell are largely pure tension and compression. So, basically in
this case what we have that a surface where this will be in compression this portion and
then at the bottom one it will develop tension. So, it is to be understood like if you take a
particular you know such kind of domical shape and you just put pressure on that or you
take one egg.
When we discussed about the shell structure, I will really show you some of the
experiment at a small scale that how we understand where tension and compression will
take place. So, this is another typology under the surface.
Now, in this case this is surface where it is the stress skin. So, what exactly; it is
basically not a flat one, but it is relate to something where we already have seen like the
folded plate. So, already it is a combination of thin plates like how you add the ribs or
increase the stiffness of that material.
So, it may be some corrugated you know metal pipe or it may be something where it is a
membrane kind of structure. So, ribs contribute stiffness and also like what we can get
out of it the you know thin and flexible sheet that can also you know acting better due to
the applied load.
So, depending on the material availability and the purpose will pick up these kinds of
stressed skin. So, here what it says; the materials used for stressed skin construction can
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be metal, timber or GRF. So, basically in this case like wherever we can really do this
experiment, but at the same time we can also use the you know concrete in this case, but
properly it should be ripped or reinforced in this case. So, it is again from the surface
example.
Now, come to the skeleton. So, this is a very useful component under that, that is the
truss. So, truss is basically assembly of structural members, ok. So, they are joint
together and mostly they are joint together with a pin joint, and this is to be formed in a
triangulation form. Because, to start with suppose we have a portal like this where they
are fixed, so on applied load what happened that it will try to get a deformation.
The moment we put a diagonal, so automatically these due to this triangulation, so it will
develop more resistance again applied load and this particular arrangement the bracing
we call, help the structure to get you know better stability.
Trusses can be two-dimensional, like normally this kind of two-dimensions truss being
used for the factory or some old historic building and it may be three-dimensional and
then we call it prismatic and when it is two-dimensional, we call it planar. So, here this is
the example of planar truss and here it is two-dimensional or prismatic. So, here you can
see this basically you know this kind of structure where the cross section if you see that
will give a form of a prism.
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So, form that it is derived as prismatic, so for any cultural event some concert you know
you must have seen this kind of arrangement where with the minimal area this is so
stable. So, this is one. So, prismatic or space truss linked together, so when we use this
3D truss it will give a form of space frame. So, space frame is another important you
know structural typology being used to have a light roof and especially for a gathering or
maybe station or an airport.
Now, in this case a like this is a one example of the space frame. You see like how they
are jointed to each other. The load transfer of this space frame how the transfer is
complicated to be designed very accurately and you know then you have to apply it and
there are few supports, so that you can see that the how much span and the height it can
cover.
So, space frames are three-dimensional lattice structure linked pyramid or tetrahedra. So,
basically tetrahedra is where all vertex, they are equidistant to each other. So, that is one
important. And it is giving a very good stability in state of a pyramid of different height
and all.
Now, load span the edge condition determine the form and depth. So, definitely like how
you really try to fix it up, how you transfer the load based on that this will be designed.
So, this is another skeleton structure typology that being used for the building.
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Now, come to the framework. So, here again it is a composed of materials which
assembled in two or three directions. So, we just try to make a box, so it may be
something like we just connect this part and then this part or maybe they are connected
to give more rigidity, more stability with this bracing.
So, stiffness of a frame depends on the stiffness of the element that we used. So, how
you use this particular material and like this member or this element to that system that
will determine the stiffness. The pinned joint frames are unstable under load and require
the addition of further element to give stiffness like diagonal bracing.
So, what we discussed, like we can have a frame like this just simple frame and they are
pin joint, so they will definitely deform and then if we add this, so it will be stable. If you
go for a cross bracing, so it will be more stable to that. For high-rise buildings its lateral
force is concerned due to the wind and again due to the seismic activity the oscillation,
so this lateral movement of the structure it is very important for high rise, but for
specially considering the wind blow at higher you know altitude, so this kind of bracing
to the framework. So, definitely help us to come up with better solution to resist our
building against that kind of applied load.
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Now, come to the membrane, this is a type where it is already being discussed and this
example from the Arizona State University campus being so repeated, so nice
construction with some kind of you know cloth like material. So, it is fully given the
tension. So, with this tensile cable and this the mast that used only act as the compressive
members.
So, in membrane structure all the primary forces are arranged to be in tension through
the cable and the form cables and or a net and coated fabric with tension edge cable. And
whereas, the load from membrane can be taken to the ground via compression mast. So,
this is the compression mast. So, they have used in several points and others all members
all these coated fabrics is basically in tension.
Now, compared to that the other category in the membrane structure that is the
pneumatic structure where like air or some kind of liquid being pooped. So, for
pneumatic it is most commonly the air supported membranes and they do not really need
any other support or in this form. So, they will be created. So, you put the air and many
of us we have seen such kind of pneumatic structures especially in a you know
fairground or something for the kids that we find a Mickey mouse or something student a
jumping on top of it.
So, it is basically a cloth or such fabric and we just inject air into it and give the tentative
forms. So, this is another kind of membrane where you know the thickness of the
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material is nothing, but to create the form, the huge space is very vital for us. There are
some you know disadvantage of these about the height restriction and in the reaction
against other forces, but definitely it is one of the very you know portable structure that
we can develop.
Now, come to the hybrid structure. So, in this the hybrid structure basically where the
number of structural types do not fit in the category that membrane or the like we said
solid or the skeletal. So, that is coming into the hybrid category.
It is a fact that all the primary type may be solid or skeletal, but secondary elements of
different type may be part of the structure. So, we cannot really distinguish and put a
structure in a single category. So, same example can be given in multiple category, but
looking at the predominance of a structural system of all structural systems being used in
this building, so we put in the category, but in hybrid there are more than one is basically
the dominance.
So, here it says the hybrid where there is a combination of two types of near equal
dominance. So, if you see this structure that here this particular you know glass space
frame being used and as well as this steel you know framework being used. So, both are
complementing each other. So, here it is coming under the hybrid category.
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So, in that there are probably you know compositions like what we can call the tension-
assist structures. So, this is basically it may be a steel or tensile member. So, only steel
being used as like post beam and then the cable is being used to add some membrane
kind of structure to it. Then you may have the structural glass and steel as a combination.
Here you can see what exactly like it is being steel being used with other.
So, then in this also the masonry and steel can also go together, ok. So, this is something
like where you have seen like in earlier phase that we make the masonry with the break
and all, we do not really caste the slab with a concrete or something we just use some I
section so on top of the wall of a building of the masonry with the put this I section in
layer.
So, basically if I draw the plan, so many I sections are running parallelly and on top of it
we put the tiles and that put some lime concretes to make something like what we also
can call the reinforce brick concrete or something or the other. So, it may be something
like where we use the timber and steel together.
So, in particular lecture we have discussed about like how we make the you know timber
as a structural material and we make the whole building with the you know timber
materials a beam, column, the bracing and rest of the things that filled up by the
masonry. So, it is again a combined structure. So, even in the load bearing case, so we
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put both together. So, this is something where like we go for making it very hybrid
structure. So, this particular thing is under hybrid.
Now, to have a quick recap in this portion like let us just try to understand this
predominance of this structure. So, if you use this particular example, TWA Terminal
Building, so it is coming under, I just give you some you know few seconds to think on it
and then let us just match whether we are on the same track or not. So, take some 5
seconds and just quickly just figure it out.
So, I think all of you can give right answer to that. So, it is basically compared to the it is
coming under the you know shell structure, thin shell structure and under the category it
will come in the category of surface. So, surface and shell. This is again surface, right?
So, it is again surface, but in this case, it is basically the folded plate and this is
something looking very you know attractive.
So, it is based on the air. So, it is pneumatic. So, it is pneumatic structure and the
category is your membrane, right, so ok. So, this task is done. I think all of you have
answered in a similar fashion, so let us take another set.
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So, in this case what we see like what exactly it is. Yes, it is basically the space frame,
right. So, space frame is basically coming under your skeletal structure, fine, very fine.
Again, this is something which is made of some concrete reinforce and creating the
dome. So, again it is coming under shell structure, and then also it refers to surface
because of the thickness of that particular you know its thickness is very less compared
to the span it can cover.
Now, here it is something like can you recognize this particular picture I you have used
couple of time this earlier. So, this is the Olympic stadium from Munich, and we
discussed on the ground of making a light structure. So, it is again if you see that, there is
post, and then the cable, and then it is basically the membrane that are looking you know
this is much prominent. So, it is again a membrane structure, where it is basically given
tension and then all this load transferred to the ground through this compressive mast,
ok.
So, it is compressive mast. So, we know this thing. So, now, your task is to really find
some buildings that you see in your day-to-day life or maybe you have come across
through different you know platform in a book or maybe in some website. So, you just
try to figure out and just put them in the category. So, make exhaustive list and share
with me, so that we will discuss on that in the process.
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So, this is what that we discussed about this, but again the summary what we can say that
though we have the category of solid, then you have this you know surface, then you
have this membrane, then you have skeletal, then after that you also discussed what we
like have this is basically the hybrid.
So, this are some general form, but you know we cannot really give a single name to a
building because it may consist of multiple structural system. So, but looking at the
predominance which is coming up in front of you will go for that. So, your task is to find
or put that building that you search for or you have already noticed in different platform
to club into together.
So, again I really thank you all to take part in this course. And, now will be waiting for
the further discussion of each of individual structural like components on that and before
that you can really go through the books that I have referred which are very useful to get
more examples and also help to develop the idea on the discussion that we had. So, next
we will discuss some compressive structure, and till then again, I would like to thank
you.
Bye-Bye.
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Lecture – 17
Compressive Structures
Architecture: The Synergy. Today we are at Lecture Number-17 and it is all about the
compressive structures. Before starting this lecture if we just recall our previous
discussions, that we have discussed about different structural arrangements and as well
as different materials and then also we discussed different kind of forces acting on
structure. So, based on that like, we can classify a particular structural element into
category. But we have to remember one thing that may be a structural arrangement we
will have multiple such you know force resisting power means the structure may also
take compression as well as tension.
But looking at the predominance the most of the elements of that arrangement is taking
which kind of force and resisting against which kind of applied load is basically the basis
of making this classification. So, today in this lecture, we will be knowing about the
structure, where the maximum component or the major component of that arrangement
will deal with the compression force and that is why we call it compressive structures.
So, let us start that.
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So, at the beginning that I would like to show you this photograph that also we discussed
when we discussed about the evolution of the structural system, from prehistoric age to
the modern age and that present day and this is the example of the stone hinge where it is
basically a megalithic structure, where they used this particular stone slab up standing
and they support this particular stone on top of it.
So, looking at this, the behavior of this vertical stone, basically all the date load of this
all the load of this particular stone being transferred through this stone slab and it is
transferring to the ground. So, in this case this kind of arrangement where this external
force is trying to compress in your object, we know that this behavior is called
compression and that stress developed here is again the compressive stress.
So, we can say that this element like this particular wall you may say or maybe the
extended column, we can also say depending on the position they are basically the
compressive structures. And this is like a very basic structural arrangement, the wall slab
kind of relationship is there. But in the modern age also we go for this kind of
compressive structures.
Basically, we will see in the subsequent slides that for compressive structures you use the
masonry or concrete as material and the use of this kind of compressive structure was so
prominent in Greek and Roman architecture and later on even in the Gothic with a flying
buttress and all. So, we will have some slides on that we will discuss to that.
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Now, to start with the structure on which compressive load are applied along the length
of the structure. So, we also discussed in the lecture that the principal axis the major axis
based on that whatever the load applied on that. So, the material depending on the
density and the strength and the hardness they will react to that. So, in this case also this
is the major axis in this case, this is the main axis and the load applied to it is basically
giving some compression. So, all these particles, if we consider at that micro level that
they are trying to compress they are coming close to each other. So, basically
compression taking place and that in kind of structure compressive structure we
predominantly see that the load is compressive load.
Then along with that buckling is one of the major problems that occurs in the
compressive structure which depends on the bending stiffness and length what exactly
the buckling. So, if you can recall that we also discussed that whenever like you have a
long column, so applying load on it initially it will try to compress. But if it is having
higher length and consider in comparison to the cross section, so also, we refer that as
your slenderness ratio. So, basically that is the ratio between the cross section and the
length of the structure. So, if it is too narrow, suppose the length much higher than the
cross section; then applying the load along with the compression it will give a bending so
this is called buckling.
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So, for compressive structure this is a problem, if you have you know poor in this
slenderness ratio. When compression load acts on short column, so basically that time
crushing happens. So, it will try to compress and move and when it is applied to the long
column then buckling will happen.
So, what is short column and long column? So, short column is depending on the height
and then long column it is again basically the ratio. When we have like quite much
higher length compared to the cross section of that then we refer that as a long column
and short column is just where we get something you know the proportion between the
length of the column and the cross section of the column, they are not that much you
know having the ratio higher than that.
So, in that cases suppose we roughly consider so, we can consider this as a very short
column and may be something like that this is little bit a long column. So, you can see
that though the cross section of this two thermocol that I have is same but the length that
differs. Now the action of crushing when you apply load on top of it, it will try to
compress and then this is basically result in for the higher load it will go for the crushing.
So, whenever we do the test with the you know concrete block, the compressive stress
we will develop like we will see those kinds of development of cracks and it is crashed.
But when we apply for a like long column where again I am repeating that when the
length is quite higher like proportionately higher than the cross section of that, so then
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applying loads you can if you see carefully that when I applied load on it, so it will try to
bend. So, first it compresses then it will try to bend. So, this particular property is called
the buckling. So, if our material is not having good stiffness and also buckling failure
will be the problem, so we have to take care of that.
Now, we all know so just to have a recap what is compression, compression is the ability
of a material to prevent structure against pushing load. So, whenever we push the load
both the cases; one is from the up right direction and we can also put from this you know
horizontal direction. So, these are the compression. So, then based on this initial
discussion what we found?
So, whenever we have say short column, so then if we apply load it will get shortened
and then finally like it will crash. So, crushing is your phenomena. But when you have
something like this where maybe you have very thin cross section and then this is
something like a very long column.
So, when you apply load on that it will try to bend so buckling will happen. So,
depending on that position and that particular principle, so we have to select our structure
accordingly. So, that it will sustain against the applied load.
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Now, to discuss more on that the simple compression occurs when the particles of
material pushed against each other, that we say that they are trying to come close to each
other. A supporting column is one of the examples which is basically under the
compression, compressive shortening is proportional to the load per unit area and that is
why buckling will happen.
When you have a like very small area so then stress will be you know even more. So, we
know that it is F/A. So, definitely cross section will play a role. So, compressive
shortening takes place along the longitudinal axis, definitely like when it applied. So,
most commonly it is to be done through the center of this particular member.
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Now, here we have two GIF images. So, it is basically showing what we say that in a
compressive stress that how cracks develop. So, after compression it will go to the
ultimate stress that it can hold and then after that it will break. But the other case if you
see this is a kind of example of a long column, where you have like quite more length
compared to the cross section and then on applying load. So, it will have a buckling. So,
in this it is your buckling here it is crushing.
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Now, move forward to the material that being used for that one is the masonry. So,
masonry here this is a representative picture where brick being laid on the cement sand
mortar. But like we also discussed previously that masonry can also be done with the
block, stone block, the mortar can be lime surkhi mortar or a nowadays after invention of
cement; it is cement sand mortar. Concrete without reinforcement, here it is basically I
am talking about the plain concrete. So, plain concrete is having good compressive
strength. So, if you use a concrete block so it can really give you an enough strength the
compressive strength.
But sometimes for like some high-rise structure of where the span is more or the height
is more, then probably simple concrete will not really take that. Because then you know
as we discussed that because of the slenderness ratio because of the height of the
structure. So, buckling will occur so in order to prevent that bending we also need some
support to control, to resist against the tension developed during this bending. For that
this concrete is not good and that is why we add steel to it as reinforcement, which is
good steel as a material which is good for taking tensile load and then the combination of
both can really do some good support that can give us good support to make more
number of storey building and make our structure more shape.
So, that is why the masonry and concrete they very good are in compression, but poor in
tension. So, use of steel is for that reason to you know make a balance between carrying
compression which will be taken care of by a concrete itself and then we the tension will
be taken care of the steel member.
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Now, if you see the application of that then as I mentioned in the beginning of this
lecture, that in Greek and Roman temples and assembly halls so use of these compressive
structures are very predominant. Nowadays also you can see those few of those historic
building still, they are you know of that standing and you can actually refer to them.
Then after that also in the Romanesque and the Gothic architecture where normally you
know for the church and cathedral, they used this as a buttress and all. So, these are very
predominant, later on like it is shifting towards the steel or the reinforced concrete
structure. So, not really the compression is basically then taking care of the other you
know force as well. Now if you broadly classify like compressive structure.
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So, like we can have wall, arch, flying buttress, barrel vault, and dome. But again, I am
telling you like looking at the major elements of that system which is acting in the
compression load or which is resisting that compressive force, based on that this
classification has been done. But at the same time if you take example of the dome, so
dome also it is not really that everywhere we will get this compression.
Mainly you know when we discussed about the dome will find that this compression is
basically taking for this meridian and when we are taking care of this you know hoops
tension and compression both will develop will come to that only, when we have this
kind of system in detail.
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So, come to the wall like wall may be used as a building envelope or it may be a load
bearing wall or maybe a boundary wall. But basic principle is that like the load is
transferred vertically through the axis and this particular portion is in compression.
So, in this case there is no such tension. So, majorly it is in compression so it is one
example of the compressive structure. Here also if you make load bearing you know
structure the load of the slab is transferred to the wall to the foundation. So, this is
another example that already we discussed earlier, again we are taking this example of
the load bearing wall normally being used. Like in you know some of the old buildings,
where you have a higher thickness of the wall and wall will take the maximum load.
Because now we shift to the frame structure where the concrete columns and beams are
preliminary taking the load and walls are being used just to make the partition. So, in this
case wall act as a compressive structure and taking the load.
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Now, this is another example like this is the load bearing structure made. So, the slab, the
load of the slab being carried by this wall and this transferred to the foundation. So, this
is another example of the compressive structure and wall.
Come to the arch, it is very useful structure and you know the use of this arch is basically
spread in various type of construction. So, here you can see this is just being used for you
know bridge and in many historical building that has been used to create the huge door
or sometimes the corridor.
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So, in this case also, like if you take the arch as a component will also have a detail
lecture plan for this whole course on arch there will try to know different kind of arch
construction and all. But in this case, in short if I say that you know in the arch form it is
mostly a semicircular in this particular form and it is symmetrical. So, the main stone
that also we refer as a key stone. So, whatever the load applied on this surface they
actually you know spread over that and you know that create compression and they
transfer it to the support.
So, this is the overall transfer of the load through the arch and the load that been carried
out is fully compression. So, in this like arch is the very good example, where uniform
compression we can see and there is no bending on that. And sometimes you know the
second line of this particular slide that little or no tension it depends and suppose if we
link this particular arch the support.
So, you know basically if I try to put the pressure, so you just do this thing like you just
try to make one arch and you just use something the rubber band or something like this.
So, the moment you put the pressure, so it will try to be flat and then it will you know
elongate. So, basically so when you press it so it will elongate, so here tension will be
developed. But in this case, there is no such attachment so it is full compression. So,
sometimes also some truss where arch being used so we get this particular tension.
This is again another beautiful example of the arch how it being formed and the main
beauty is with a symmetry and that is why like it will also make the structure you know
in equilibrium, so that how they distribute it in the supporting structure. Now come to the
other category that we mentioned in the gothic cathedral and all the use of the flying
buttress.
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So, basically it is something like you have the main structure and someone is giving you
the support. So, something like that one has to hold it. So, the load of the roof and the
wall is being transferred to the flyer and then you have another supporting wall which
together making the flying buttress, it is again in compression. So, it is something you
know you can say that having relation with the wall but you have a connection with the
flyer, so that it will transfer the load.
So, you can see here also like how this particular you know load bearing structure being
again supported the huge mass and with the flyers. So, the flying buttresses in a gothic
cathedral transfer force of compression from roof and wall down to foundation. So,
basically whatever the load is there that to transfer to the flyer and then go down go
down and finally transfer to the foundation. So, this is very important kind of you know
compressive structure being used in those cathedrals and all.
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Now, in this case this is another example like earlier it was just a symbolic one, now you
can see that in this cathedral how it is been made. So, this is the main structure and then
now you have for this flyer and then down to that this is connected with your buttress ok.
So, how it is being supporting this building?
So, this is again very useful you know compressive structure being used and if you just
consider like the building materials. So, basically either stone block or the bricks they
being used and masonry was the technique. So, they put the bricks one by one in the
mortar bed and then they create this kind of structure.
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Now, next to that is another kind of compressive structure is your barrel vault. So, in
barrel vault normally it is something that you can see that this is a stretched arch form.
So, previously we have seen that arch it is a compressive structure so it will have a
thickness and then if you try to stretch it so basically that will give you another like what
we can say that hollow semi cylinder kind of form.
So, suppose you just have a cylinder, hollow cylinder and you just cut it like this or
maybe like this. So, whatever the form you will get is basically your barrel vault, now
here also as because it is having similarity with your arch so the transfer of load through
compression. So, whatever the load applied on it so that will be transfer to the supports.
So, normally it is being supported by some wall some load bearing wall and all normally
being used for making corridor and used as a rooftop in many of the buildings. So, a
continuous arch shape or maybe the stretched arch whatever you can say in this that may
approximate to a semi cylinder in form.
So, we are talking about this much as a semi cylinder and it is being supported to the
wall. Typically formed by a series of arches yeah definitely it is a continuous series of
arches that is making this form and it is the compressive structure on that nature. Now if
you see that how beautiful, beautifully you can use that and here also you can see some
ornamentation.
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But looking at the point of the construction, so it is again being supported and to this
particular you know beam and then being you know this you know support. So now the
advantage of creating this yes, you can create some span and definitely you know this is
one of the vaults type that we discussed barrel vault. But there are other kind of vault
where you can like use to multiple such barrel vaults to form a different kind of vaults.
We will also have a discussion on the vault section; one particular lecture will be on that
aspects. So, then we will see that how different kind of vaults acting together. But
considering the compressive full like maximum of the you know structural component
which are dealing with the compressive force of so barrel vault is one of them, which is
extended arch form and then that transfer the load to the support in where there is no
tension or maybe very you know minor tension somewhere where it is being attached or
closed.
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Now, that was one example with many structural ornamentations. But if you see this is
another example of that vault where it is very nicely been done by the architect, where
you can create a very smooth and a very good span management you can do with
application of the barrel vault where you can simply you know make something like you
know hanger kind of support or something. So, that can give you this you know
advantage of putting this. So, the compression is the main force which are taking care
off.
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And now come to the other category that is the dome. So, earlier in the vault what we
have seen that is extended the series of arches the form that barrel vault and here it is
basically a hollow semi spherical structure. But it we can say the evolved from arches.
So, what is evolve? So, if you have one arch and you access. So, then give a rotation give
360-degree rotation of this string. So, it will basically give you the multiple arches
starting from each other. So, we give you the form of this dome. And as because we
know the basic fundamentals with the arch that we started with this discussion you know
in a previous slide. So, there the main you know the load is of compression type, so here
also it is the same. But in this case what as I try to mention that when you have this
dome, so whenever you take these you know meridional you know stress. So, in this case
it is in compression so they are trying to get very close to each other.
So, in this case if you see that this is compression. But at the bottom they will try to go
out from each other, so in their hoops the tensile force being developed. At the top when
these particular hoops are tried to get closer. So, compression takes place here so in this
case dome if we just take as example. So, majority of that is basically the compression,
but slightly definitely at the circumferential hoops they are taking tension in that and at
the top where they are close together. So, then circumferential hoops they are taking your
compression. So, this is again a very useful structure, but earlier when it was used
specially for making a small hut or a rooftop.
But now because of you know some improvement in the material, then use of the steel as
reinforcement. So, this expanded like in a big structure. So, not only to cover top of any
particular room or part of the building, it is basically can cover the whole lot of building
or the entire area and create beautiful column less place on that.
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So, this is another example this is basically gymnasium for a school where you can see
that you know RCC dome how it is being used to cover a huge pan. You can imagine
taking this as reference of the car width this is a huge span being used and it is not the
case like being used in the present day, but also we have seen this kind of use of dome in
the history.
So, this is basically the example and this is very rear view, normal you know I have
referred this building specially but not this view most frequently. So, this is basically the
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you know Pantheon from Rome. So, in that if you see that from outside, so again it is
giving this particular form of the dome which is being constructed taking some good
framework and the concrete was used to make this dome. So, this is again another good
example of the compressive structure.
So, here it was used in the roman architecture and the earlier example that I have shown
you. So, this is in the modern age, definitely the earlier one only with the compression or
you know compressive material with the concrete only. But here the steel use of steel
and the reinforcement, made it successfully you know implemented for the purpose.
Now, if you just make a summary quick recap. So, what we have learned that
compression is basically it is acting to the main or major axis, where the load applied to
it ok. This is the base and then load applied to it is basically try to compress it try to
crush it. Whenever you have like short column or something where the considerably
your length of the column is not that much bigger than the cross section so crushing will
take place.
And in place of that if you have a larger height and compared to the base then buckling
will take place and then based on that also we discussed about the different types of
compressive structures. So, started with wall then the arch then the stretched arch as
vault especially, the barrel vault and then we also discussed about the flying buttress
being used in those gothic cathedrals, churches. So, basically these are the type where
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again I am saying the load they are taking, the major component of this kind of structural
system are taking compressive load that is why they are categorized in this compressive
structure group.
And last but not the least that we discussed about the dome and depending on the
material and the technology. We can also vary the span of the dome where mostly it is
taking the compression, but definitely at the circumferential hoops they are taking
tension as well.
So, here we conclude this particular lecture and these are the study materials that you can
go through and also you can go through those website links that I have given in
respective pictures. So, study more about that and can give me some feedback on it. So,
next we will be discussing about the tensile structure, where again like the similar to the
compressive structure. So, here also the structure will discuss, mostly they will be taking
tension either they will take like a little bit compression or no compression. So, we will
be discussing that in the next lecture and thank you all for taking part in this particular
course.
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Lecture – 18
Tensile Structures
Hello everyone, welcome back to NPTEL online course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today, we are at Lecture Number-18 and in this lecture we
will be talking about Tensile Structure.
So, like the previous lecture we discussed about compressive structures, where we have
discussed about different form like arch, then vault, then flying buttress which are like
mainly taking care of the compressive load and now in this lecture we will be talking
about those structural arrangement or structural form that are mainly taking care of the
tension force or we can relate it to the tensile stress and again as we discussed earlier that
this classification is based on like the predominance of which kind of force being acting
on that.
So, in same structure we may have something like a compression or some bending stress,
but predominantly it is taking care of the tension. So, based on that, this presentation or
this lecture is designed. So, let us start this particular discussion.
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So, in this particular picture what is like visible is basically a very beautiful bridge and to
be specific this is called suspended bridge, suspended Cable Bridge. So, what exactly it
is that we will discuss in this lecture, but one particular thing that you can see that in this
case the cable being used and they are in tension.
So, these cables they are taking care of the tensile load of this whole structure and that is
why the cable suspended bridges are coming into the category of tensile structure.
Now, if you see that like the concept of tensile structure, so, here also the structural
arrangement of element that carries only tension, no compression, they are called to like
tensile structure at the same time along with no compression there will be no bending as
well, but there are some structure that we will discuss that where a component may be a
minor component that are taking the compression as well.
The tensile structure, load bearing capacity is achieved through tension only and the
majority of the component. As we mentioned keep on saying that the majority of the
component of a structural arrangement they are dealing with the tensile stress. Now in
this the boundary, the example of that, that is boundary tensioned membranes is one the
tensile fabric structures is alternatively we can say the pneumatic structure we discussed
earlier that is also considered to be your tensile structure then you have pre stressed cable
nets or beam.
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So, the cable net structure normally being used to see that this being used for you know
making the roof or the stadium where you use the membrane to make the structure light,
so, how they are supported with the cable nets and the cable beam. So, tension is
basically the ability of a material to prevent against the pulling load. So, when you pull.
So, in comparison to the earlier example which looks very similar, but in this case again
it is acting on this axis, the main axis, but in this case it is basically the pulling, the other
one is on the pushing.
Now, in this case what are the changes that normally takes place in tension? So, if you
take the example of a spring, so, basically if you add load, so, it will try to expand and
you will see that it is elongated. So, the tensile stress developed within this material. So,
this is one now at the same time like you just try to hold a particular structure ok, maybe
a roof or maybe particular cantilever and you just use a cable to hold it. So, in this
particular member this cable member what essentially, so, it will have some load, so, if
you apply load to it then in this member what is the phenomena will be developed.
So, it will try to tear. So, it will always try to go this side. So, this is basically you know
this member is in tension. So, this cable is acting to hold this member. So, this
arrangement specially, the major members which are taking care of you know preventing
that structure from collapse is taking tensile load. So, this is again a tensile structure.
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So, based on that principle how it is being supported and how load are being carried out
for tensile structure, it is being classified in 5 category. One is the stayed cable we can
say, the other one is the suspended the initial picture that I have shown of your bridge is
basically of the suspended category then there is a category called anticlastic. So, this is
some term that we need to understand very clearly.
So, basically anticlastic is that it is a structure making of the curvature, but with two
curvature acting in opposite direction, two different direction we have this curvature. So,
we will discuss that in that particular slide, what is anticlastic. Then pneumatic is
basically the structure made of like with the pressure of the air that can form is basically
the pneumatic structure and trussed sometimes we can go with the you know cable
trussed and also we will discuss that as well.
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So, in this stayed tensile structure basically, the whole mass you know the roof and other
things they are being supported with the stayed cables. So, these are if you see in broad,
so, these are basically your stay cable.
So, they are taking care of this and you know in all these members, so, which actually
support they are developing tension, but at the same time as I mentioned in this particular
bar the mast sometimes we say, so, basically they are carrying the load to the ground. So,
these will take compression, but predominantly if you see the overall arrangement, so, it
is basically coming under the stayed cable structure. So, this is one kind of an
arrangement and this is again you can see a modern building. So, there stayed tensile
structure being used.
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Take the other example. So, it is again showing that you have this kind of arrangement of
the rails or the beam which are being connected with this particular masts. So, this is
again the stayed cable where tension is developed on this.
So, basically this is another you know kind of setup into the category of stayed tensile
structure.
Now, considering that two, we have another example this is the Millennium Dome in
London, the huge structure this membrane structure creating some space and in this case
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also if you see that this mast are placed to as a compressive members and all this
particular roof being connected with the stayed cable. So, it is taking care of the form
and the overall structure that been made. So, these all are in tension.
So, overall this arrangement is called stayed cable tensile structure.
Come to the suspended one. So, in this case we started with the Golden Gate Bridge that
image and here it is another image of that where you get all these you know vertical
members which are giving support, but the main support being given with this particular
cable, so, which is in tension.
So, in this case these all tensile cables like this all also trying to take care of the tensile
force that been generated in this particular bridge. So, the load whenever there is some
imposed load on this, they are putting some pressure to the structure and that being taken
care of by this cable which is suspended from a running cable. So, this is the example of
the tensile structure. And why it is called tensile? Because the majority of the you know
elements in this whole system they are taking the tensile force and they are resisting the
and that is why the name it is.
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So, if you see this, like this is the overall the structure where like they have shown in this
like different component how they are making this structure stable, but our concern is to
know these the main cables and the vertical you know what we call vertical suspender
ropes which is taking care of this.
So, the whole member like whole support with these members are specially taking care
of the tensile force being developed due to the applied load for the main bridge. So, the
structure that being made on top of for the main bridge or the carriageway where the
vehicles and people are moving. So, these are responsible for taking tension and it is
suspended tensile structure that we can say.
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This is another example with that Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol. You can see that
the like how this has been made. It is pretty similar to look like the Golden Gate Bridge,
but this is another example into the same category.
Now, this is very important the anticlastic. So, as I mentioned that this is basically plane
having curvature, but in opposite direction. If you see in this case and you can sometimes
relate with like very easy example that I can give you is basically, if you go and purchase
some potato chips. So, many of that chips are giving this particular form. So, what
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exactly this is that means, that here if you see the curvature in this ok, so, you have
curvature in this direction and at the same time you have curvature in this direction.
So, the same plane being arranged where two curvature having the opposite direction.
So, this is very much you know important and to know for the anticlastic. The opposite
to that is synclastic where all the curvatures, say for the dome all the curvatures from
XYZ whatever the axis involved all the sides, it will give you the similar kind of
direction. So, in this case it is in opposite direction. So, it is anticlastic and this can be
achieved through different kind of parabolic hyperbolic or parabolic hyperboloid kind of
form.
And if you see some of the work done by architect Felix Candela, so, then you can get all
these example like even in oceanografic building or in some other buildings of that type
will get this kind of anticlastic curvature where it is being used with the you know tensile
stress and this can be also formed with the membrane or fabric, not only the concrete
with the fabric also we create it and we will have some pictures on that too.
So, in this case if you see like the application of anticlastics.
So, here also you get the curvature, one is like this and the other one is just getting the
support to the bottom. So, again it is being supported with the cable and you have some
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mast compressive members as will which will take those loads to the foundation. Take
another example.
It is basically a conical shape fabric structure then this is basically from the Arizona State
University Campus. So, in that case also these fine like cables they are taking the main
load and if you see the curvature also here, you have a different kind of you know
arrangement somewhere this cone is upside sometimes it is in the downward direction,
but we are getting the curvature in different manner. So, it is basically again you can
resemble with the example I have given.
So, the two curves that they are acting like their direction are different then that is why I
call it is anticlastic.
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Now, come to the pneumatic structure. Pneumatic structure is basically what I mentioned
earlier that this structure is formed with the help of the air. So, air is injected through like
very thin membrane structure and which will give you the form. Here also like it is
giving some kind of form where it is being, so, light and normally to cover some you
know area and you have to make your success super light. So, then you can go with this.
So, this is the Tokyo Dome, where this particular you know activity place is been
covered with this pneumatic structure where air is used to give this particular form and
being supported like this get connected at the top and those particular you know
members these cables they are just giving and the proper shape of this structure.
So, this is again another example of the tensile structure where mainly those portions due
to the air blow and also these will try to expand. So, go away from each other. So,
tension being developed at this point. So, this is example of the pneumatic structure.
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This is another pneumatic structure being covered in a football stadium, but later on it
being dismantle, but this Pontiac Silverdome in Michigan. So, this is the same like that
Tokyo dome.
So, in this case also you get like this particular division to just give the form so that it
will take the proper shape, so that can act with. So, this is again another example of the
tensile structure.
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Now, come to the tensile trussed structure, so, where instead of those cable and stayed
cable or suspension we use the truss. So, what is truss?
So, far we have seen some of the examples and we will also discussed more on the truss.
So, it is basically something like the arrangement of the structural member in a triangular
form which will be much more effective to you know distribute the load applied load on
it and it actually manage this with some you know load transfer with some member will
take compression, some will take tension and then they will actually balance it and
maintain the static equilibrium.
So, that is very important for making a truss. So, in this case again, the cable being used.
You can see this is a like Oldenburg Stadium in Germany, where like again it is a
membrane structure like all other again the curvature if you see that you get this
anticlastic form which is actually taking care of all this load applied on it, but it is being
supported with a truss system.
So, you have a cable and along with that to complete that truss, you also have something
which is very you know small cross-sectional cables which is making the form. So, this
particular truss that being formed and taking the fabric and to cover it up. So, it is
making tensile structure, but in this category of trussed.
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This example is another one of that, but here it is instead of the cable trussed, it is the
normal trussed being used where the cover is being made with again the fabric, but
overall like the trust being made and you can see that at the top also in order to you know
take this particular structure stable and all. So, those mast being created and this is
getting connected at different points.
So, that it is holding the overall balance and all to maintain it. So, again with these cables
and all, it is giving that tension and it is coming under the category of tensile structure,
but along with all this truss it is coming into the trussed category. So, this is a very useful
information that we are getting in this particular lecture.
So, what we have seen now based on that we also would like to know the uses already
depending on the variety of the application of the tensile truss that it is really helpful to
make the light roof over stadium or any like it may be a open kind of stadium just to
cover the spectator area or else we can also use it in a form of pneumatic structure to
cover up the whole space like whenever we have anything called your indoor sports
stadium something like for to be made for like this Tokyo dome or the other one that we
used like that we discussed that is for to cover a football stadium.
So, this is one like use of the tensile structure, again that the roof of the indoor sports
arena that we discussed. Then sometimes not only like took over the huge span.
Sometimes in order to you know make it very light for the parking areas or any you
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know to any shaded area in the open plaza and all, we can also have this kind of tension
and fabric structures which will really make our thing column free.
Say for example, if we have a like a vertical member a roof. So, you have to initially
support it with two members, but at the same time the advantage with a structure like
then you can go for something like you just use a tension cable with a mast and can
create this with a very light material. So, that this portion is column free, you can use the
you can maximize the use of that space.
So, this is for the parking areas. Then come to the large span without obstruction that we
have seen specially, where we have seen that Millennium Dome, what is really covering
very huge space with the stayed cable and those mast. So, this is also useful there to go
for the particular you know covering up at the large span in you know inner structure.
Then the important thing that we started with that is also this kind of tensile suspension
cable structure being used to make the bridges, sometimes maybe the cantilever,
sometime some you know making some temporary structures of that nature which is very
useful to carry all the load with the suspension cable and the supporting cables, the
vertical suspended cables which will help the main cables to take the load.
Then sometimes maybe we have seen in many Olympic games that the swimming pool is
been covered, there also we use this tensile structure and as we mentioned that we can
also go with this cantilever structure. So, this is about the use of that tensile structure.
Now, if we want to just summarize this particular fact that in this we discussed about the
tensile structure.
So, what is the tension there?
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So, whenever any object is giving some you know pulling load, so, they will try to
expand and the internal strain that developed, it is basically your tensile stress. So,
depending on that like the structure which the main most of the members of that
structural arrangement is taking care of this tensile load is basically the tensile structure.
So, depending on the position and the member used and the type of you know what we
call, the way they resist the load against the applied forces, so, then we have some
category. So, we started with the stayed cable, where like the example that I have given
with the Millennium Dome with the large span is being divided there are some support as
a compressive member and the whole roof being supported to the stayed cable.
So, this is one example where it is being supported with the mast and the stayed cable.
So, this is the arrangement of both, but the earlier the next one that we discussed that is
the suspended one. Suspended one, we discussed about that particular Golden Bridge
where the main cables and the suspended vertical members, they are taking care of the
load implied on this particular bridge. So, whatever the load of the traffic, whatever the
load of your you know vehicles, people, dead load, everything is taken care of this
suspension cable. So, this is again a pull of tension those members are in tension and
they are able to cater the you know purpose to hold it. So, this is again the suspended
structure. Then what we discussed is basically one of them like the pneumatic.
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So, in pneumatic structure it is basically you use the air and you give that pressure. So,
your structure will make a form of a dome or something and then with the cable you can
give a shape to it. So, this is also being useful to make some portable structure or make
some you know convention hall or convocation hall, a last span where also it is similar to
yours the dome Millennium dome, but here the whole thing being done through air
pressure management and with some cable to just give the shape. So, it is in the
pneumatic form.
So, this is again very important. Then also we discussed about the truss. So, some of like,
some of the examples that we have seen in a stadium that where the fabric structure that
being used, so, in that case like the cable truss being used and they hold it the structure
with the other cable, but along with that instead of the stayed cable for trussed kind of
tensile structure, so, they use the truss as a member. We have seen another example also,
where the roof of the stadium the football stadium is just supported with truss and then it
is the membrane to make or reduce the weight of the structure then the other one that we
discuss very important one that is your anticlastic.
So, anticlastic means, I have given example of the chip. So, basically wherever you have
such kind of you know structure where like you get this particular shape, where the plane
is basically a plane if you just gives the curvature to give the form where both are having
some you know different direction the opposite direction.
So, here you can get that it is giving some direction of the curvature and here it is
something different. So, this kind of hyperbolic, parabolic or hyperbolic paraboloid form
being used and many works being done by Felix Candela and then later on many such
structural engineers and architects and we have some good buildings that like
oceanographic building and other building where like it is taking the load of the tension.
But this is not only being used for the concrete structure we also have seen that this being
used with the membrane structure and we have seen that how that can be done. It can be
done with a conical shape; it can be done in a wavy shape.
So, different kind of fabric tensile structures will fall into this anticlastic tensile structure
category and we will definitely discuss those you know fabric structure in one particular
lecture in detail where we will also see. So, there our focus will be on this fabric
structure and the component, but considering the load it can take it is of tensile type.
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So, that is why we discussed in this particular chapter. So, 5 types of tensile structure
broadly that we used, but apart from that as we discussed in the previous lecture that
even in the compressive structure like dome, there the circumference hoops they are
taking the tensile structure, so, tensile load.
So, basically, the tension and compression and bending they are acting in like in various
kind of arrangement of structure, but some of the structure where the tension is very
predominant, sometimes the bending is very predominant, sometimes maybe the
compression is very predominant and depending on the classification happen.
So, this is all over that tensile structure and I have given a very few of many such
beautiful tensile structure example and I ask you to just you know extend that particular
list you also put the examples of each of these 5 categories, so that things will be clear
and we will exchange that in the forum or in the discussion section that how this can be
classified in which category of tensile structure or compressive structure.
And these are the reading materials, the same reading materials you go through it and if
you want to know more about the examples and their different theory background and
the material being used to construct that, you can always go through those links I have
given in each of the slide.
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So, with that I conclude this particular lecture and we will move forward to the lecture
number 19 that is all about the load bearing structure.
So, we will be discussing different load bearing structure in that lecture and before I
conclude I really want to thank you all for taking part in this course and like we will be
waiting for the next lecture, till then bye bye.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 19
Load Bearing Structures
Hello, everyone welcome back to online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today, we are at Lecture Number-19 and this lecture we will
cover up different components, different arrangements of Load Bearing Structures. So
far, whatever we have seen in previous lectures with the compressive structures and as
well as tensile structures, we have seen that how different arrangements different
materials, they are acting towards like to resist against the compression and tension.
So, today basically this is another arrangement that we initially talked about the wall slab
structure in the structural typology. So, here we will discuss it in more details about the
load bearing structure.
So, at the introduction, load bearing structure is the structure where the load of the slab
or the roof will be carried out or that load will transmit through the wall. So, wall will be
the main component load bearing elements of the structural system. So, this is one the
lateral load again will be taken by the wall.
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So, two kind of loads preliminary; one is the gravity load that will come from the slab or
the upper force that will transmit to the wall to the foundation; the other one is basically
give lateral load, the wind load and other different (you know) the rain road. So, then this
kind of lateral load is also be taken care by the wall. So, wall will be the main component
in this case.
So, here it says the load bearing structure is the structure in which the loads of the roof as
well as the lateral loads borne by the walls. So, it is basically leading to the wall slab
kind of arrangement; structural arrangement. So, what exactly happens how the load has
transferred. So, impose load on the upper storey the slab or the walls transferred through
the wall to the lower floor and eventually that will to the footing or foundation and to the
soil.
Load bearing structure consists of heavy machinery walls as because the whole load will
be taken care by the walls. So, the thickness of the wall should be substantial and as the
material that can be used to make this kind of wall is either brick or stone sometime the
block. So, in the history, like till we got of the reinforcement or the steel in the picture of
the construction industry, we have seen that the building's mostly dependent on this load
bearing machinery walls.
So, whether it is in the Greek period or the Roman period, even sometimes in the modern
age where there are some constant. But, we have to understand that the application of
this load bearing structure will have some limitations because we are increasing the
thickness of the wall so, maybe for that we have to compromise with the interior space,
at the same time as because it is only of the machinery work. So, it will not be really
acting in a proper manner during the earthquake activity where like there will be some
vibration so, very regular tension compression. Though masonry work are good in
compression, but they will not really act very well in case of tension. So, that is why
sometimes it is good for a low storey buildings say up to four storey or so, but beyond
that there are some limitations.
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So, with that we proceed so, basically how they transfer the load. So, it is basically the
wall, they act as structural element the supporting structure and slab here is basically the
supported one. So, the all the load like which is there on the slab so, all this horizontal
loads will then transfer to the wall, adjoining wall. So, adequately the thickness of the
wall should be little bit thick than the normal frame structure wall, partition wall because
this is taking the load.
So, load transfer is live and dead load that we calculate for the slab or the upper floor.
So, dead load is the self weight of the building materials. As well as when we consider
the live load is basically the load of your furniture’s and other elements moving
elements. Then, the load will on the slab will then transfer to the wall and wall will
transfer to the lower floor and then the footing. So, this is the way they transfer the load
and here we are talking about the transmission of the gravity load. So, the load acting
towards gravity.
But, along with that there are the wind pressure and other thing. So, those lateral load
will also be taken care by the wall as a main structural supporting member. So, this is the
features where wall is acting both for taking the lateral load as well as the axial or the
gravitational load.
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And, now definitely the application. There are many considerations by which we will
pick up one particular structural arrangement that initially when we discussed the
purpose of the structure and when we apply what kind of structure. So, one of that is
basically the criteria of the geological aspect, the soil condition.
So, as because the load bearing structure cannot be really taking the huge load and that is
why we cannot make multi storey building on that. The one of the major consideration
for load bearing structure that the soil should have very hard strata with very lesser
depth; that means, when you see, if you virtually make a cross section of our wall
surface, so, at the top the ground level we call and then if we go towards the center of
gravity center of the earth so, then we get a sectional profile.
So, we have different kind of strata in that particular profile. So, sometimes we get some
very loose strata, sometimes it is basically very pervious layer, sometimes you may get
something rocky, sometime it is sandy, clayey. So, depending on the soil condition we
have to assess the SBC; Safe Bearing Capacity of the soil so, the way it can hold the load
of the entire building of the structure.
So, wherever we can get this hard strata at very lesser depth maybe within a limit of 1.5
meter to 2 meter and we get that rock strata in those conditions this particular load
bearing structure will be useful. So, here you can see that with this straight hooding how
like this with the offset only with the brick they are making the foundation and you can
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as is the height of this brick is varying from 75 mm. So, you can actually estimate
virtually as says that the height of the foundation the depth of the foundation. So, it is
basically not that much having that depth. So, this type of small depth foundation is also
referred as shallow foundation, alternate to that, we have de foundation where we go for
like different kind of pile foundations and all. But, with this load bearing thing it is
basically the shallow foundation and the main criteria that we have to check that where
we can get the hard strata as very shallow depth. So, this is one suitability of this kind of
application of load bearing structure to be checked.
Now, along with that as we discussed like the main component of the load bearing
structure is the wall, it may be made of stone masonry or maybe brick masonry, but
basically the wall. But, now depending on the requirement, arrangement of those walls
may vary and that is why how you design the structure that will also vary case to case
wherever you go for a residential building or maybe something like in a school building
or maybe hostel building.
So, based on that we have the classification of a wall arrangements. So, the cellular wall
structure then you have simple cross wall structure, then double cross wall structure and
the complex wall structure. So, in the subsequent slides we will try to understand what
these arrangements are and where we actually require this kind of arrangement for the
load bearing structure.
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But, remember one thing even in the load bearing structure you may go for some
partition wall depending on space distribution and all, but overall like the load will only
be carried by the load bearing walls which will have a higher thickness and that also
turns with the load to the foundation. The other partition they do not need any foundation
as of like they are not taking any load from the slab. So, those are basically also referred
as non structural wall.
So, we have like two things into consideration. So, one is your structural wall, so which
will basically carry the load and the other one which is not carrying the load. So, mainly
the partition wall that we can create for some purpose.
Now, come to the load bearing structure cellular wall type arrangement, where like the
number of walls they are joined together and basically the external and internal they are
combined to each other in such a manner that the internal, what we can say that the
external surface external walls they create a boundary this profile and the internal walls
they both are load bearing walls and they create the division and make it cells.
So, basically it is making rooms in practically, but here it is basically they are creating
difference cells so, 1 2 3 4 5 and 6. So, so many cells being created the outer walls is
giving the boundary, the internal walls they are making the division and cells. So, with
that here in all cases they are all structural walls; that means, the load bearing walls and
this arrangement is called cellular.
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So, in this kind of structure how load will be transferred it depends on like the position.
Suppose if I take a square slab and we have this wall all the sites so, the load will be
transferred very uniformly. So, it will give transferred the load from the slab in and the
four walls symmetrically ok. But, the moment in state of a square one if you get
something like a rectangular then the distribution will change. So, basically in that case
the maximum load will go for the longer side and accordingly the minimal will go to the
shorter side. So, depending on the wall position and direction the load will also transfer
accordingly, if at all the other parameters, the homogeneity the thickness of the wall all
the site will remain same.
Now, moving to the next one. The single cross wall structure so, many a times what we
want that the load bearing structure the other problem that again we will discuss during
the disadvantage that we cannot really create big openings because the moment you
create big openings to that wall. So, it will become void and it will not that much capable
to hold the load. So, that is why the opening size should have some limitations.
So, sometimes due to that reason, there is some problem to maximize the daylight, the
sunlight into the corridor or the interior space and many a times that is why the
arrangement of those walls to be done in such a manner like we put those walls in
parallel direction and the other part we use some non-structural partition wall where we
can create some opening without compromising the load and load carrying capacity and
the safety.
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Say for example, in this case the large number of identical rooms were to be placed; say
for hotels you get typical rooms placed one after another and also like for the hostels it is
the same. So, in that case we can go for some arrangements. So, here you can see the
load bearing structure that you can see with the brick color the other one is of non non
structural wall so, they are having lesser thickness or where you can cut the opening. So,
maximum load will be borne by this parallel arrangement of walls.
So, basically this kind of arrangement is called what we say there is single cross wall
structure. And, in this case what exactly happened so, when the load will be distributed
from the top as because we have this wall as non-structural. I just try to make the plan of
that. So, non-structural so, load will not be transferred by that. So, in that case the load
will be transferred to the parallel walls.
So, the main load bearing structure like walls will take care of the load and these are
something. So, if you place another wall here. So, some portion of the load will also
transfer to this wall. So, this is one kind of arrangement which is single cross wall and
the main reason to create the opening and having more light inside the building.
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Now, in addition to that sometimes not only in single direction, single axis will have the
parallel load bearing walls, but it may be of the both the axes; X and Y so, here it is the
same. So, if you just compare with the previous image, this hostel one and this one so,
here you say that so, in this axis we have some load bearing structure ok, the structural
walls. And, along with that also we have in the other direction in the perpendicular
direction and in order to maximize the day light and all what was the purpose basically?
So, we create some non structural walls.
So, essentially, they will not take much load or transfer the load to the foundation. So,
main load will be carried out by both way both axis placing parallel walls and that should
be also in grid in this particular arrangement to satisfy the need. So, this is double cross
wall structure. So, it is also very common where you actually see in the apartment
building or small residential building something we can think of that, but at the same
time when you go with a very regular shape and all distribution will be always easy.
Suppose say if I just want to make the plan of this thing so, if I draw these are the
structural wall and then you have connection the thinner one is non-structural wall. So, in
this case, if I draw this particular portion so, you can understand easily. So, in this case
load will be transferred like this and in this case, it is at the perpendicular direction. So,
the previous picture what you see that it is all aligned with axis. So, if I just refer it to the
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Y axis so, it is only with the y axis direction, but in this case it is both your X axis as
well as Y axis. So, they are placed depending on the grid and the need.
But, in actual like when we think of making division depending on the purpose like we
cannot have the toilet of equivalent size of like your bedroom. So, it will not have equal
size. So, bedroom must have a bigger size and dimension because of the furniture to be
kept in that whereas, the toilet we can reduce it. So, then there is so many variations and,
in that case, probably this kind of parallel wall system will may not work.
So, then portion of that building, some part of that will be load bearing structure thick
wall and the other part where we make the partition as I mentioned earlier also we can go
with a thinner one, but they all will be non structural walls. Or sometimes they may be
made of some other material not even with the masonry. So, sometimes we can go with
some wooden partition or something like that.
So, they will basically make the complex wall structure system. So, if we compare to the
other picture it is just the modification of that where you can observe that the allied
alignment of this is basically your cross method and the simple method. So, combination
of cellular and cross wall arrangement is making it very hybrid.
So, here you can see the irregularity of the space where some space being created so, for
some privacy or for some making some storage. So, they are not essentially taking any
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load of the slab and contribute to the load transferring. So, all these brick color walls
which are the structural walls in this particular arrangement will be responsible for this.
So, this is the complex wall structure. So, sometimes we have been based on our need or
maybe it was not planned initially and then in subsequent period will impose something
more like we just modify the plan and create such small spaces as per our requirement,
then we can go with this complex wall arrangement system.
Now, come here now we will see some of the photographs where this load bearing
structure being used. So, this is very simple and like just only one and a half storey,
almost two storey building in this case. So, what you can see here that main walls and
this is being supported by some of the lintel or something. So, mainly they are taking the
load; the load will be transferred the transferred by wall, but at the roof also you can see
here it is very light structure and not flat slab. So, this is something where it can be easily
made.
And, one of the advantages of making this load bearing structure so, it will be cheaper
compared to the frame structure if you consider only few storey building. Definitely
when you go for high-rise then if we at all go with this load bearing, then proper care to
be taken and then the cost-effective cost will not be really very low. So, for the low cost
construction so, sometimes it is very helpful to go with.
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And, in this what we have seen that this complex structure can also be made with the
modification. This is a building from Chicago. So, it is 16 storey load bearing structure.
So, that can be done, but for that we need very much calculative, very well design, and
the execution as well.
So, in this if you see that other image compared to like if I compare this particular
building with this it is like schematic one where the roof and slab load will be transferred
by the bearing wall and where there is no reinforcement, right?
And, then you have something unreinforced concrete strips. So, without reinforcement
we can go with some PCC, Plain Cement Concrete as a base to give act as a foundation.
So, this is the similar kind of thing, but instead of the pitched roof, the slant roof, here
you have the flat roof. So, this system is available. So, mainly for low cost housing we
can really think of this load bearing structure, but at the same time we also need to take
care of the soil condition.
If we get hard strata, if we get the strata in the shallow depth the lower there at very low
depth then we can recommend this kind of load bearing structure. But, this is not like
being used for the small structure, sometimes some huge structure in history was also
made with the same concept.
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So, this is a building in India. IIM, Ahmadabad which is also a big machinery load
bearing structure and you can see that how beautiful you can make that design. You can
also create the opening not very large opening, but whenever you create you can give
some geometry to come up with some good appearance and this is something which is
modern one.
So, this is another arrangement where even the top of this particular structure is also
having some brickwork, so this is again a load bearing structure. Along with the walls, so
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we can also create the column or pillar made of brick. So, this is also possible to make
this structure and where everything all the loads will be transferred to the wall, to the
foundation. So, walls and the brick pillars are responsible to transfer the load.
Now, this is something where the it is not the brick or stone it is basically the sun-dried
earth or sometimes also, we refer it as adobe. So, this is used to make this kind of
structure. So, again it is a load bearing where the modified earth, the sun-dried mud is
taking the load of the entire structure and just to give support at the roof, so here some of
the wooden plank are used in this structure.
Now, this is something where I have shown like the material can be of a different
quality. Nowadays also there are compost earth material, then composite materials some
material made out of waste (daily waste). So, that can also be used as a substitute for the
conventional brick and make these low-rise structures.
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Now, this is something which is grid. There is no concept of the low rise, but here also it
is the masonry work and again here the load, the gravitational load and other load being
taken care by this massive structure.
So, it is also being used the similar kind of load bearing structure way back in the Roman
period where this Colosseum, this arena was designed and where those galleries and the
loads transferred through the wall on this particular surface. So, it was there also in
history this load bearing structure.
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And, this is something which is always appreciable and great architecture. This is also
made with the concept of this load bearing. So, here also you will not get the frame
structure or some different structure. So, again, the step by step like this Taj Mahal was
made taking the concept of load bearing structure.
Now, come to the advantage in very short already we have discussed the advantages. So,
here we just summarized it. The load bearing structural system, external, internal wall
serve as a structural element. This is something which is there like they will be sole
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responsible to carry or transfer the load but as well as it will give protection. As because
of the thickness it will give protection from the external weather, then like it may be the
rain, it may be something like the heat, it will be effective, then the thick wall will also
help from the fire as well as it will also act as a buffer to create some protection from the
noise. So, noise resistance is also there for the thickness of the wall.
And, comparatively construction cost is cheap as because as I mentioned that for the low
one storey, two storey building. So, that can be done. The design of the load bearing
structure is also simple because that will also design a grid. So, different arrangements
that we have discussed we can go with that. There is not much complexity unless we
really go for a very complex design, and then probably the last of the fourth type of
arrangement that we will discuss the complex wall arrangement, then there will be some
problems.
Then, the load bearing structure can be constructed without expensive planned and
machine; we do not really require heavy machinery or plant for that, what we need some
brick and mortar. So, with this masonry that can be done even in this case you can take
help for skilled or as well as the unskilled labor. So, there is something easy to construct
and the design is very simple to design all these walls and then it can be really be easy
compared to the frame structure construction. And, at the same time like in this case like
the type of materials required is also less so, complexity of procuring material will also
be very much easy for this kind.
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Coming to the disadvantages here also we need to know that as because it is basically
you have to provide the thick wall so; the carpet area means the interior space we have to
compromise. So, the carpet area efficiency in planning is very less and that is why
nowadays it is not being in practice and we move to the frame structure or some thin wall
structure or different steel structure where we can maximize the interior space as well.
Wall thickness cannot be maintained uniformly throughout because whenever you go for
a multi storey building when height will increase then the thickness will also change
because at the very beginning we have design like if you have multi storey building the
load of upper storey transferred to the next storey and like this. So, basically the load
profile will be something like in a pyramidical order. So, for that also you need to change
the thickness when you go up you can reduce the thickness of the wall at the base it will
be bigger than that.
The limitation of span as because like it is only taking the slab wall type of construction.
So, there we have to also restrict to the size of the room. So, all old building if you visit
that though they are giving very nice environment, thermal comfort, they are making the
balance with the interior and outside their heat transfer, but definitely the thick wall
actually limiting the space inside, then also the limitation of the height this is there.
The limitation for providing openings is also there because we cannot cut those load
bearing structure for the ventilation and the light. Walls have to build first; this is a very
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nice point where it says that as because the wall is the only supporting member. So, all
walls to be constructed first then the slab. So, we have to wait till all the walls are
constructed the same height and then you go for it. So, that is the limitation in this
particular case and which is sometimes time consuming if area is too merge and so,
many walls to be constructed.
And, another one is basically this load bearing structure is not really very good in terms
of earthquake resistance. As because during the earthquake, the shock wave creates very
simultaneous tension and compression and as because this masonry they are poor in
tension because there is no reinforcement no steel which can actually help to manage the
tension so, it will not be really good for specially the high rise building. So, that is why
the limitation of the height and the number of storey is there.
When it is a small design like one storey, two storey building then there will be not much
effect on this by earthquake, but we have limitation for this. So, probably in this case like
the thickness of the wall if it is two so, that will also sometimes keep a filling towards the
like the megalithic structure. So, that can be fruitful during the earthquake or it will give
the overall earthquake resistance, but not for the building having more height. So, these
are the disadvantages.
So, with that if we just summarized these things already, we discussed. So, in this case
the main structural component is the wall that will take and the load transfer slab to wall
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to foundation and then to soil. So, that is the overall transfer the arrangement that we
have seen that it may be cellular where the external walls they make the boundary, the
internal walls they create the division, so that they create the cell and cellular.
Then we have simple cross where the parallel walls are being constructed to welcome
light and maximize the light and this kind of arrangement can be helpful where we go for
a very identical rooms placing one after another like hostel or hotel. Then double cross
both the axes like the x and y axis both the axes will put some structural wall and in
order to will come light we provide some non-structural and create the opening.
And, then basically what we have the complex one. So, complex one is based on the
requirement we can actually make something non-uniform the internal arrangement and
where we have combination of non-structural thin walls with the thick structural walls
which will be responsible. So, it is a combination of your cross arrangement as well as
the cellular arrangement of that.
And, we have seen that from history and the recent times the use of this and basically for
this brick masonry or the stone masonry were used. So, earlier still we got concrete in
construction, most of the masonry work that done even in Byzantine period and Gothic
periods. So, many of the buildings are made of this machinery and acting as a load
bearing structure. Sometimes they being supported with the flying buttress to reduce the
thickness of the wall and increase the interior space. So, this is another arrangement.
But, the disadvantage is basically you cannot go for a larger height. You cannot really
make it for a long span, as well as like it will not really effective if you go for high rise
and in earthquake prone area. So, then it will be a problem and wherever you can get a
good soil strata or hard strata at very shallow depth, then this kind of foundation this kind
of arrangement like spade fruiting with brickwork is fruitful. So, load bearing structure
can be, and as because like compared to the frame structure it is cheaper so, for like low
cost housing or something this kind of load bearing structure is helpful.
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So, with that I conclude here. So, these two are some reading materials where you can go
through it or else you can also go through the links, I have given in some of the slides so,
you can read more on it. So, with that we conclude this section.
So, next we will be discussing the temporary structure and then we will try to know that
the need of those structures in the context of the construction and in the context of your
typology or how it can help making the structure as required. So, with that again I just
would like to say thank to all of you to take part in this course.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 20
Temporary Structures
Hello everyone, welcome back to online course on Structure, Form, and Architecture:
The Synergy. Today we are at Lecture Number-20. So, this is all about the Temporary
Structures; previously like in previous lectures we have discussed about the compressive
structure, then the tensile structure, and also, we discussed about the load bearing
structures. Now, we move to a different kind of you know structural term that is
temporary. So, basically as the name suggest, in this lecture we will be discussing about
the structure which is just made for a small duration, is just to not for like staying for a
longer duration or permanent.
And we should also know the requirement of different structural system to make those
temporary structures and also the need of temporary structures to support our you know
some buildings or to give a form. So, let us start with this particular lecture which is
temporary structures. So, basically if you see the need of temporary structures, so it helps
in giving support to unsafe structures. So, many a times if a building is too old and over
the period, there will be some deterioration on structure. So, the building is considered to
be very unsafe, this is one.
Sometimes maybe due to some faulty construction or maybe the material used was not of
the required property, then also your structure will become weak. So, for that we need to
support it with some temporary arrangement. So, temporary structure helps in giving
support to the unsafe building.
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Second is giving initial support to newly constructed structures. So, here it is basically
referred to the form work; when we make the construction with concrete, so when you
mix up the cement, sand, stone chip, water and we prepare the concrete, it will be you
know very semi liquid form and will not really able to take the load. So, for that we have
to make the formwork or shuttering work that will give the initial form of the structure,
and then we pour concrete on top of it and we wait till the setting time.
So, depending on the position, depending on the material, it may take from 7 days, 14
days or maybe 28 days to be you know followed after curing of concrete. So, in order to
make this column, slab, etcetera; so we also need to make some you know temporary
construction with the material can be of wood, plywood, it may be of steel, depending on
the scale of the project, depending on the available resources with the developer or the
construction partner. So, that will also help in to give support to the newly construction
structural part.
Also, in making construction work easy; so this is something not really giving support to
the structure, but it is giving you the framework. Many a times when we see at high rise
building, so always the question comes in the mind; how like a person like paint at the
you know at the height of the 30th floor or something like that, or some repair work to be
done, how to make it at that from external wall. So, we have seen such kind of
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arrangement, like they can make it with the bamboo or maybe the steel component to just
make some platform and then they work it.
So, due to that particular requirement, we also need such kind of temporary arrangement;
technically we call it scaffolding.
So, if I broadly classify the temporary structures, so we will have two category; one is
shoring, the other one is scaffolding. So, we have to understand each of these terms very
carefully and like we should know different type of shoring and scaffolding and we can
make some difference, what are the purpose. Where shoring is basically used to support
your building, either it is unsafe or maybe to give initial strength to the building under
construction.
And the scaffolding is basically will help to make the construction work. Like laying the
bricks, making plaster, making some repair work or maybe some paint. So, different type
of scaffolding; depending on the height of the building, height of the structure, the
scaffolding arrangement will vary, the material used will vary. So, in this lecture we will
cover those issues.
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So, what exactly the shoring as already I mentioned; the construction of temporary
structure required to support the unsafe structure. So, what exactly; so we make a
structural arrangement, which is not permanent for some duration maybe, until the
building is retained to the safe position or like maybe dismantle and a new construction.
So, in order to like support those unsafe buildings, shoring is required and that is
basically a temporary structure.
So, when we require it? when walls of a building develop sign of bulging and leaning
outwards. So, what exactly it means; suppose if we see a building is basically the
structure is too old or may be due to faulty construction, so or due to unequal settlement
underground. So, building will have a tendency to tilt the outer side, or maybe a part of
the building is showing a leaning towards something like it will fall; so then a support to
be given, like we have seen in the compressive structure thing, the flying buttresses. So,
basically it is supporting the wall and anchor it to the ground.
So, something some kind of arrangement to be done to support this kind of things. So,
this shoring is one of the structure that can be used to solve this purpose. Now, the next
point is the when your wall is a defective wall; suppose it got very much damp and very
much porous and it is no longer be taking any kind of load, rather it will give some
discomfort to the environment and we have to dismantle it.
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But in order to dismantle it, we have to give the initial support to the slab or connecting
structure, so that we can easily remove the part which is already damaged and then we
reconstruct and then make our structure safe again, until that part is rebuilt, so we can
use the shoring. The other one is supporting the superstructure when large opening are
required to be cut in a load bearing wall. So, what exactly does it mean; like suppose if
you have a load bearing wall and as we discussed in the load bearing structure lecture.
So, preliminary all the load transferred from the slab through the wall to the foundation;
so this particular wall is taking the maximum load. Now, it should have the thickness to
bear the load of the upper storey. Now, say for example you have to make the openings,
so we cannot simply cut one opening on to that particular wall, and for that you have to
initially support the slab, ok; which initially the wall was taking the load, so we have to
give another support.
Till that opening is made and the door frame or the opening frame being installed
properly, till that time we have to support it, so this is also a application of shoring to
that. Now, also it gives support to the walls of two adjacent building; when say we have
a series of building and what you need to do, they are very close to each other and we
have to dismantle the building in between these two.
So, if we have say three buildings and you have to dismantle this particular building, so
in that case during that dismantle process and all; they may impact, keep some impact
and this two buildings surrounding that the middle one may fall towards each other. So,
for that sometimes we have to make the structure stable, we have to give some temporary
support; so that can be also done to shoring.
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And depending on the position and the purpose, shoring is further divided in three parts.
So, one is your raking shores, then flying shores, and dead shores. So, in this case like
though the names are very peculiar, but if we just try to understand by taking the
meaning of that; so we can probably can understand it in a better way. So, raking means,
sometimes you know we always keep our books in the book shelves, and if you notice it,
like in a book shelf when you put it; so when you have like enough number of books,
you can make it in this particular parallel position.
But most often if you take one book, so other will try to you know lean on the other book
and make stable position. So, this is basically the rack. So, considering this kind of
incline stacking or raking, so the raking shore is related to that. So, in a building when
we see the temporary structure is placed in an inclined form to support the building, so
then this type of temporary structure is called raking shore. When it is flying, so fly
means it relates to something in air.
So, when a shoring arrangement is made such a way that there is no component touching
the ground, we call it flying. And then dead shore is basically, dead means; we can just
relate it to the soil. And here dead shore means; whenever you have to you know make
some changes for the you know underground structures or something to enhance the
capacity of the foundation or rebuild the foundation, for that those kind of thing we use
the dead shore. In this case it is a combination of your raking shores and the other props.
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So, in this picture, now based on my deliberation you can easily guess; that in this
position like, this is the shoring arrangement giving the support with some members,
these members can be made of wood, can be steel, or sometimes if the span is too large,
then we can go for the truss; because truss and space frame this kind of you know
arrangement will make it possible to even support two buildings away from each other.
So, there is no connection to the ground. So, this is leading to your flying shore.
In this case if you can see that this particular wall being supported with some members
and they are inclined members. So, like you just compare it with the way we put the
books in the, you know our shelf and racks. So, this is basically the raking shore. And
here if you see that the, what happen the replacement of the foundation. So, you can see
the drawing, the foundation shown in dotted lines.
So, the upper structure is supported with the raking as well as in order to replace it; so
also there is another arrangement with vertical and horizontal member, so that it will give
support as a temporary foundation. And then once it is made, so gradually will remove
the structure and make our structure safe again with that rebuilt. Come to the raking
shore, already I mentioned that it is also referred as the inclined shore.
Now what are the things normally here; so it is basically the inclined members known as
rakers are used to give lateral support to the wall. So, in this case the support is given
like this. So, must be this wall is having a tendency and showing a sign to lean towards
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the site, and this will basically support this to make it in original position. So, what are
the other things required to make this kind of arrangement?
So, first of all, we need to have a wall plate and in this if you see carefully in this
drawing; so after this walls you have some wall plate, ok. It may be made of steel, it may
be made of wood that depends on the severity of the structure, height of the structure,
availability of the resources. Then the needle, needle will help to connect it your rakers
to the wall. So, we will make some penetration and we just give some support, some
attachment with the wall. So, needle is used to stitch. So, here also the purpose is the
stitching this wall plate and rakers to the wall.
Then wooden cleat is also used where you have to give the support ok, to make it you
know very tight. So, cleat is normally being used most of the cases for your wooden joint
or something. Now, sole piece is where we use at the bottom, where we actually you
know tie up all the rakers. The hoop iron is basically where you can make those you
know rakers tied up. The brace or bracing is something where you know with the higher
span, you have to give some you know tight situation, ok. So, you have to give some tie
bar to you know connect all the rakers together. So, this is the bracing.
So, when we discuss the bracing earlier, so in order to support the lateral load, we use a
diagonal. So, here it is something where we used a some perpendicular to the inclination,
we use this ok. And the rakers are the main components. So, like that we can support it
the raking shore.
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Now, come to the inclination. So, it is always better to have an inclination of 45-degree;
that means, the height of the building and you know the point like it will make the 45-
degree angle. So, this length and this height of the building will be equal; but most of the
case if the building is too high, we cannot have this much horizontal space, because this
maybe a road or this maybe some space, we cannot go beyond the boundary. So, then
you may change it.
So, basically it can have a range of 45-degree to 75-degree. So, in this case, it is
something like where you can imagine that this portion maybe at 45; but the others are
not, because it is to be 45 degree, then this will go up to this level or something. So, then
in that case we can introduce the rider raker. So, rider raker is basically when you need to
change it. So, sometimes you can just use a bracing and change the raker inclination at
certain point, so that you can also manage the horizontal space.
Raker should be properly braced at intervals to give the stability to the shoring; then size
of the rakers will be determined based on the you know anticipated thrust. That is
already I mentioned that, how much the load of the wall, the leaning, the overall
condition based on that it will be decided. Now, shoring may be spaced at 3 to 4.5 meter
spacing to cover longer length of the bar. So, that means, it is something like I have
shown that in cross section.
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So, in a wall, so you should have multiple such rakers to support it, right. So, this
spacing can be of 10 feet or like 3 meters to 4.5 meters spacing. The sole plate should be
properly embedded into the ground. So, in this case if you see this is really the, you
know the sole plate is embedded to the ground to give that particular support; whatever
the thrust coming, so that will transfer to the sole plate to the ground. So, this is also very
important aspect.
Now, the rider shores as I was trying to draw; here it will be very clear that how it
changes the inclination, so that it can manage it well. And this is a bigger picture how the
needle and cleat will help to tie your rakers through the wall plate to the wall.
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So, this is what we try to discuss and here you can see that how complicated it looks like;
but definitely it is made of steel and in this position they use some coupler, will have
some pictures afterwards as well to support it.
This is another one where you can see that how like in this place it is only the iron, like
your steel tube being used and here it is instead of that, the thrust being used to support
it, with your horizontal member and inclined shores and this is another one where it is
also supporting a wall.
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So, sometimes for some heritage structure where you do not really want to rebuild with
the new material, then also we can give this kind of shoring to make it stable.
Now come to the flying shore, as the name suggests that there will be no connection of
any members to the ground; that means, suppose there are two buildings and the
tendency they will try to lean towards each of them or maybe something like you have to
dismantle the part of the building here in between. So, we have to give initial support and
then what you can do; you can just use your shoring at the top ok, in a you know
elevated or flying mode.
So, in this case you call this as flying shore. And depending on the structure you know
thrust and the span, the shore will be of single flying shore or double flying shore; like
this, this is a single flying shore. So, how it is made? So, horizontal members are being
given and wall plate is the same, the cleat and needle will be same as the previous one;
along with that you have some you know inclined members.
So, they are actually making the, you know composition in such a manner that it will
hold the load. So, like it is something you can just imagine; like where two particular
walls are coming towards you and you just put your hand and put the pressure to keep
them separated. So, something like that is there. So, wall plate, needle, wedges, sole
piece, strut, horizontal shores they are the members of this. So, in this case if you see, the
arrangement is of single shore.
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Now, in this system wall plates are placed against the wall and secured to it; horizontal
strut is placed between wall plates and it is supported by a system of needle and cleats;
then inclined strut are supported by the needle at the top and by straining piece at their
feet. So, here if you see that, this is basically your horizontal strut and this inclined strut
now they are at the top, they are fixed with the needle and here it is with the straining
sill. So, they are actually you know giving support in that manner.
Now, the width of the straining piece is same of the strut. So, it has some specification
and it may vary based on the material to be used for that. Now, when the distance
between two walls are too much; then probably the struts or single strut will not help,
then probably we have to go for the truss or space frame.
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So, this is something where you need to give more support. So, that is why instead of a
single flying shore, so here it is basically your double flying shore use, ok.
So, let us see this picture and you can see that, though this building looks like good; but
this building having a very poor condition. So, in this site the raking shores is used,
because they have some space; but this is somewhat like we cannot have it some other
utility maybe, so for that they are making some kind of arrangement like this. And that
was also cross sections, we have to create such multiple you know such flying shore; like
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in a multiple number depending on some spacing, so that it will give the support to the
deteriorated or the damaged building or the unsafe structure.
Coming to the dead shore. So, dead shore, it is basically used to render vertical support
to the walls, roof, floors. When? Basically, the wall has to be removed or maybe some
foundation to be you know extended; so this is something the extended picture, so where
it is a combination of all.
So, this is something where you can see that flying shore is there, this is the raking shore
is there. So, flying and raking both are there; along with that they are giving some
horizontal support or temporary support as a foundation, before we just really make
correction to those structure. So, this is also very useful shoring or temporary structure;
the materials or the parts of the shore is almost same, as because we are using multiple
combination to that.
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So, dead shore supports the weight of the structure above and that is why it is also
required to support all the components separately, so that it will not really be heavy on
the structure. The beams called needles are placed into the hole and supported with the
vertical props. So, vertical props; if you see in this, these are the vertical props that will
support the structure. Here we can also use the timber or else we can use the steel tube or
sometimes if it is heavy, again the truss.
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So, in this case also, there are other parts like the dead shore stand away from the wall
either side so as to allow working space. So, because when you repair your structure, so
you need some space where the workers can work comfortably, so that the spacing of
those vertical props to be placed, so that there will be enough gap to work with.
Then the props are tightened by the folding wedges provided at their base and they are
connected to each other; then before the dismantling work started, all doors windows and
other openings are well strutted. And another important thing in this is very vital that is
the vibration. So, during the works, so when you go for the reworking or rebuilding;
there will be lots vibration.
So, during that, that will impact the temporary structure. So, we have to take care of that
and properly we have to tied all those you know component together, so that it can also
resist those vibration during the reconstruction or cutting any portion of the bearing wall
or something.
So, here if you can see that, this is a picture where like a temple is already you know
very serious condition, so how this is being supported. So, this is basically the rakers,
they provided and inside that they also put something. So, here it is nothing related to the
rebuild, but to support the heritage. Here if you can see that, it is being provided with the
timber baton to just repair this particular basement structure. So, here if you can see how
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that can be made; so with the wooden baton being used and then in order to support it, so
we have to increase the base, so the head plate being used to support it.
So, the slab to be supported, so some larger base to be provided at the top, at the bottom;
so that it will not sleep during vibration or any such work. So, this is all about the dead
shore.
Now come to the underpinning; here basically the underpinning is the new work ok,
underneath an existing structure, underneath the existing structure without disturbing the
stability. So, in this case basically it is all referred to the reconstruction of the wall. So, if
you see in this image; the previous position of your foundation, the footing is at this level
and now the new one is extended to this.
So, for that the whole superstructure to be supported with the props, with the raking
shores, with the you know horizontal and vertical support; so this props being used to
support the slab and all. So, basically whenever we do any alternation and give support
to the superstructure; so this particular arrangement is called your underpinning.
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So, here you can see such kind of thing where it is being supported initially. So, the
building; so that they can do some repair work. So, in this case maybe you can use
simple like the iron or the steel section or sometimes we also go for the hydraulic section
to like take the pressure of this.
And then strengthening the foundation can take place or sometimes you know like you
just try to create the basement afterwards the building is built; then also this binder
underpinning can be used, will be useful to make the construction easy.
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Now come to the second part that is the scaffolding. So, in this section this is not nothing
related to give support to the structure. So, temporary rigid structure having platform
raised up to the building increase in height ok and here the scaffolding like say how it
will help us, so it enables the mason to work in different stages of the building.
So, first like we lay the brick and then the plaster, then the paint; so all these stages like
how the work processes and this scaffolding will keep on you know increasing the height
of the building. So, whenever you increase your height of the building, the construction
is in progress; so form one first floor to second floor, it will also take the different shape
and size as per the construction.
And then also not only the different work, but it will also help to you know carry the
material and you know to transport the material. So, sometimes at the very huge height,
you use some temporary structure; while like manually people can bring those materials
or maybe with some certain lift or maybe with some other means, we just transport the
materials.
So, here this is something what we can see that, this is some sculpture from the Rio De
Janerio. So, in this case if you see that for the repair work and all, how efficiently this
particular system being made. So, this is basically the scaffolding and here the steel is
used and there are different platform on the staircase to get access to the top level. And
for any construction, newly construction it is to be the same and even for the repair work.
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So, this is very well designed and that to be designed this temporary structure and this is
again under the scaffolding.
So, if you go to the type of scaffolding. So, here it is the like divided mostly in the brick-
layer’s scaffold, mason’s scaffold, steel or tubular scaffold, needle scaffold, and wooden
scaffold. So, what exactly this will try to understand that, with some schematic cross
section.
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So, brick-layer’s scaffold is a very simple one. So, where like basically what you need to
do; when the wall is constructed, so we use some you know standard and ledger. So,
what are the standard and what are the ledgers? So, standard are basically your vertical
members of this particular framework and ledger are the horizontal. So, they are tied up
and along with that to give support to the wall.
So, you can see that many times like during construction we put some hole ok, we just
need some brick portion; so that it can give support, so this all you know members which
are connecting this frame, this you know ledger and your standard to the wall with a
putlog. And if the structure is too high, then probably due to the wind load, the lateral
load; it is not safe only to connect it with the wall, so we just use the bracing. So, give
more stability and whenever we want to work something, we also use some platform or
the boarding.
So, this is also required where one can do the plastering or some kind of you know
alternation to those brick work and all. So, this is designed and the gap between these
two will be determined based on the you know acceptance of the gap, so that one can
really you know climb on each layer. And this is very much familiar in most of the cases,
and I guess that the all of you have seen this kind of arrangements. So, this is the
bricklayer. So, like the brick work, and the putlog is the main work.
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Now sometimes if it is something like your brick wall is not being used to use a putlog;
then you make your scaffold separate, stand alone. So, in this case what you do? So, in
this case we use instead of a single there is no connection to the wall like the previous
the putlog. So, here we have the standard and then in this case putlog is not connected to
the wall, right; and then we use some inclined rakers to support it.
So, there is no connection with the wall and then we use the same boarding and all. So,
this is something different from the previous one; previous one we have connection to
the wall, so the small punctures made to the wall and we connect this framework. Here it
is stand alone, separated with the inclined member. It is only possible when you have
sufficient space ok, available from the building.
Suppose it is just next to your some road, important road where like people are moving
or something like that, we cannot really use this kind of rakers. So, then we have to move
for something else.
So, in this case it is the steel and tubular scaffold. So, earlier it was something maybe of
made of bamboo or something. So, here the thing is something different; the only
difference is that, that instead of those you know tying up the knot. So, if you see these
are fixed with the knot; suppose some rope is being used to tie those ledgers and
standard.
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So, in this case the coupler being used, so they are having different joints and then with
that you have the mechanism to tied up as per the requirement. The advantage of steel
and tubular scaffold is that, you can reuse for multiple time. When you use your bamboo
or something so, it is restricted to some height and then you have to tie it up and it will
not that much reusable.
After certain use you have to dismantle it; but there it is available with standard, you can
adjust the height and then the rest of the things is pretty same. So, here also you have the
coupling; what I mentioned, the base plate, so that you can put your tubular section on a
particular place. So, that it will not slip during the work and all and the bracing is the
same what we used earlier.
Now, in this case the steel and tubular scaffold; this is another type, this type is where
also you use this particular support to the wall. So, this is one; but in this case it is again
a frame. So, instead of one, so we use two kind of set up and make it like a stage ok, a
platform. And if you see from the side the section is something like that; so where there
is no connection made to the wall.
So, it is similar to the second category that we discussed in this. So, now, it is made with
the steel and tubular scaffold; the maximum number of components are the same in this
case. So, it is again the same example in detail.
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Now the needle scaffold is something else where like you cannot really access to the
ground, because of the busy road or something and then something to be done at the top.
So, stating something like making something from the ground, unnecessary we are
investing cost and complexity; so somewhere like we can use big needles to put that
needles inside your structure, give the support with the props. And then like with
inclination you can fix it with the sill level and then you make your scaffolding for
repairing the upper structure. So, it has no connection with the ground.
So, this is something different from the others; other categories that we discussed, they
always have a connection with the ground; but here it is not. The purpose is that you
have to make some correction at the top, not at the ground level; and at the same time
there is no such provision to make the structure from the ground or it will hamper the
daily life.
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Like that also you can have the wooden scaffold or gantry. So, here it is basically not
only using will be helpful for making the work as well as that it will also carry the
material; to transfer the material this traveler or crane that can be also used. This is
normally you know the wooden baton being used.
Now, the wooden scaffold is something also we call it platform gantry. So, where
something again similar to the needle one, where you have to repair something at the
upper portion and you cannot disturb the parts, so may be somebody can you know
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easily go through this particular space. So, we elevate it, we create the platform, and we
create the space in between; so that can be used for the regular activity and proper care to
be done with making the platform, the plank floor, the head; all these things and it is self
supported with your structure.
So, this is also helpful for a purpose where you have some busy road or something and
you have your building just next to the road; then this kind of platform gantry will help
you.
So, now, it is basically where in you know end of this lecture and will try to see the
different kind of arrangement. So, in this case if you see, this is basically a local
arrangement how the construction being done and the platform and you can see that how
it is being supported. So, this putlog; how this is connected to the wall, and so as true
with this. So, suppose you can see all those punches in that, so that you know in the later
stage you can use the putlog to increase the height of the scaffold and it is a made of the
bamboo and you can see the height, so that one can easily reach it.
Now, compared to that here it is something with made of steel, those section is made as
the platform. And again, this is something very important; when you go for the
construction work, definitely for the high-rise building, so safety to be maintained. So,
for that you have to have some guardrail. So, that you know during the construction,
there will be no such casualty happen. So, this is another type of scaffolding here.
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And like this is something where like is a very huge one. So, this is also made of your
bamboo and you can easily see those bracing. So, one of the building that I have shown
that, where structural bracing is used to give the lateral support; but now also for the
temporary structure, the concept is same because of the huge vertical structure. So, there
will be some wind from different direction. So, that may collapse.
So, for that also the structural arrangement we have to put some bracing. And you can
see that due to that you know huge height and different platform and also it is not
straight. So, in compared to that, if you use your steel members, so then it will be more
stable. So, here you can see how this is being made. So, how the structure is formed, so
how this being carried with a pulley and then how the knot is being made to you know
make connection with the standard and ledger. So, this is standard and this is ledger and
this is probably the putlog attaching to the wall. So, this is how this is made.
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And now this is basically in place of the bamboo; how you can use the steel to make it
more clean, more safe, and most importantly those can be reused. So, these are the
couplers that I was talking about. So, how they are fixing it; different horizontal and
vertical members with the tube and all and the whole structure can be made of the steel.
So, mostly for the high rise structure or maybe something good developer construction
company and all; they use this kind of props, because this is available with the standard
height, so that there will be no adjustment; for the other case the bamboo based on
something like we have to adjust it.
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So, these are another example, there are few props to be made like this. So, scaffolding is
basically very helpful to carry out the work.
And this is something like for a huge structure. So, the complexity and the making those
structure is very crucial. And this is the first step where you just start your structure
making and then give a final look. So, making this temporary structure is also very
important and you should also know this kind of arrangement, what are the available
thing.
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Apart from that also during the foundations, trenches and all; we also use this kind of
you know temporary structure to support, to stop the erosion of the soil or the falling the
soil on the trenches. So, we also create this kind of separation. So, these trenches, this
shoring being used.
So, with that, like now in this case what we have learnt that, the shoring is one where it is
giving the temporary support to the unsafe structure; the other is the scaffolding.
Scaffolding is just not to support the structure, it is to ease off the work of the
construction and any kind of finish work like paint, plaster, and something. And in both
the cases, it may be made of wooden, it may be made of steel or sometimes made of truss
like instead of a single tube or something like that.
And the tying up it may be with the rope, or it may be with some coupler. So, depending
on the structure, depending on the scale of the construction and all available resources
will decide upon that.
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So, with this we conclude here. And for further reading, you can go through this building
construction book by Sushil Kumar. There are many books; you can refer anyone, where
you can get this kind of stuff.
So, with that I conclude here and then we will be again discussing in next lecture the
frame structure. And again, I thank you all for taking part in this course and till we go for
the next lecture, this is bye bye from my side.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 21
Framed Structure
Hi everyone. Welcome back to online course on Structure, Form, and Architecture: The
Synergy. Today we are at Lecture Number-21, and it will be on of Framed Structure. So
far whatever we have discussed, we have seen the advantages of load bearing structure
and also, we discussed about the limitation of load bearing structure, regarding the span,
regarding the height of the building and also, we discussed something on the temporary
structures that to support it.
But in order to overcome the shortcomings of load bearing structure say for example, be
a greater span to cover reaching to higher heights of the building to be developed. So,
framed structure actually helps us to make that.
So, let us start this discussion on framed structure. Now framed structure, what it says, a
frame structure is a structure having combination of structural components like beam,
column and slab connected together to resist against the gravity load which is basically
also referred as the axial load which is acting vertically like transferring from slab to
beam, beam to column, and then column to foundation, and to soil.
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Along with that the joint of beam and column and slab, will also protect the building
from the lateral loads like the wind load that we have discussed earlier. So, here it says
about that it is a combination of the structural components. Compared to the load bearing
structure, there we have seen that load is basically carried by the wall. So, wall and then
we have the slab. So, there is no such combination of beam and wall. So, in comparison
to that now the structure has three components; major three component; slab, beam and
column.
So, column will be taking the vertical loads. Now it says also the capable to overcome
large forces as because now in the frame structure, we will go for either steel or maybe
the reinforced concrete (the concrete mix with the proper rebars or reinforcement bar of
steel). So, which will basically make your structure more resistance towards the load.
The imposed loads on slab transfer through the beam and column to the foundation that
already I mentioned.
So, here if you see typical schematic of the frame structure though I have shown you the
wall, but these are not the load bearing walls. So, they are just used to protect your
interior from the outside environment. So, basically the loads imposed on that the dead
load, live load; all kind of loads are transfered from your beam to column. So, say for
example, this is the slab I just put some load on it. So, this will be transferred to the beam
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first, then beam will transfer to the column, column will transfer it to the lower floor and
finally, it will reach to the foundation f(ooting) and that transmit the load to the soil.
So, in this case column act as a vertical load bearing member compared to load bearing
structure where wall was the vertical load bearing member and slab and beam acts as
horizontal load bearing member for this case. So, in this case, the load transfer: the live
load dead load that will transfer to the slab (or sometimes we refer this as floor) to the
beam, beam to the column and then foundation.
Now, this is something what we are talking about the framed structure. Here you can see
that there is no wall being construct as of now. This is some under construction building
I have shown this picture earlier also. Like here, it is just a frame or sometimes we also
call it the skeleton structure. So, in the skeletal structure, you can find that arrangement
of your beam and column.
So, essentially all the load will be taken care of by this beam and column structure. The
load of the slab and the other furniture, then the moving elements. So, dead and live
loads both will be taken care of by that. And in order to create more partition and
puncture, we can also use the wall at the later stage, and as because this wall will not
essentially carry any load.
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We can reduce the thickness of the wall where the load bearing structure the wall
thickness is one and half brick or maybe even sometimes it is gone up to say 1 meter
(more than 3 feet thickness) and that will also have limitation to go up to say 4 storey
building or 5 storey. In some exceptional cases, it went up to event 16 story that we
discussed in that presentation.
But in general, with this frame structure we can go even more storey’s. So, 20 to 30
storey we can go and definitely there will be again the shortcoming when you go beyond
that then along with your gravity load, there will be more pressure on the lateral load. So,
wind pressure will be more and that is why like we have to add something extra; some
component extra to the framed structure to make it solid.
Now, these are other two pictures that is showing the frame structure is basically like you
can only see the beam column arrangement and then based on the requirement, based on
the opening to be created; we create solid and void combination with wall. So, thickness
of the wall for external normally taken as like your 10 inch, (one full brick thickness) or
internal partition wall like we can reduce up to like 5 inch or sometimes even 3 inch
wall, which was not possible for the load bearing structure.
Now so far, the material is concerned, we can use the R.C.C (Reinforced Cement
Concrete) to make this framed structure. We can use the steel frame and we can join
them together to create it. Nowadays also it is very common to have the frame structure
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with steel and the glass being used or some other light weight material being used for
making those partition and the opening and sometimes we can also go for some
composite materials, some advanced materials to make this frame.
Now, the components of the framed structure as we discussed already that will have the
slab then you have the beam and then the column and then the footing and foundation at
the lower level (underground structure). So, the superstructure is combination of the slab,
beam and column and load transfer is basically through this. The axial load, the
horizontal load will be taken by the beam and then partially with the column as well.
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Now, coming to the framed structure that type: so, basically based on the joint how they
are actually combined together, how they are connected to the footing. Based on that we
have majorly rigid framed structure and braced framed structures. So, bracing here the
braced frames come from the ‘bracing’ that we earlier discussed also like in order to
overcome or resist to the lateral load like wind load and all sometimes, we connect frame
with some diagonal member.
So, which will make it more rigid, which will make it more resistant against those kind
of load. So, this bracing will help us to protect against that. Even this bracing will help
during the unwanted movement or very irregular movement during seismic activity, if
some earthquake happens. During that time the vibration like very frequent and with
different scale, different magnitude vibration. So, that will be taken with that along with
the dampers.
So, we will come to that during the due discussion. So, in the rigid frame joint the joint
may be of pin joint and it may be the fixed ended joint. So, pin joint that the
representation of that is something like that and the fixed joint that we already discussed
when we discussed the different support of a structural system. There we discussed these
in detail like what is a pin joint and what is a fixed joint.
So, in this case rigid structure having columns and beams made monolithically means as
if it is a single structure and acting together to tolerate the moments created due to the
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imposed load on structure. Rigid frame structure bears the moment shear and torsion
very effectively. So, in this case, like you have three different forces acting. One is your
moment like when we see that there is a pressure and that will create a couple so, that
will create the moment.
So, it may be clockwise or anticlockwise moment. Then the shear is definitely we

discussed that sometimes due to inadequacy of your reinforcement bar or something. So,
then there will be some force which is acting in opposite direction and there will be
failure in shear. And the torsion is the twisting activity especially for the high rise
building due to the wind pattern with the dragging effect the positive and negative force
that will make it.
Compare to the that the braced frame structure is the structure bracing are commonly
provided between columns and beams that already I have shown here. We will have
some pictures there and then the resistance of the side wave forces or the lateral forces.
So, the previous one where the rigid frames and other combinations we mentioned. So,
basically that will take care of the gravity load. So, due to the gravity load whatever the
things happen, they will be taken care of and this is basically taking care of the lateral
load.
The framed system offers like basically this kind of frame system offer more
effectiveness during the wind force and the earthquake that already mentioned that along
with the frame structure beam column connection. If we can connect these diagonally
with bracing, then that will make it more resistance towards your protecting your
building from lateral load that is wind load or during the movement, the vibration during
the earthquake.
Now, in braced frame structure, then also we have these gabled frames and portal frames.
So, frames will have something like where in state of the joint, this is acting as a single
portal will discuss this in subsequent slide.
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So, before we go in to discuss that, let us just go through some of the examples. So, this
is some famous building, Burj Al Arab in Dubai. So, this is really a very good building
we appreciate it, but basically if you see the structure; it is developed on the rigid frame
structure.
The same kind of thing like when you not go for this kind of hotel buildings in Burj Al
Arab or so. So, this kind of office towers being also be constructed with the frame
structure where it is very simple form, that straight , frame. So, the combination of your
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beam and column is making the whole skeleton and we can actually use the space more
efficiently.
Now, come to the pin ended joint rigid framed structure. So, a pin ended rigid frame
system commonly has pin as their support condition. So, here if you see that in this
portion and they are joined with this. If this support pin is removed so, that will be
considered at non rigid. So, the support condition removed means it will be non rigid
structure.
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And come to the fixed ended. So, here you can see that the particular representation of
the structure has changed. So, now, it is shown like it is fixed end. So, in this kind of
rigid framed system, end condition are generally fixed not the pin one.
So, coming to the braced framed structure: so, in this case along with the frame we have
some structural bracing. So, you can see that this building or this building you have some
vertical structure along with that those are connected with some additional bracing which
will help this building to protect against the lateral load.
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Now, so, as true like when we discussed about this braced frame; so, here this is another
structure. The earlier structure again it is very straight forward, very enclosed form. So,
here it is something like where you can get those members very clearly that how they are
connected.
So, this particular frame if you just visualize this so, this is connected those beam and
column they are connected to the diagonal. So, this diagonal connection, it may be like
one sided; it may be of two sided like this to make more like in this picture we have this
or else it may be something eccentric, it may be of like K type. So, different kind of
bracings can be used to protect it.
So, we will discuss those kinds of bracing and their advantages in detail when you
discussed about the high-rise structure. Because as we mentioned that there are some
advantages of the frame structure to go a little high in height, but after certain 30 storey
or 40 storey building depending on the location and other constraints. So, we will be
using some different kind of bracing structure and in for high rise, we will move to the
tubular structure; then braced tube structures; truss in structure.
So, these are something which will be required for the high-rise building. But for the
frame structure in order to protect it, we like protect from the lateral force acting on it we
can go for this kind of bracing. Now, brace framed structure, the gable framed; in this
case if you see that the gable thing where you have a ridge
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So, the member this particular frame we have little bit height. So, gable frame structure
has a peak at their top. So, here you can see that how it is connected and at the same time
in order to protect it from the lateral force, you can identify here easily that these are
actually braced with the members. These frame systems are used to create pitched roof in
place where you have the heavy rainfall and the snowfall.
So, the basic reason is that like when we discussed about different types of forces acting
on a building different kind of loads acting on a building so, we discussed about the
snow load and rain load. So, for that it is always advisable that you should have a pitched
roof or the slant roof where like the rain can easily drain off and they can be connected
with a gutter and can be easily taken off from the surface. Otherwise, if you go for the
flat so, due to some failure of the rainwater passage or something like that. So, in that
case like there will be some additional load of this. So, it is advisable and that is why in
the country where like snow fall is very common, most of the buildings will find that
they will have this pitched roof. And this kind of frame structure, this portal structure not
only helping you during heavy rainfall or snow fall, but also you can see that that can
create the longer span compared to the other load bearing structure or typical framed
structure with the beam column combination.
And here the steel being used to make the portal. So, that like you can also reduce the
cross section of those columns. As we discussed earlier also how to improve the section
like as because in a regular rectangular section, the main building face developed at the
outer surface. So, that you can improve the section, you can use the I section instead of a
rectangular which will be capable enough to handle the load.
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Now, this is something which you can see that it is mostly being used this kind of frame
for the manufacturing units, some of the factory. Then it is a very regular arrangement.
So, multiple frames are put in parallel and then that will be covered by some light
material or sometimes maybe some translucent material. So, that they can maximize the
daylight uses inside it and along with that we also have the bracing to protect the
structure the frame from the lateral load.
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Now, these are another two pictures where you can see the this is something where it is
under construction how this been made and it is something where it is very enclosed
form. So, this portal frames, the gable frames where the main difference is like you have
a peak on top of it. So, this is also helpful.
Now, come to the portal frames. Instead of the gable, now the portal frames that will
have a very rectangular section. So, you can identify the portal structural frames
generally look like a door frame. So, it can also create some space. So, it is also being
used in some commercial and industrial buildings where the frames being used.
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So, in this case this is not made of steel, this is just with the concrete the shear wall kind
of construction. So, this is just creating to underpass to pass this particular water or the
candle they have. So, this kind of arrangement, this kind of bridge sometimes we need
the portal and if you compare it with this steel representative portal to this, it is pretty
similar and that will actually be helping to make it.
Sometimes this underpass being constructed not only to pass this particular water body
or cannel or drainage sometimes even for the crossing of the pedestrian. So, when a
highway or expressway is passing through. So, we have to create that particular
underpass. So, that is also required some kind of portal frames that can be used to solve
this purpose.
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Now, in this case also it is another example of the portal, it is pretty similar to the earlier
one and now it is made of steel. Now, coming to the advantages of the framed structure
so, there are multiple advantages of framed structure.
First of all, compare to the load bearing structure. Now, the thickness of wall can be
maintained uniformly throughout because like thickness of wall will not essentially
matter the load distribution because load will be taken care of by the beam column and
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footing the walls are just to make the partition. So, that can be there and as a result that
can also be thinner compared to your load bearing structure.
And whenever your wall thinner, then definitely there will be reduction in the dead load
the self weight the material weight material self weight to the structure. Due to the
simple geometry as because it is the connection and most commonly it is a very
rectangular connection with the beam and column. Sometimes it may go with some
different geometry, but most commonly it is being very typical layout of your beam and
column.
So, in this case the construction of m structure is very speedy and if you have like option
to use the steel frame where it is something will act like plug and play. So, it even it will
make it faster. The rigid and stable framed structure could able to resist tremendous
vertical load as well as the lateral wind loads during like the heavy wind load or maybe
the seismic load that we discussed. Large unobstructed space can be created those spans
like where it was a limitation for a load bearing wall. We cannot have larger span for any
meeting place or maybe some huge gathering with a like without exceptional
implementation of like those load bearing that we have in the roman period and all which
will have the very high thickness or very large thickness of cross section.
So, frame structure the utilization of space will be more. So, we can use the space more.
The interior space can be more due to reduction of the cross section of the wall as well as
column. Adaptable to almost any shape and can be used, as because we go for the steel, I
think so, the different kind of form can be generated as well as the concrete that to be
during the construction, it will be in semi liquid form.
So, whatever the form you would like to give with proper design. So, that can easily go
with any shape and design. So, that is another advantage of the frame structure what like
was missing during the load bearing where you have very limitation with the design and
all. Then prefabrication is also possible you can make those column beam slab like in
manufacturing plant and then you bring to the side and just make the arrangement and
you can make your construction very speedy and it is basically the plug and play
concept.
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Now, come to the disadvantages of framed structure. So, framed structure definitely
requires some expensive plant and machines because whenever you go for higher height.
So, you need some other equipment, machine to bring material at upper storey. So,
different cranes different leaves. So, already like those machineries are required which
was not much required for the your load bearing structure because of the low height like
that can be managed with minimal scaffolding. But in this case it will be required proper
machinery to make your construction easy as well as you also need to procure a different
kind of material. So, the in this case, like you have a constant supply of the material. As
frame is an active structural element, any change in the structural element may
dangerous for the safety.
So, in this case basically, you can do alternation to the wall as because wall is not
carrying any effective load of the building, but any alternation to the beam and column
will be dangerous. So, that is why proper care to be taken if at all we have to do
something on the beam and column; the concrete structure. And that is why we all have
experience in our post construction whenever we make alternation. We never damage or
we just cut any structural element the beam and column to that. The cost of construction
is relatively higher compared to the load bearing structure, but again if we just go have
some limitation with the load bearing then effectively when you go for the high rise. So,
this will not matter, but it is when you go for a low-rise structure, then probably this will
have the higher cost.
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Then the skill labor is also required to have the proper finishing and in the case of normal
reinforcement concrete, the span length is usually 40 feet. So, the span of the beam can
go up to 40 feet when it is a normally reinforced typical reinforced beam otherwise what
will happen that it will have some lateral deflection. So, if you increase your span of
your beam so, then they will have some your lateral deflection. So, in order to account
that so, accordingly we have to give other supports. So, in state of simply support, we
will go for your continuous beam column arrangement and you can reinforce structure in
a much better way to have the larger span or else in state of a simple beam column, we
can convert it to like the arch and dome which will actually help to enhance this
particular span.
Now, coming to the summary section of this framed structure so, basically in the frame
structure is a combination of your beam and column and slab. So, they are being
connected to each other which will resist the axial load or the gravity load, which is
transferring lad from your slab to beam and then beam to column and then column to
your foundation and foundation to soil.
So, that is your axial load that is acting vertically along with that this connection will
also protect against the lateral load that is due to your wind or maybe during the
movement or vibration during earthquake. And at the same time also we have learned
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that the types of the frames, it may be of your fixed type joint where the support is being
given with a fixed thing sometimes it may be your pin joint.
So, in pin joint also you have the similar, but again it has some advantages with a pin
joint and also it is basically giving you the rigid framed structure to that. And then along
with that also, we discussed about the braced framed structure, where along with your
beam column arrangement what we normally add the bracing. Another member and most
commonly it will connect the beam and column diagonally to add some extra resistance
which will protect from the lateral bending and that we have seen earlier.
Suppose we have a simple connection and then we have put the apply load. So, it will try
to bent like this very easily, but if you just support either side of that so, it will enhance
the resistance. In this also, we have learnt like the gable frame where there is a peak. So,
normally this kind of roof the pitched roof being used and it is being used for factory
outlet or something. But most importantly where the rainfall or the snow fall is a
predominant thing and along with that also we have discussed the portal frame. So,
portal frame for where it is having a rectangular section and that can be made of the steel
or may be RCC like underpass and all.
And coming to the end of this what we discussed about the advantages. So, with the
frame structure, we can actually increase the span compared to the load bearing and then
we also can go with the height and then flexibility with internal arrangement the design.
But the disadvantage again we cannot alter the column and other thing. For the load
bearing structure maybe some portion of the wall can be taken off, but for this like
replacing beam and column will be a very critical job and it is dangerous too.
And at the same time, there are some other things like this frame structure will require
more machinery, more skilled labor and compared to the load bearing structure. So, this
is all over with the frame structure and mostly like a with the frame structure, we can go
up to 40 storey building with the proper shear wall or some portion of that shear wall.
And we can enhance it even for the higher height with the structural bracing maybe
single side like single direction or maybe with the double direction. Like that this is very
important and the material used is RCC, steel, or sometimes composite which will help
us to go for like utilizing the space the horizontal and vertical more effectively with the
framed structure. So, this is all over the frame structure and I have shown few of the
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buildings, but most of the buildings in our day to day life in present day is basically with
the framed structure.
There are exceptional things where like you have the use a large span where the
horizontal beam cannot hold beyond the 40 feet in general with the normal
reinforcement, we can move to the some arch structure and all.
So, with that I conclude here. So, these are some of the reading materials that already
been given in earlier presentations. You should can go through it, you can also go
through the given website links so, that you can get more information on that. With that I
conclude here. So, next we will discuss about the arch structure, different kind of arches,
different kind of uses of arch, their support and all in the next lecture. So, till then again,
I thank you to take part in this course.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 22
Arch Structures
Hi everyone, welcome back to online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and

Architecture: The Synergy. So, today we are at Lecture Number-22 and this lecture is
comprised of the different kind of arches, arch structures, their uses in the building as
well as different you know bridges.
So, like before we start this discussion on the arch that we have seen in the frame
structure, the advantage of creating the span and the load transfer from beam to column
and the foundation. The advantage of using arch is something where the arch itself the
profile, the curvature itself be is taking the load and most commonly it is taking the
compression; the compressive load.
So, there will be not essentially the tension developed and if it is tied then definitely
there will be some, but otherwise this is being used; and with this arch form being used
from so long from the history like we have seen many such examples from bridges, from
different buildings. Even to create some small opening like window, door arch form
being used like bigger manner and this lecture will be focusing on that. So, let us start
this particular discussion or arch.
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So, coming to the definition; there is no such distinct definition. So, discuss what exactly
the arch? An arch is a curved structural form that carries load around an opening,
transferring the load. All the load through their profile it is not giving like with the
connection. So, this curvature itself is transferring the load of the profile of the arch to
the abutment the support or the jambs or the piers.
So, basically if we have this particular support, the piers, the arch is basically transferring
load and most commonly it is very symmetric. So, that is why the load, the homogeneity
of the material and the geometry is helping these arch to transfer the load like this.
Again, the arch of the self-supporting compressive structures. As we I mentioned already

in arch mostly will have the compression stabilized by the force of gravity acting on their
weight which makes them very stable and efficient, capable of larger span and greater
load. So, what exactly it is? Like the arch form that we can create like we just start with
the example of a chain.
So, suppose we have a chain and just it is having a length more than that. So, we just
allow the chain to have you know sag. So, it will give you a particular form, we will
discuss that this catenary form or the parabolic form and then it is having the flexibility
when you add some weight to it. So, it will change the form little bit then you can
balance it and if you reverse this so, that will create the arch. So, normally it is with a
chain or cable and now converting to the arch form.
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So, the geometry we follow to create this arch will determine how it will transfer the load
and this is very effective form of a structural element that can be used. The downward
load of an arch must be transferred to its foundation how it will transfer that will have
this distribution both the side. Gradually, we will also discuss with the like the
components of arch and to the support and that support will transfer it to the foundation.
The outward thrust exerted by an arch at its base must be restrained either by its own
weight or the weight supporting of the walls. So, both the cases like it may be like full
arch or it may be something where the support to be there or else sometimes with the
buttress. So, in some of the historic building we have seen the arch form and other thing
is supported by the wall and in order to reduce the wall. So, we use the flying buttresses
to that.
The outer trust increases as the height or rise of an arch decreases. So, what exactly it is?
the rise is basically this particular height like if it is a flat beam column structure and
then we try to give the bend. So, if you reduce it then thrust will be more. So, if you
make your arch like parabolic, it will be the great one; if you make it flatten, flatten,
flatten so it will give the outward thrust more compared to the height. So, that is why it
says that thrust increases as the height or rise of this decreases.
Now, coming to this particular schematic where you have different components. So, at
the curvature you have the internal curvature call intrados. The extrados is the outer
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curvature then you have this abutment or area where like it is being supported to the
piers, and the rise as I mentioned it is basically the distance between your internal
curvature from that particular horizontal line.
So, where it is being supported and then you have different kind of elements. So, mostly
like in history; so, these arches were form with the brick masonry or stone masonry and
then you have a crown at the top. And also you use this particular stone, we also refer
this is the key stone.
So, this is basically the key stone and this area is basically your crown and this is your
haunch, then in between the lays of the components are also called vousoir. So, and this
is the effective span. So, this kind of structure mostly being used to create the opening,
sometimes even in the window and depending on the rise, you will have different kind of
arches we will be discussing that as well.
So, how load is transferred? So, load imposed on it will be transferred symmetrically and
that will transfer to the ground, sometimes if your wall is not capable to do it. So, we can
also use some flying buttresses or some other support which will eventually distribute the
load and this symmetry is very important in order to do that. So, here also this is the
similar thing. So, in a 3D form so, you can see that how the bonding being made. So, in
this case this is basically your rise.
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Now, coming to the material that can be used. So, any material can be used, but normally
the material used in the history or in the recent times, the brick masonry, the stone
masonry, sometimes the wood being used is not that much easy to curve the wood. So,
like different seasoning or making two pieces, the batten how you form this particular
arch. The concrete arch is also possible with the proper reinforcement and all and then
steel arch is being prefabricated and can easily be made as per the requirement.
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Now, let us go through some of the beautiful arches. So, this are very natural arches that
being formed that due to some you know airflow and all these being created.
So, it is you can see that how it is being sustained and this is something where mostly
arch being used for making the bridges like maybe it is small or maybe large, but big
masonry was used to create this arch which will help to distribute the load effectively.
So, this is being used earlier, and then the revised form of these like where in this picture
you can see those areas are filled with masses to support it more.
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So, in that comparison; so, here you can see that vertical members they are tied up with
this particular arch where the concrete being used. Here the big masonry being used or
the stone machinery being used and in this case it is the concrete arches.
Now, coming to the two examples; the two famous places like one from the Mumbai and
Delhi; the India Gate and Gate Way of India, there also it is not acting like support to the
bridge or something, but here it is just representing the door way. So, this is also very
attractive. So, here you can see that how it being formed in both the cases.
And, looking into these two pictures you can identify the geometry of the arch in this
case it is more semi circular, but in this case it is not, it is something different. So, they
are creating a point. So, it is point edge arch at the same time like if you take this; so, this
particular arches so, it is coming to the equilateral arch that will discuss, and then
different ornamentation, different type of other arches; segmental arches will discuss in
that.
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Now, the type of arches is based on the geometry. So, there are like quite a number of
different types that being used. But, most commonly the way we can classify the arch is
something like the triangular arch, the round arch, segmental arch, lancet arch,
equilateral arch, camber, then trefoil, then horseshoe, three-centred, four-centred; you
can even increase the five-centred, six-centred arches then the ogee arch, then one of the
important one is your parabolic and catenary arches.
So, this is basically where again I am referring the example that you just take a chain and
just let it like sag due to its weight. So, you will get some shape like this, this is the best
possible way and if you add some load to it; so, it will readjust and try to give the shape.
So, this catenary form is very useful and when you reverse it with the material so, that
will give you the arch. So, this is your what we call is your catenary curve and this is
your catenary arches.
So, normally when this particular is free only carrying the self weight and all we refer at
the catenary, but when that is been taking some weight of a deck or something then we
just call it the shape is changing a little bit, it will be parabolic, then the parabolic arch
will form.
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So, let us see some of the examples. So, the triangular it is very simple form where two
members just being supported like this where it can be a combination of brick or
sometimes earlier even this arch was formed with a single stone. So, two stone keep
putting together in this alignment which give this particular form.
So, this door that particular door way, the opening is formed with this and if you see it
carefully; so, this is basically you know ramble work of the stone masonry with lime
concrete. So, that is been created and again the symmetry to maintained; so, that the load
will be distributed uniformly. So, this is the triangular type.
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Then coming to the round type; it is basically the form of this arch is giving or giving
you a completeness of the circle. So, here in this case you can see can compare it, this is
basically a semi-circular thing where the centre is been fixed at this particular bisection
of this particular horizontal line and this radius is been rotated.
So, this is giving a round form and many a times like it is giving the symmetry. So, what
we discussed in the example of India Gate; where we found this kind of round arch so,
that arch is being formed like this. And, here also if you see the distribution and the
number of bricks, the masonry layout it will be having the symmetry. So, again this is
your centre so, then this will be your rise and it is giving a form of a round.
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Now, coming to the segmental arch it is basically when you have a semi-circular arch
and then you try to put pressure. So, you just try to make it little bit rise of the arch being
reduced both the side. So, you just squeeze it and then it will create the segments. So, in
this case basically what you can see that it is the centre of this arch is now not at this, it is
shifting somewhat like to complete it. So, it will shift it form that particular line.
So, the segmented arch being also used as because like it will essentially decrease the
rise of the arch and wherever you require this. So, in this case also if you see that it is not
exactly the semi-circular, this is the segmented arch being formed in this particular
bridge.
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Now, coming to the lancet arch or it is also the pointed arch system where again like it is
something not giving your you know single centre. So, this particular form that being
created. So, that will have centres somewhere here and then it will have centre like this.
And so, it is basically a pointed arch and being used normally in if you see the byzantine
and the post gothic architecture, then this kind of arches being used most commonly.
Then coming to the equilateral that we also found in the you Gateway of India in
Mumbai. So, where the arch is formed it is similar to the one like the lancet but here it is
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something where like the span wherever the both ends are considered to be the centre of
the arch and then that will be forming this particular structure.
So, in this case also if you find; so, basically if you just make the circle. So, this is
basically creating the equilateral triangle and then this arch form is called your
equilateral arches that you can see here. This example of the charge and mostly like
those kinds of arch is being used in the roman, byzantine and then not the roman the
byzantine and gothic architecture.
Coming to the, you know camber or the flat arch. So, most commonly in the area like in
Germany and also this kind of architectural treatment been seen where like normally the
you know the lintel part of a window or something where this kind of flat arch been used
to decorate it. Sometimes they can go with a similar material to give the structure the
similar look or sometimes they can make a variation with the brick texture or the colour
to have it. So, this is the flat arch.
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Now, coming to that the trefoil arch is similar to like what we can see the leaf the foil of
a tree. So, where it will form like this kind of structure. So, three circles like they have
been using so, where the symmetry to be maintained. So, in this case also like if you see
like and they are maintaining this particular geometry to create this. So, this is also some
ornamentation to the arch form that was used.
Now, coming to the horseshoe. So, in this case horseshoe is basically the profile that we
have this kind of magnetic like horse magnet horseshoe arch where this being formed
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like this. So, this is again very useful and many examples that we can get from this; the
formation is same. So, this is a schematic where it will look like this.
Then three-centred arch is something where you can get something like where it is not
basically the trefoil kind of, but here it is where you have the arch form. So, here you
have a circle then you have circle here. So, two points and then basically what you have
your connection like with the same perpendicular line and you have a bigger circle. So,
in this case the arch is controlled by three points and then that is why it is called three-
centred arch and here you can see the example of this.
So, where the three centred arch; when you go like deeper and deeper your upper portion
of the arch will be flatter and all. So, if sometimes you require this kind of you know
arrangement of arch you can go with that where also you can get this. So, this is a very
bigger circle with a centre at the bottom.
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Now, four-centred arch is something where like it is something again you can control it
where you can go for a pin joint and you can create it. So, here you can see with this
centre we can have the circle in these two positions and then controlling this you can
have a bigger one like this and you can have a bigger one like this. So, controlling it like
if you increase the number of you know points then you can create different geometry.
So, this being used to the four-centred arch in again the churches mostly in churches or
this places this is being used.
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Now, the ogee arch is looking something where like not at the same direction, the arch is
form in the other direction and give some you know dynamic form; so, this is the ogee
arch being used. Now, coming to the parabolic and catenary arches.
So, that we already discussed that if you compare with this chain and all is just the
reverse of that will give you this catenary form.
So, this is one example that is made with the masonry, now you can see this is again like
this is the great arch where there also you can use, you can see the masonry here it is
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something where made of some different materials. So, this huge structure is self
supporting and really creating something interesting space over there.
Now, coming to the support. In this support what we can have; that hinge less arch where
it is being just fixed, then you have the two-hinged arch. And, these references, these
particular examples are related to the bridges, because it is being used; so, you know
bigger manner in creating those bridges that we have seen in some of the examples that
the segmental arch or maybe sometimes it is your lancet arch or something. So, then you
have three-hinged arch and then tied-arch.
So, looking at the schematic here, you cannot see some hinged joint or something it is
also referred as a pin joint. So, in the frame structure we discuss the fixed joint and the
hinged joint here also it is the same.
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Now, coming to the hinge less arch where this arch is formed and it is just fixed to the
ground. So, it is fixed with the ground and by which it is transferring the load, again
symmetry to be maintained that is there in the hinge less arches.
Now, coming to the two-hinged where two hinge is being provided the two support if
you really go through it. So, at this end so, that being supported with hinge. So, then
compared to fix this is the two-hinged joint and being supported.
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Now, coming to the three-hinged joint; along with the two-hinged at the support both the
ends. So, one hinge is also provided. So, basically it is giving the joint like this. So, it is
the application of three-hinged joint and this is just to create a bridge to create the
overpass on a particular expressway.
And now coming to the fourth category that is the tied arch where along with this
support you also tie this particular member to the bridge. So, in this case you know
though this will compress because of the tight so, tension will be developed at this
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portion. The earlier case if it is not tied; so, it is full of compression, giving support to the
you know bottom of your arch that will transfer to the ground.
Now, coming to the summary. So, arch is having advantage because it is basically
depending on the geometry of the arch, it is distributing load through its curvature to the
support the piers or and finally, it will go to foundation. And the advantage that with arch
you can create the large span and there is a relation if you know decrease the rise of the
arch; that means, the lateral the outward thurst will increase.
So, in that case we can say that compared to a beam and column. So, the arch is a better
form which can actually reduce some horizontal load. So, this is something where you
can actually experiment with taking two books and you just make this alignment of the
books like this, then it will be more stable.
Now, you just lowered the rise of that and you just make it little flat. So, what you will
feel that it will have a, you know increasing the horizontal force and if you make it even
flat it will collapse. So, this is the very basic example where you can experiment with.
So, depending on the rise increase in the outward thrust will increase if you decrease, if
you lower down the rise of this. So, this is something where like you can understand that
with change in rise how like the arch outward thrust will improve the horizontal force
will be added to that. And that is why, beat solution to it is just go with this parabolic
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form and all, and some of the buildings even the buildings designed by Antoni Gaudi and
all, they have like used those particular form.
Now, in the second part of the presentation what we discussed is basically the support
condition of the arch bridges. So, we first discussed about the no hinge bridges where
like this particular arch form is being just supported with the fixed end just you know
across the river or some locations. And in the to hinge system those being supported with
pin joint or the hinge joint and compared to that like when we have gained a pin in
between. So, it is converted to your three-pin joint and also, we discussed that not only
this joint along with that we also have some examples.
Some bridges where this arch is tied with a horizontal member. So, depending on the
support and depending on the situations we can really go and we have seen a very good
number of examples where the arch being used so nicely that overall aesthetics of the
bridge or the structure is really appreciable. So, the advantage of arch that what we
discussed that we can go for the higher span, but the limitation to the arch is whenever
you use this arch form.
So, definitely the top portion of that arch is basically where you have to compromise
with the space. So, whenever in any structure like you know you have some hanger or
something where you just repeat this arch form of the frame and then you just cover with
the light material, but you cannot use this particular volume with the very regular
structure. So, then you have to make some arrangement and then you can support it with
something.
So, the bridges you have seen that sometimes you just use some tension members to
create this or sometimes even like you just feel this portion that we have seen that brick
masonry and that earlier that we can feel this portion to support the structure above on
top of it.
So, like that here we conclude the advantage of arches and the material that can be used
sometimes we can have this you know arch form. On the frame for the window or door
which is made of wood that can be done or with a steel that is very possible or else
sometimes also we have seen the catenary arch that here the huge catenary arch being
formed with some material like the concrete and steel.
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So, there is no such constraint with the material that can be, but this has advantage over a
like your simple beam column structure, but proper geometry to be maintained the you
know shuttering of the arch is very crucial where in frame structure it will be very easy
to support it, but for this you have to support it with proper care. The centring of the
arch, the shattering, the temporary structure to be built to make the arch form and the
symmetry to be maintain is very critical, otherwise it will give more advantage in the
structural form.
So, here I conclude and you can go through many examples and I advise you this you
just go through different kind of you know support joint arches being used in that you
make a comprehensive list and we can discuss over it and enhance the example list of
each of this type. So, these are the further reading that you can go through and also you
can go through those you know website link given in the respective slides.
So, with that I end up this lecture here, next will be discussing with the vault which is
also derived like from the arch basic form in the upcoming lecture. So, thank you for
taking part in this particular course and we will be again meeting on lecture number 23
that is vault structure.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 23
Vault Structures
Hi everyone, welcome back to NPTEL online course on Structure, Form, and

Architecture: The Synergy. Today we are at Lecture Number-23 and I will be discussing
on Vault Structures, the type of vault structures, their advantages and before that if we
just recall like the past few lectures that we are focusing on individual structures, their
pros and cons, application.
We have seen in the last lecture, we talked about arch as a structural form and how we
can use it different kind of arch from, their connection, their support, the multiple use,
diversified use of the arch in buildings, in window even in the bridges. So, like that now
we move one step ahead that we will be discussing on the vault. So, before we start this
particular session that we have certain idea about the vaults that being used in the
history. So, it is basically if you take a paper and just try to fold it, roll it with something
like this. So, this will become the vault and there are different types of vaults. So, we will
discuss that in this lecture. So, let get started.
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So, basically vault is a structural form that composed of a series of arches. So, if we
consider one arch, then you just repeat the multiple number of arches that will create the
form of a vault. And normally the construction, it is the machinery construction, but
definitely with advancement of technology, materials, nowadays even we can go with the
steel structures, some other materials can also be used to create this particular form.
The vault must able to withstand outward pressure that is very important. Suppose when
you fold a particular plate, so, definitely the most of the part will be taking the
compression, but where the outer part need to resist the pressure and that pressure will
come from the date load from the top load, if it is imposed by the structure above. When
the vault is underground, sometimes, we create vault to create the tunnel for the water
supply, sometimes to create some path, some tunnel for the transportation. So,
underground metro.
So, in that case if you go with this tunnel, this pressure might be resisting by some other
filling. So, whenever we just view something like the tunnel is there and then this is the
top portion. So, we fill this portion which will help this particular form to resist, but
when it is above ground, then something where we will make, just on top of a wall or
something. So, that should be supported by the walls, so, that the concept is pretty
similar with the arch we will have a keystone, then we have voussiors, then we have
spring and mostly the symmetry will be maintained. So, that will transfer the load to the
supporting structure and that will go to the foundation that is the same concept. Then in
this case also we can also support this with buttress that we have seen in some gothic
architecture, those churches, there the use of buttress to form like the support the arch
and all these being used. Even sometimes the parallel walls or the anchors additionally
tied to it can help to support it. So, in two conditions when it is to be placed
underground, so, that can be supported with the filling of materials like the example of
the tunnel this one and the. So, again now what we just talked about which is above
ground that should be supported either with the parallel walls, some kind of buttresses,
some anchors. Then masonry walls are composed of wedge shape pieces with voussiors
which are held in place to the neighboring pieces.
So, basically it is something where we can again take the example of the brick arches.
So, this will keep pressure to the next and next will give pressure to the next and like this
it will transfer the load to the support. So, it is very similar to the arch, but again the
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series of arches placing together in a linear direction will give you a form of a vault. But
this is only a type of vault, we will come to that the type of vaults and they revolve like
how it evolved and the use of the same.
Now, what exactly we discussed last slide it will be clear now. So, what you can see that
if you just consider this single part suppose, only we take this much these are basically a
arch form, may be made of masonry, may be of concrete. Now when it acts individually
we just place it one after another separately. So, each one of them is carrying the load
individually applied load is applied here and it is being transferred like this to the surface
and mostly it is in compression and when we make the vault is a continuous, you can get
the resemblance between these two shapes.
So, how it will be distributed? When you apply the load it is distributed based on the
homogeneity of the material. Definitely the material should be homogeneous across there
the thickness should be same across this particular vault then it will be distributed like
this. Now the advantage is very simple like you can make some structure obstruction free
whenever you have like have to have a like corridor, long corridor or maybe sometimes
it is a gathering of many people.
So, we cannot really put columns in between which will make obstruction that we do not
want as like the design, designer or architect then we can go with this kind of form. So,
like that even most of us maybe heard of these hangers. So, normally being placed is to
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be made to put your plane aero plane for the maintenance or something like that,
sometimes even to make some convention hall. So, we are taking this kind of arch form
and use the advantage of this vault.
Now, considering the components of the vaults, some of the components are also similar
to the arch rather most of them. Like keystone is the central which to be placed at the
center and the symmetry will be maintained across that. Then voussoirs are the stones
number 2 which actually a series of voussoirs they will put pressure to the next one like
this. Then number 3 is basically the back portion of that then impost is very important
element where like all these curved surface ends with and put the load on this vertical
wall, then intrados is basically the interior surface. So, it is opposite to the back and then
the rise that we know that it is to be calculated from your where the impost end so, from
that what is the rise. Then clear span is basically the span given to this then abutment is
the support and also, we have this springer where like it really transferred the last load to
the wall.
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Now, coming to the materials, it is may be made of your brick masonry, it may be of
stone masonry, sometimes we have also seen it is made of wood and then the concrete
definitely after invention of concrete, we have actually made many such structures which
earlier made, but the brick masonry, but with very light thickness and to increase this and
we used concrete and then steel is also being used to just take the form of a vault.
Now, these are the few pictures we will go through. This is again rebel masonry and you
can see that apart from this scenic beauty of this, if you focus on the structure in this
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basically this is the arch form and then these making a like manmade cave. So, this
particular form you can see this span is quite huge and it is sustained with those rubble
work. So, this kind of vault structure is also present.
So, coming to a complex one, where again it is the vault one and being placed for the
corridor. So, normally it is been largely used to cover as a roof of the corridor and but
here it is decorative. So, the columns being created and there are different ribs or kind of
what we call skeleton is coming up to hold this particular vault. So, this is one of the
categories, we will come to that as well.
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This is something similar to the previous one, this is for the corridor, but now this is
actually inside a chapel. So, how beautifully it has been done you can see that not only
the vault form, but also the ornamentation that previously at the initial few lectures we
talked about ornamentation of structure. So, here it is actually representing that kind of
things. So, use of this arch and then the vault is making this space very beautiful and also
structure resistible capable to reduce the number of columns to be placed to make a large
span or large gathering to be accommodated in that situation.
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Now, this is something really giving a nice picture, this is a library and here the vault
shape is being created, but it is with the wood that you can see that this been created with
some wood material and again it is being used to cover that particular atrium. This space
like you can see this is the ground floor it is double height. So, this span is being holding.
So, no column is required in between and also it will give a ascetic view, when you make
this curvature these arches and the walls. So, they will really create a nice environment.
Now, coming back to the as I told you that now it is also, we can use steel or sometimes
also the glass and steel combinations and other fabric material and steel combination.
So, this is one example I have taken from a station. So, in this case you can see this
particular form is being created with multiple series of truss, but overall like you can get
like the huge span without any column. So, this is one advantage to use this particular
vault form, which is basically a series of arches.
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Now, coming to the types of vaults, so depending on some of the shape and other thing.
So, there are many classifications. So, what I have picked up is basically the type of
barrel vault and we will discuss with some image for each of them. The groin vault, rib
vault, cloister vault then the fan vault you have then net vault, annular vault, rampant and
then Catalan. So, what exactly are they and how they are different to look like we will go
through it.
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So, barrel vault is basically we know the barrel is if you just make a barrel position like
this, it is laying on this and you just cut this with a section. So, we just cut in half piece
and as because it is hollow. So, it will give a figure something like this right. So, this is
basically the barrel vault and you can see this example it is basically the same. So, if we
complete this image so, that is hypothetically give you the particular form of a barrel. So,
this is called barrel vault.
Now, what exactly it says? A barrel vault is a continuous arched shape that may
approximate to a semi cylinder form. So, this is very important. So, when we take a
cylinder like this, we make a section and this is a hollow cylinder; obviously; and then
you just rotate it. So, we will get this particular form. So, this is the barrel vault, this can
be used as a roof of the tunnel as I mentioned when we just make the underground and
maybe pointed sometimes, even we will not always get this particular thing in a
semicircular form, sometimes you can also get the form even in some of the images we
have seen that.
It is formed by a series of arches that is the common phenomena that is also there. The
barrel vaults must be able to withstand the outer pressure on the lower part definitely
when it actually coming to this so, that should take the load of this. So, again with the
symmetry the load is being distributed both the side with the homogeneity in material
that will transfer very systematically and then and that will transfer to the impost the
abutment and then they will go through the foundation. So, these lows transfer.
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Now, coming to the example of the barrel vault, we have two pictures back to back here
you can see it is the stone brick masonry. So, where you can see that how it is being
formed this vault, it is similar. This is quite simple like we can see the masonry, the
layers of the brick, here it is the same thing, but apart from that the additional
ornamentation is being done. So, different color, different height that being formed in
this. So, it is again another use of this.
So, mostly this kind of vault being used in the gothic and then the byzantine that
particular period, we can see that and gradually they have transformed from that old type
of vault, will type of material and now slowly it will move towards some advanced
material that will retain this particular vault form, but like the materials the structural
property they optimize it.
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Coming to the groin vault, it is basically if you take two-barrel vaults and then you just
make a penetration at 90 degree to each other. So, from top view if we just try to draw it
so, it is something like that. So, this is basically the groin vault and if you can see this
isometric where it is making a form. So, sometimes for intersection of two corridors that
roof can be created like this or making a post like this we can create it. So, that will give
a few more intersection of the curvatures and that will have better visual appealing and
we will also see in the images.
Now, a groin vault or double barrel vault that already I mentioned is formed by the
intersection of two valve vaults at right angles. This is the basic condition the groin is the
edge between the intersection vault. So, basically this age that we get when they intersect
as because they are in curvature. So, when they intersect also will form an intersection
line as a curve. So, this is the groin, the efficient structure that only has to be restrained
in the corners. So, they have to really make the structure in such a manner they can make
this.
A series of groin vaults can be built next to one each other to have similar effect of a
barrel vault. So, we can place one after another so, then like it will make a two-barrel
vault crossing. So, this can be extended further to get a view of the barrel vaults.
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So, let us see what exactly it is, in this, you can just try to understand how it is being
made. So, like if you just take this curvature, ok. So, this is one particular vault and then
when you take this particular part. So, you will take this vault. So, the curvature is being
seen in this is from the inside, in this is interior view of a groin vault.
So, this looks like this and something which is very simpler with your brick masonry,
then also you can see the similar kind of curvature. So, you can see the edges that how
they crossed each other. So, previously we have seen the very simpler form and now this
is pointed and this corner is only being supported. In the barrel vault what was the
different? Like in barrel vault the whole portion like as because it is to be supported in
continuous. So, you need a wall or sometimes maybe it is supported with a thick wall in
different parts of the section, we have seen that in this image that these arch being
created it is being supported like this.
But for this groin vault only we have to support the corners. So, whenever we get these
corners after intersecting two-barrel vaults, we have to support this, then rest of the
things will take care with this form.
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Coming to the rib. So, rib is similar to your skeleton. So, where the vault being created
and that structure that on which the masonry work or concrete work being done is
basically a form of a skeleton. So, you can see that how beautifully with symmetry, with
a proper geometry experiment like this has been created.
So, rib vault is a structural skeleton of arches onto which masonry can be laid. So, what I
just mentioned it is the same thing; the crossed arch domes are one of the type of rib
vault. So, whenever we make the curvature like this and then we give say we create this
particular form with two arches and we just make some arrangement like we just connect
those points with some masonry, that will give a form of a what we call domes. So, we
will be discussing that in the next of the type of domes and what exactly.
So, normally it is something like here we just started with the half portion of the cylinder
that will be something in general the half cut of a sphere. So, that will be the dome. Then
ribs instead of the meeting the dome center they intertwined to the polygon. So, different
kind of polygons being made. So, this is one series and then you have a cross section. So,
they are really maintaining a particular symmetry to distribute the load very uniformly,
evenly so, that the structure will remain safe standing.
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So, this is something really a very beautiful example that I have picked up this is a great
mosque of your Cordoba. So, in this case you can get the essence that multiple arches
like how they just make the connection, the beautiful geometries maintain to just create
this particular what we call this dome inside this and then further decoration being made,
but overall with this intersection of course, they are making a structure of octagon.
So, this is eight side 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. So, octagonal shape being created with this
curvature and it is in continuous mode. So, this kind of experiment like with the rib vault
we provide like a beam like a curved beam being provided and on top really make it. So,
these beautiful punctures that being created, always this is giving a nice filling and with
beautiful ornamentation that we have seen in the history the application is really fantastic
to watch.
Again with this number of arches as because we don’t have a continuous wall or
something like the barrel vaults, again we have to support this kind of corners with the
pillars; that means, only the corner will be taken into consideration.
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Now, come to the cloister vault. So, it is also known as the dome vault, it is basically the
dome shaped and then basically different polygonal shape that will be created that I have
drawn there. So, it is one arch and this is one arch and how they are connected. So, this
particular portion is little bit flat and then when you go up it will be even flatter. The arch
towards like the center from a constant point to the spring point along the wall. So, this
particular point is the spring. So, from there they coming to a center, they are meeting to
each other to create this cloister vault.
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And this is the example that you can see that how it being formed. So, this is one arch
and this is one also they are diagonally crossing each other, this is the same for here as
well and they create this kind of vault. Again, it is similar to the previous one, but in
earlier image we have seen that the ribs very predominant you are not.
Coming to the fan vault and we all know fan we consider the ceiling fan or something
were like with the center we have some blades and if you just increase it. So, it will give
a fan shape, even the hand-blown form of your fan is something like this that we use. So,
this kind of vault being created with proper geometry, this is some schematic plan I have
picked up from the net, you can study more on this definitely going to the this website
given. So, fan vault is formed a series of concave sections or ribs that spread out from a
series of spring points.
So, starting from the point where like it ends. So, from their this spring point, this kind of
ribs will be created to create a particular fan form. And then the ribs of a fan vault are in
equal curvature and rotated equal distance. So, this is another geometry to be followed
the difference the gap between those curvatures they are maintaining with certain angle
mostly used in the gothic architecture now, you can see how beautifully it being done.
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So, in this case again this is the spring area and then from there how like with very nicely
with symmetry this being made. So, if I just take this particular portion and I just overlap
the drawing. So, you can easily identify the type of vault. So, next time if you visit this
kind of structure somewhere. So, you can easily identify the type of vault.
Net vault is something where net is (we are much aware about different kind of nets). So,
it is the same the shaker box and also multiple curvature they are just crossing each
other. So, create this kind of net. So, this is example of the net vault.
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Coming to the annular vault annular vault is something related to the barrel vault, but
barrel vault, it is being placed like these on a corridor right where the plan is something.
You have the plan like very simple plan and on top of it you have this. So, if I try to get a
section like this. So, I will be seeing like this, but in the annular form of vault instead of
this straight rectangle, they have in some curvature. So, there means in this case if I take
out the view so, you can identify that it is not very straight corridor, the vault that being
created and evolved. So, that is basically is annular.
So, for example, the easy example that I could give you to get this kind of shape that
what we have that particular food of doughnut type or maybe the bada. So, then you just
cut that slice. So, you will get this kind of form. So, it is basically the dome form, but it
is again round it. So, this is something else or else you can take example of those plastic
balloons or what we call like what we safety aids for the swimmers and all so, that will
also get similar kind of things.
So, we have a circular one and also, we have curvature this. So, we cut this particular
section. So, we will get this annular vault.
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Rampant vault is where the symmetry is not maintained. So, a continuous wagon vault,
cradle vault whose two abutments are located at inclined plane. So, in this case what you
can see that in these abutments it is in the lower portion and here it is the upper portion
and how it is connected is not really making symmetry it is in inclined form.
So, earlier whatever we have discussed they are all in aligned and the vault being created
with that fan or your ribbed. So, this support is at the same level, but here it is not and
normally this kind of vault being used to support the staircase. So, here also you can get
this idea that how it is being supported. So, this is basically a staircase. The impost on
one side is higher than the other that just I have explained this is higher and this is lower.
I think by looking at the picture, it is clearer, like there is some very little scope to
explain it because it is self-explanatory. So, what I suggest you for all these kind of
example, you try to come up with some more examples and then you just share with me
in the forum, then we can discuss over it and then we can actually increase the number of
examples in each category and we will also confirm ourselves that whether we are able
to judge a particular vault in the category or not.
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Now, the Catalan vault is something where the slope, the rise is very less, almost flat
vault that we can say that here also if you just consider this particular art. So, rise is very
less and that can be this particular portion is being made with a brick and this kind of
vault being used where the upper portion of the vault to be used. Because whenever you
increase the rise it will give you better result, but definitely you cannot really use this
particular space unless you fill it with some materials or something like that.
But if you just make it almost flat. So, you can just use material minimum material to
make it plain and you can use the upper storey. So, this is the example of the Catalan
vault. So, what it says? Just let us go through these texts. The Catalan vault is the type of
low brickwork arch forming a vaulted ceiling that often support a floor above that is
already I explained. It is constructed by laying a first layer of light bricks, lengthwise and
in space. So, it is being constructed one after another and this requires very good
expertise to really come up with so, that it will not really fall.
So, now we are coming to the end of this lecture. So, what exactly we summarize if we
to summarize here.
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So, we started with the vault is vault is basically evolved from arches. So, we know the
property of arch and this in this arch from the keystone the load is being distributed and
then we extend it, so, that will become the vault, and vault they are also capable enough
to take care of the long span without much support vertical support so, that we can create
the obstruction free space and then we also discuss about the material it is the similar
material that we have used for the arches over the years like it started with the stone,
brick, masonry work and then after that being like concrete being introduced to make this
and then the steel glass that I have shown the example of railway station shade where
this being used and then the advantage is this, and definitely for this kind of structure.
Sometimes if you go with very minimal slope and all the load on the shuttering or the
temporary work being also reduced to this, but definitely when you have a huge arch and
also shuttering will come into picture.
Now, also what we have discussed the application of the vault. So, it being applied like a
tunnel, it may be a roof of a corridor and sometimes it may be also used in a central hall
like in charge and all that we have seen in gothic architecture and all. Then we have also
discussed the series of vault types and then we started with very simple where it is the
barrel vault and barrel mean it is something look like this. So, then if you just make the
position like make a rotation. So, this is the barrel and you just cut a section and then
whatever you see is basically this.
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So this is the barrel vault, and then we move little bit, we moved with this and the
intersection of two will give you the groin wall, then also we discussed that intersection
of different arches and then creating the dome with a crossed arch dome or the we have
the cloister vault, then we have the rib vault and also we have seen that at the corner for
the groin vault and other thing where two different vaults intersecting them each other at
90 degree. So, this basically the corner will be the crucial can be supported then also we
discussed at the corner can support with some ribs in regular interval and creating a safer
fans. So, that is a fan vault and the Catalan vault that we have used where the rise is very
less. So, these are the most predominant types of vaults being used and in it has
diversified application like now it is also even for the corridor we just modified the
materials and go for this kind of vault. Even we have seen one example of library where
wood being used to create the vault. So, this is something in short, vault will help us to
make larger space, larger span without more obstruction the disadvantage whenever you
have higher rise then the upper portion you cannot really use.
So, for that if you have to go for the low-rise vault, the Catalan vault, but there are other
parameters as well. So, proper shuttering is also required to make it and to make it more
stable and then the materials. So, this is overall like where we have discussed the vault
structure similar to the arch and it is being useful being used from the history and also in
the now present days. So, this is some lesson that we should get and we can apply in our
design wherever we need some large span for the community hall or maybe something
some big gathering we can go for it.
If I want to make it very interesting some central part of this, the room something
interesting we can go with the fan vault or ribbed vault, but definitely for that we need
very good geometry to be maintained with the good expertise in that construction, we
need good mansion.
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So, here we conclude this particular lecture. And these are the some of the materials that
being repeated, but this is a new addition to this particular vault study.
So, you can go through this book, you get more examples, the evolution of vault in
detail, and different history how it evolved in this book. So, with that I would like to
thank you all to take part in this lecture and we will be meeting in the next lecture with
dome structures. So, another discussion on the dome and they are like how it evolved and
then the type of domes and their use. So, till then bye.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 24
Dome Structures
Hi, everyone. Welcome back to NPTEL online course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today we are at Lecture Number-24 and we will be talking
on Dome Structures. So, in the last lecture we have seen types of vaults, their use, the
fundamentals and we also came to know about the construction of a vault, it is basically
a series of arches.
Now in this, we will also get to know about the evolve of that particular dome and it is
again in this case like we have to take an arch and then we revolve it. So, we just rotate it
360 degree we can get to the shape or else we can just cut a hollow sphere and we can
get it. So, we will get into this a dome and we will try to understand the materials, the
use of that, different components of a dome, the purpose of using dome and then
different types with some images ,some examples. So, let get started this lecture.
So, this is a very introductory slide. So, if you just search dome, the first in the Google
so, what exactly the definition you will get from the dictionary.com it is a rounded vault
forming the roof of a building or a structure typically with a circular base. So, what
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exactly it is like a rounded vault is basically when we create this space it is the vault even
the cross-arch vault is being represented like a dome and then it is normally being used
and the circular base.
So, in this circular base I take a rise this is one arch and I just revolve it 360 degree. So,
multiple arch like this we just tried to create and then basically whatever the form will
get that is the dome. Like this is some example that is there with us; so, this is if you just
try to simplify it. So, it is some dome not really having a very semicircular,
hemispherical dome. So, like there is some other components added. So, we will come to
that as well.
Now, here you can see a crystal dome in this. So, dome is an architectural element that
resembles hollow upper half of a sphere. So, that already explained. Starting from a
prehistory to the modern age, dome have been constructed using mud, snow, that we
cannot ignore the construction of igloo that is basically the dome structure, then wood,
brick, concrete, metal, glass, plastic and now like anything. Even we all have played with
the plastic ball or some kind of a cricket ball. So, if you cut this that will be a solid dome,
but we all are aware about this particular form.
So, dome is formed through revolution of an arch, self-supporting, stabilized by the force
of gravity acting on their self weight hold them in compression. Useful to cover the large
span, it is again the same. So, starting from the dome that we can see in Taj Mahal or
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maybe the dome that we have seen in Pantheon in Rome. So, it is basically helping us to
have a column less structure.
So, vault doing the same purpose, but for the corridor or maybe an area of that kind, but
dome being used for a larger span.
The dome load transfer: how it transfers the load so, let us understand this. And, here you
get a schematic and corresponding color will have the indication the type of force that it
is dealing with. So, the component that we have is basically these meridional portions.
So, this are your meridional component of your dome and that is taking the compression.
So, basically if you take one a plastic ball or something a ball made of a light material
and you try to put the pressure from the top so, these fibers are always in compression.
Then, what you have the upper loop so, upper loop they will also try to compress. So,
they will also be in compression, but the bottom surface when you press it ok. The
bottom surface will always try to go away from each other and they that is why it is in
tension and then the vertical and lateral loads transferred to the down.
So, this what we can compared with your latitude longitude similar kind of thing so, you
have a series of compression and tension which can be dealt with the dome.
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So, this is one example that I picked up. This is a dome made of some temporary wood
and then the grass or something. It is very old a kind of practice to make this kind of
structure, but the overall form is again a dome shape. So, it is basically giving you a
volume as well as like you do not need to really give much support in between.
Move on. So, this is some famous example and I am repeating this example in many
cases because it is worth of repeating of its many features. We can explain many things
with this the use of like this lighting is one component, but here the intention is to show
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you the dome. So, this dome is basically the dome for the pantheon and then here like it
can accommodate the gathering. So, this is being used to have a like column less space.
This is something really, I need no explanation the beauty of it, the aesthetics of it and
the centralized dome. So, basically this is a type of dome we refer as the onion dome, we
will come to that when we discuss it.
So, this is another application of the dome. This is your Hagia Sophia. So, here also you
can see the series of domes in a different pattern. So, time to time from the history to the
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modern, the pattern of dome, the ornamentation of dome it differs. And, in the modern
age also we can have something which is a pneumatic dome; that means, somewhere we
also discuss; the typology the pneumatic means it is filled with the air and then create a
form of a dome.
This is another example of a dome but here you can see that instead of your lattice and
the hoop you have something different like a triangulation of that multiple triangles they
form it. So, this kind of form is also called geodesic dome. So, we will also discuss this
when the type of domes will be discussed in upcoming slides.
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Now, coming to the elements of dome so, here you have some information which are
little bit not similar to the vault component or arch. So, we have coffer, we have cupola,
lantern, oculus, rotunda, tholobate, pendentive, then squinch and whispering gallery. So,
what exactly they are? Though the names are little bit difficult to remember I know, but
looking at the photo we will try to identify what exactly and I am sure that we can really
get idea with the some of the forms and the names and the what exactly it means.
So, before that in this, it is very simple. So, the lantern is the upper part that initial
picture that I have shown here at the very beginning slide so, this particular portion is
now referring as your lantern it is similar to that and not only looking at the shape, but it
has a function as well. So, this will be used to create some puncture. So, light can enter
to this and then the interior can be getting some daylight. So, like when we have a lantern
something like this, we hold it and then there is a lamp. So, we can get the light it is
The cupola is the similar kind of thing that we will do and this is basically when a dome
to be placed on a part of a cylinder. So, this is basically the drum shape. Then whenever
you have to change like you have to place a different kind of dome on our square base.
So, you have to make changes at that junction. So, pendentive will be formed and
squinch of arches that will be formed. So, let us try to discuss it.
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Now, coffer is basically the series of sunken panel. So, this is basically what you can see
in order to reduce the volume of the self weight of the dome, we can also have something
like this. So, this is basically the coffer, sometimes we call in this case it is the
component is called the coffer part of that, we also refer as the coffer ceiling. So, then
where we can really reduce the volume of the concrete.
So, suppose this is a solid section and then if you use the coffer slab is basically
something like this. So, looking at the load it can carry so, we can reduce this volume.
So, this is basically the cross section I am referring. So, it being used in the modern
building. Also, the coffer is the terminology to just represent the series of sunken panel.
Then cupola is basically what we can relate with the cup. So, the shape if you just put the
cup in this position, something like this, so, it is the small most often dome like a
structure on top of the building. So, something like this you just put on top of it. So, in
many buildings like where you have a very similar route pattern and top of that you can
use this.
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Move to that the lantern cupola used to allow the daylight it is a similar thing that the top
of each the cupola in this case having the transparent glass so that daylight can easily
enter. And, not only the daylights sometimes even at nighttime, it can get a good
lighting, some ambience, good view of this particular building.
Now, coming to the oculus this is where the circular opening in the center of a dome or a
wall. So, that we can see in again the example this is basically the view recreated from
again the pantheon and this particular puncture. So, if you go back to the example of this
so, this is basically the oculus.
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Now, what is Rotunda? Rotunda is basically any building with a circular ground plan and
covered by a dome. So, in state of many buildings you will find that a dome is placed at
the center. So, that it will look like something like these or maybe if you use some drums
so, it may look like this. But, here it is the same where the plan is itself a cylindrical form
or it is basically the whole volume is a cylindrical form and the plan is circular. So, you
can see if you just try to make the drawing of this is a circular plan and then in top of it
you have this.
Then, coming to the tholobate, it is the upright part of a building drum like on which
dome is raised. So, this portion is a basically the tholobate., this is basically also
alternatively that we have seen it is called drum.
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So, pendentive is basically constructive device which allows the placement of a circular
dome on a square room. So, basically if you have a like some room like this and when
you place the dome on top of it. So, it is basically you can take the midpoint of that, you
can make the circle and you can make the dome, but now this particular portion to be
managed.
So, in that case what we can do? We can just take out those material or we just create the
portion, we transform that portion and this particular puncture where form you will take
out the material that will be pendentive. So, this is basically the pendentive be created.
Where the squinch is something were construction filling in the upper angles of a square
room to form a base to receive a dome. So, again here some things we have to fill so, that
is the squinch.
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Whispering gallery is something where it is a circular or hemispherical enclosure often

beneath the dome ok. So, it is basically a area where you can stand we have where we
can you can go and which will help to whisper and if you just make a noise in this and
that will take a surrounding sound and you can stand here and listen to this.
So, this is being there even in India this kind of things we can observe in your Gol
Gumbaz in South. So, if you have visited that also you experienced this or else in
upcoming days if you plan to visit you can get it and this is something which is also a
part of a dome sometimes where we can create this kind of scenario.
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Coming to the materials, so, as I already mentioned it can be mud, it can be snow, it can
be brick masonry, it can be stone masonry, wood, concrete or steel and in this case you
can see this being created a temporary dome being created with a bamboo. So, this is
how beautifully they have been creating it and this is igloo being formed with the
comprised block and then this dome been created.
Now, the types of domes. So, go to different search you will get different kind of list of
the dome. The my point is here I have a specified the domes which are very popular in
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nature, but definitely there will be some addition to this list and I will be happy listen
from you if I just missed out some of the dome and you can add on to this particular list.
So, it started with the corbelled dome, crossed-arch dome which is also like the ripped
vault that we discussed; the geodesic dome, onion dome, oval dome, rotational dome,
saucer dome, this is really interesting, umbrella dome, cable net dome, inflated domes.
So, what exactly they are and how to really remember? So, I will try to just relate with
the terminologies.
So, let start with the corbelled dome. So, corbelled dome is basically where we put the
layers of your brick or stone one after another ok. And, then we just take some kind of
offset and we just create this type of hollow space inside. So, the more offside view it
will look very like pyramidical shape, but if you reduce this particular space between two
layers. So, definitely it will give you the form of a dome.
So, this is something a very old kind of structure where without any mortar this being
created and here it is something where in a temple this being again created to make a
circular form and final ornamentation is a different thing, but basically out is the same.
So, we take the span, we have like a particular cylindrical form and all. So, we just try to
feel the first layer, then the second layer, third layer, fourth layer. So, likewise we will go
for this kind of corbelled dome.
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Now, the crossed-arch dome is basically where it is the similar that we have seen that
multiple arches they are creating an octagonal shape or sometimes even more arches will
give more polygonal shape and then this is being supported with some kind of wall or
something. So, this dome being created is the crossed arch dome.
So, this one is one of the earliest types of ribbed vault rips instead of meeting the dome
center are intervened to the polygons that we have also seen in that ribbed and clustered
vault.
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Coming to the geodesic I have shown you one example a lit take this example this is as a
model where like triangle being placed one after another to create this kind of form.
Another example that I can give you the formation of the dome that many of us we also
like played football or maybe we watch football. So, football if you see like basically it is
a sphere ok, but in formation of this what we need? We need pentagons and then we
need a hexagon. So, with one pentagon so, we just create the five hexagons and like that
we create the this particular curvature.
But, instead of that if you use the triangle and we can just create this kind of volume. So,
this is also very popular nowadays many such steel structure, geodesic dome being
created. So, sphere like structure consistent of a network of different triangles provide a
self-balancing between the structures. This is very useful; these joints are how it is being
made those are very crucial so, firm anchor how it is being placed to form this. So, the
application of this kind of dome is quite modern and there are many examples that we
can come across. So, this is one of them.
Coming to the onion dome is the easiest thing to remember we all know the onion and
the shape is something like this. So, this is a white onion. So, the color may vary, but this
shape I just place it here. Earlier I have given an example of Taj Mahal. Now, this is
something like this. Even if you take example of the Disney Land so, there also you get
this towers and then the form is something like this.
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Even we have something seen in those documentary video of Aladdin or some Disney
movie. So, this is something where we can get it. So, this is basically the cathedral
domes from Russia so, where the form is being easily visible. So, it is look like a golden
onion, but yes this can also be used as a form.
Coming to the oval as it is coming from in the shape of an oval so, like something like
this. So, here sometimes for some interior space the change, the plan in state of a circle,
the profile is the oval. So, basically an oval dome may be defined as a dome whose plan
or profile has an oval form.
The geometry is defined as using combination of circular arch that transition at tangential
points. So, basically in this case we have to reduce it like this. So, that we will finally,
get the oval form on the series of oval. So, this is one oval, this is another one and this
been connected to that sub plan here it is basically a wall and then on top of it we have
this. So, this is oval.
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Now, coming to the rotational dome. It is basically where I have started like we take with
one particular circular form and this is center you take a rise then you take one arch and
then you try to revolve it 360 degree. So, after revolving whatever you will get is
basically a hemisphere spherical dome if you take this arch and the rise in that panel. So,
it is basically the half cut of a sphere.
So, it is something the example that is from the dome of the Jerusalem Rock Shrine. So,
here it is example of the rotation. So, rotating arch. So, if you find that if these are visible
of few of the arches merging to a particular point if you increase more. So, basically it is
starting from a point and ending to the same point the revolve of this. So, that is the
rotational dome.
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Saucer dome is basically where it is also referred as the segmental dome. So, we talked
about the rise. So, this is your support and then whatever the height will get so, this is
basically the rise. So, for the saucer dome it is a segmental. So, the rise is something
which is not lying in this line maybe from some bottom of that and from there we make
this particular arch. So, the center of this arch is basically below that.
So, a dome having the form of a segment of a sphere with the center well, below the
springing line. So, this is the line that we have talked about the springing line even in the
vault so, this particular portion is the saucer vault. So, here you can see that how flat
almost it is there. So, it is the saucer dome.
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Coming to the umbrella dome it is also known as ribbed or parachute dome. So, what
exactly it is we know the form of a parachute is something like this and also the
umbrella. So, where it is basically started with a very simple dome and then the ribbed
will actually guide it to like take a form of this umbrella. So, if you just take this example
this is United State Capitol from US. So, it the example of this umbrella dome.
Coming to the cable net dome. So, it is also very important that this particular
Millennium Dome we have discussed earlier as well in when we discussed about that
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tensile structure. So, in this case these vertical members they are used as compressive
members and very finally, if you see these images so, they are fixed with some cables
some multiple cables they are giving the tension and this is the fabric material. So, huge
dome being created which very few numbers of such post or mast we refer technically.
The mast it is only taking the compression and the rest of the arch tensioned. So, with the
cable this can also be formed.
The cable net structure can adopt an overall dome shape, albeit individual section is
generally flat or anticlastic form. So, we have discussed the anticlastic thing, but again
we are just discussing it. Anticlastic form is when the two curvatures of the plane they
are acting in opposite directions. So, basically, I have given example of a chips. So, it is
sometimes you just take any example of chip. So, it is something like this something like
this.
So, here I am trying to explain this with this example. So, this is anticlastic means you
have a curvature of this particular arch like this and then you have curvature of the top
like this. So, this is basically the anticlastic form that we will follow when we discuss the
fabric structure as a form we will discuss in detail the anticlastic and synclastic curvature
their advantages and disadvantages, but to understand it basically two curvature in
opposite direction. So, this is from the cable net dome.
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Coming to the inflated dome, can you guess the material of this dome? So, looking at the
image from a distance it looks similar to a concrete dome, but it is not. So, this is
basically the inflated dome being created. So, inflated structures are formed by
pressurizing a volume of air, enclosed by a lightweight fabric membrane.
So, sometimes even I have given this cited this example before that for a game zone in a
shopping mall or it may be a local fair. So, we will get something like a structure for the
kids like you have a Mickey Mouse kind of things. So, people are jumping over it. So, it
is nothing, but a membrane so, they put air inside this to give the form which is sells
sustaining and adjusting automatically and when you release it will be just flatted. So,
this inflated dome being created. This is the Qatar Inflatable Fabric dome. It is a fabric
being used, the air is used to give the form and it has been created. So, this is not the only
for a structure even these kinds of technique now being used to create as a shuttering to
create the dome. Now, obviously, for this concave structure or the huge dome, unless
you go for the core building is very difficult to make the shuttering at certain height, and
also to maintain the perfect symmetry. So, what we need to do?
We can use take example of this kind of balloon kind of form and then we just put the
pressure, we just cast the dome as we want or then we just take it out the we release the
pressure, so that this is this will be formed very smoothly. So, this is a very good
example and its low scale if you use this dome kind of structure, they are again mostly
taking the compression and at the bottom hoops, you will get some kind of tension. This
is also proven to be good for seismic zone.
So, in state of having rectangular this dome can be used for that even for the wind. So,
they will also help to have a better air flow. So, taking the aerodynamics and oscillation
and also this kind of shapes are being useful. So, not only as just the root purpose of any
building as a decoration, even for a normal structure as a building structure we can also
made. So, we will discuss on when we discuss about the structure that is preferable for
such disaster zone area will come back again with this kind of dome form.
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Coming to the summary, so, basically in this we have discussed about the dome and here
it is like the basic dome being formed, like it is half the section of your hollow sphere
this is one idea that we had and the other one we discussed on the rotation. So, you have
one arch and then you revolve it 360 degree and then we get the form of this dome.
We have also discussed about the material, the mud. I have also shown you some dome
made of your some branches of the tree as well as some grasses to give the form and then
also we discussed about the igloo which is made up snow and later on brick masonry,
concrete masonry, even the steel, even the cable and then the last example that I have
shown you is just some air pressure. So, due to pressurized air so, inflation of these
things being done and the type of dome that is a series of dome and, but we can relate it.
So, where the rotational dome we also discuss the onion dome that been used in Taj
Mahal or even in the Disney Land somewhere we have also seen that particular umbrella
or ribbed thing that we have discussed for your what we call the Saint Peter's or maybe
sometimes like the example have taken for the US State Capital that is there and then
sometimes the dome can be of your corbelled. So, where like you have to align that
particular layer of bricks or masonry in so, taking some offset in such a way that it will
create a form of arch and finally, it revolved and then we can get this dome.
Now, coming to the advantage of the dome definitely; taking the example of the
pantheon. So, it will be used like it is very useful for covering a large span with
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minimum obstruction, but the disadvantage that we have that we cannot use the upper
portion. So, that is where normally being used for the roof for the case and then like it
can be easily formed and mostly it is like self-adjusting, transferring the load to the
support like this.
And, then the last point that we discussed that this kind of dome or curvde form that is
very useful for the windy area or earthquake prone areas to tackle with that can also be
used as a like small unit of as residence. And, then also we discuss in modern days in
state of this a heavy construction we just go each some triangulation of your structure
with the steel member and then we form the geodesic dome which is being used to create
it.
So, we can we have some examples on that as well. So, this is the discussion on the
dome and their uses from the history to the modern world, and there is no end of getting
the examples of that. Please do that exercise to put the more examples to this and if I
missed out some of the category which is very predominant you can also suggest me in
the forum, we will get back to you that positively.
And, these are some reading materials that been repeated so, you can go with that. So,
these structural analyses of historical construction there you will in this book you will get
some example of construction of dome and all how these being done. So, the main idea
to discuss each type of structure one by one to get the advantages, their applications, the
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type so, not only the structural forms or they are capable to take more load, more span is
feasible, but as well as the like the ornamentation that also we need to understand
because this subject is basically the synergy between the form, architecture and these
aesthetics as well as the structure.
So, we should also take that point that how beautifully like ornamentation of world then
the arches and then now the dome being created and we can definitely simplify that. We
can go with the classical one or else taking the new materials and create some good form
and that will make a proper synergy without compromising the structural safety of our
building, we can do some great creation with some new materials, new techniques and
all.
So, again I would like to thank you for take part in this course and next we will be
meeting with a new discussion on the grid structures. So, moving from arch, vault and
then dome and then we will discuss about the grid and their limitations and their
advantages and then slowly move over to the membrane structure and other structural
forms that will be a useful lecture that will help us to take a decision on the type of
structure to be selected depending on the purpose and we can make the synergy between
all these form architecture and structure. So, till then bye.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 25
Grid Structures
Architecture: The Synergy. Today we are at Lecture Number-25, that is Grid Structure.
So far we have seen different kinds of structural forms and their usages in building forms
as structural material or else to just make the form. We have discussed about
comprehensive structure, tensile structure, dome and now we are coming in a part where
we will discuss about the grid structures. Though this grid is very commonly known as
some, we can say the rectangular pattern, the square block and all. Partially, this is the
same thing that we will be talking about. So, let us start this particular lecture.
So, basically if you see in this slide that grid is a 2-dimensional resisting structure. So,
what exactly it is for that we need to know about the one-dimensional structure.
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So, I take to the next slide then again, I will come back to the first slide. So, whenever
you have a frame structure, a flat slab structure, so, basically what you have- The number
of columns and then the slab the load applied on the slab then distributed and transmitted
to the column and column will transfer load to the lower floor and then to the foundation.
So, that is the phenomena. But in this particular case, we have to like give this particular
beam in one direction in one dimension is given either in X or either in Y.
So, here if you see this is a rectangular slab and the beams are provided parallelly to that.
But the problem with the one-dimensional arrangement is whenever you give a point
load, the corresponding beam will get more deflection and there is not much deflection in
other parallel beams. So, that is why sometimes these will not really act very efficiently
or we will find that we are we have to restrict our self to reduce the span of the room to
have this.
And in order to overcome that we may add some of the members and we just make grid
form. So, then on load applied, so that will be distributed in a more better way. So,
coming back to the slide first slide, so, here exactly this is what said that it is 2
dimensional not in one direction, but both the directions we have the beam. They are
interacting with each other. So, whenever there is a point load so that can be easily
distributed. This kind of structure can be applied for the foundation where the surface is
very flat and also as ceiling or floor. So, for the foundation, so here if you look into this
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picture, so, the first so the bottom one is a solid slab as foundation base. But here it is
basically if you see that in this case it is not the solid one, but it is improved. So,
basically it will have particular grid structure and it is having some thickness.
So, also, we say this thing as waffle slab. So, this will not only reduce the material, but
also it will increase the efficiency of the structure. So, one particular discussion when we
discussed about efficiency of a structural form then we have seen that whenever we take
one solid rectangular section, So, maximum bending that occurs in the outer fiber,
whereas, at the center, there is less amount of stress. For that we can improve it we can
make these as I sections. So, we can easily remove this particular portion of the solid
section and improve structural section to make it cost effective and also when you reduce
the material remember that, that will also reduce the date load. So, that is advantages. So,
like we taking that concept this grid structure being formed it need not to be orthogonal
or mutually perpendicular grid that always vertical and horizontal line they are crossing
each other at 90 degree, but sometimes also we get different kind of relationship between
horizontal and vertical members that we will discuss in upcoming slides.
Talking about the material the concrete wood or metal that can be used and these are the
materials like we can use for creating different shapes. Then it is providing more
structural stability without using a lot of additional material and you can compare this to
figure where you can easily identify that reduction of the material between these two, but
solving the same purpose to make the stability it is also effective for the large span. That
earlier we have discussed when post beam column that if we want some large span so we
have to increase the depth of the beam or we have to place multiple number of columns.
But multiple number of columns essentially block the space, but when we require to have
these column lists then the way is to increase the depth of the beam if we go with the
framed structure.
But there are other alternatives like we can go for shell structure, we can go for dome
structure, but if we confined ourselves with a very straight forward flat structure then this
a waffle slab or these grid structure can help us where both direction cross beam can help
us to increase the span that required for let us say ballroom or maybe a party room
maybe a conference hall etcetera. So, here you can see another picture of the same thing
where the large span being supported and normally this kind of structure being used in
parking maybe in a public stations, airport.
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Even earlier I have shown one example of Mumbai airport where this kind of a waffle
slab being used in a different format. So, we will also discuss that with picture. Now here
the limitation with one dimensional as I already have mentioned, but here if you again
see that though they have some parallel members which are drawn with the black color
these are parallel beams that are giving support to the upper slab. But due to a point load
the deflection on this particular member which is black color bold is taking much
deflection and there is considerably very less effect on the others whereas, if we make
the grid. So, that can be distributed more efficiently.
Now, coming to this slide, it is basically showing the overcoming the limitation of this
one dimension with the two dimensional. So, now, how we get the idea of the grid. So,
now, here it is a square form and grid being placed where L/2 x L/ 2 is one particular
grid and as because the length has same and the it is making 4 squares out of a big square
of having a site L. So, the distribution of load in all the cases it is equal P/ 4, but the
moment we just make it say rectangular and, in that case, depending on the shorter a
corner and the further corner the load will be distributed in a different manner.
So, load will essentially be distributed to it is the shorter side. So, here you can see the
8/18. This is basically the load that will be transmitted to this particular support and
where at it is less. And if you increase the number of this shorter site beam then probably
this load again be distributed further.
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So, here you can see that the similar picture now being distributed more evenly. So, it
represents that when we go for the equal length in both directions distribute the load
more efficiently. So, here if you just consider this is a square of equal length and then it
has being divided by 3x3 grid of equal size then any point load anywhere will be
distributed more efficiently rather than any other form.
Now, coming to the load transfer how it will transfer the load already we have seen with
the schematic. This is some image where you can see that here you can identify a column
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there you get another one and here at the end. So, this span is considering the human
scale of say maybe 5 feet 6 inches. So, this will have a good span which is been
supported with the waffle slab or sometimes also referred as the coffer slab. So, any load
given on that that will be distributed through this particular support and at the end. And
the more efficiently you make that grid the distribution will have that efficiency.
Now, coming to the materials to be used for the grid already have mentioned that RCC
(reinforced cement concrete) can be used wood can also be used to make some structure
especially in interior it will make something which is structure is structurally stable as
well as esthetically pleasant. And metal grid is also being used for the industrial project
as well as some of the cases where some office buildings or some shopping malls, they
have used this kind of structure.
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Now, coming to the type of grid structure depending on the arrangement of the grid it
can be classified like rectangular beam grid or orthogonal grid then diagrid or skew grid
3-way grid and woven grid. So, what are those. So, taking this terminology rectangular it
means the grid will be in a very rectangular pattern and orthogonal means that horizontal
and vertical members they are making 90-degree angle.
So, this is orthogonal grid diagrid where it is basically not parallel to the in support. So,
it will have some diagonal or angular member. So, this is basically your diagrid or skew
grid and it may vary uniformly or maybe sometimes it can be something where a
irregular grid may form. Three ways grid is basically referring to the grid of your triangle
where triangulation will take place so that it can develop the grid pattern.
And woven grid is basically something where like it is coming from the weave. So, you
have some kind of interlacing about the between the object. So, here in this case if I try
to draw it. So, it is something like this. So, they are interlocking each other ok.
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So, I will also show with the images. So, rectangular grid beam or orthogonal grid where
like if you can place beam and this particular grid so that each will form a square of say
equal length. So, that will be more effective.
So, here you can see how it is being made and for these also you do not need really a
very high thickness. You can reduce it, can be of thin thickness, but it can able to hold
this much. So, many buildings in the government buildings are earlier for their canopy
they have used this kind of rectangular beam grid or orthogonal grid.
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Proceed with the diagonal grid, here you can see that it is in the something where the
grid being placed in a form of arch and they are crossing each other. So, it is not very
straight. So, each will have some crossing nature and that is forming this particular grid.
Again, it is being used for a public like a well this is the office area where you can see
the cubicles and also this roof been created.
Coming to the Three ways grid as I mentioned that, it will make a formation of your
triangle or hexagonal shape for the roofing.
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Now, woven grid at as I mentioned: So, this will look like something this the interlacing
take place. So, if you consider this image the concept image it is basically the woven
grid. Now in this case, why it is a more effective than the previous one? Here you can
identify if you see this image before deflection. So, you have one particular beam at the
top and then you have other members just below it. So, they are not in the same plane;
so, one place after another, so, in that case if a load is applied where it is been shown. So,
the deflection will take place here that can create a pressure on the other junction and
that can result in some upliftment of this particular structure whereas, here if you put the
pressure, so, this upliftment the tendency that can be covered up with this. So, whenever
this is interlacing most of the buckets, we see a made of plastic or made of bamboo there
this kind of wind structure being followed. So, in a building perspective also we can go
for this kind of woven structure which will reduce the upliftment tendency of the
structural member.
Now, let us just go through some of the images where this waffle slab or coffer slab
being used maybe sometimes in structural purpose sometimes also with structure the
ornamentation and especially in the period of roman architecture and then next gothic,
byzantineby that time along with the structure so they also focused on the ornamentation.
And here is one of the example where decorative coffer ceiling being displayed. So, you
can easily identify those grids which is making this vault and I am sure that if you
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followed the earlier lectures there where we discussed about different kind of vaults. So,
this is basically a barrel vault, but here the ceiling being made with the coffer ceiling.
And these needs no introduction. So, this is the dome the roof of Pantheon. So, here also
you can see how the coffer slab reduced the material of the dome. So, that is why also it
is reducing the date load of the dome.
Coming forward this is at Santa Maria, Rome. So, here also you can see that how
decorative it is along with the structural material is more of the decoration.
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Now, this kind of a structure nowadays we can see in many public stations as I
mentioned. So, here also this is also referred as your ribbed structure, where again the
orthogonal grid being just given a form of arch and then it is been placed. So, this the
material the upper material maybe of some transparent translation material to get the
daylight during daytime or else it can be of the concrete or any other material to just
cover it.
So, this is being useful and you can see that the span, the main use of the arch, and these
waffle slab constructions essentially reduced the amount of material here, and also it is
helping out to get a nice aesthetic, very clean, and visually pleasant structure as a roof.
And here you can see that the same material being used as wall and roof. So, this is
basically again a vault form structure, but here the orthogonal grid being used.
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Coming to another one again it is made of some wooden for interior the wooden grid and
you can see the decoration how beautifully it been placed and it is also covering a good
span. So, without any vertical support here how it is being supported.
And this is the example from Mumbai International Airport. There you can find this kind
of waffle slab. So, here also you can see, you can identify the span how big it is though it
is just a rented picture, but at the actual picture also will get the similar thing about this
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kind of arrangement. So, very nicely very beautifully executed waffle structure at
Mumbai international airport.
Coming to this is the Metropol in Italy, Metropol Parasol. So, here also the grid is
something which is known or we can call an unorthodox and here different curvature
being formed with different geometry and the structure is being optimized with the
reduction of this.
So, this is basically giving us sense of very dynamic flow of some something which is
giving our sense of flow. So, this is an open area planning a closed form not a closed
form architecture.
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Now, coming to the grid structure again it is lord Lodytel Communication Development
Center. So, here also you can see that this particular cantilever and it is having a good
span that can be easily covered with this gird or waffle slab. So, this is an advantage of
the waffle slab that being used where like the building can be of a rectangular shape. It
can be of some curve shape, but this will help to distribute the load effectively and at the
same time it will reduce the amount of material from the section it is improvement of the
section and also can be used for the large span.
Now, so as to allow the service which is very important for the flat slab also we put the
reinforcement and then also we try to make the fall ceiling to cover it, but as because it is
getting a depth and sometimes like if that can be done with the mould and especially
these being designed.
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Then all the services can be fixed within that. So, this is one example where the pipe
aligns can go and here also you can see the electrical fittings how it can be adjusted
within that section. So, that with the depth of the waffle slab that we referred the depth of
the waffle slab means whenever we have this kind of grid structure so this is the depth.
So, within that depth we can able to put all this services. So, that it can give a nice look
from the outside. At the same time that can be also used to create some skylight for some
public area where the large span is being covered. So, this is another useful application
of this waffle slab.
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Now, coming to the advantages of that resists heavier load and can be used for longer
span compared to the flat slab. For long span solution there are many. We can go for
arch, we can go for dome or shell structure, but compared to the flat slab if we go for the
grid slab or grid structure that can be used for the longer span. Suitable span up to 7
meters to 16 meters, but can be extended if we really go for post tensioning and take will
care of that. Economical as the amount of concrete and steel is reduced compared to r
solid section light in weight resulting in the light of framework. So, different definitely
when you reduce the section cross section then this can effectively reduce the
framework. Export coffer slab also looking visually pleasant we can put some lights. So,
that it can create some nice environment from interior.
Now, coming to the disadvantage construction of grid structure needs strict supervision
and skilled labor. Definitely proper execution is required not only the design, but also
during the execution the proper alignment of the reinforcement and the form work.
Specially it is required to be very accurate to get the desired result. Now casting of that
formwork or moulds to get this particular form: So, suppose when you make the centaury
for the flat slab it is very simple. We give a horizontal member and the vertical props and
we lay the concrete, but for this we what we want. So, we need some mould which is
basically look like this and we place one after another and then we put the reinforcement
on top of it and we fill it.
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So, basically if we try to convert this. So, your formwork now looks like this. So, all
these members are basically all these moulds we will be placed one after another and
then we cast. Now this is very costly item because that to be customized. Depending on
the size of the grid depending on the size whether you need very sharp finish or you need
something rectangular or sometimes you need something hexagonal or diagonal like
suppose rectangle, triangle or maybe hexagon so you have to customize it.
So, then it will not be economical unless it will have a large production. So, for a large
number of uses, if the mould will have repetitive use and all then it will be economical.
Head room is reduced. Definitely when you go for this instead of flat slab whenever we
use flat slab has continuous beam. So, sometimes we just provide the beams to give the
support, but for waffle slab this is more regular this particular repetition though the
thickness is less. So, effectively the height, head room from the in the measured from the
soffit of that particular waffle slab to the floor getting reduced so that you need to
provide little bit more height. So, the the story height, the building height will increase in
this case. In waffle ceiling problems are with the lighting facility and hanging pipes.
So, lighting facility means which are to be placed. Suppose as because we have this kind
of pattern like only from the bottom, we get this particular grid and so we are restricted
to put the light within that particular gap or else it will create problem and also for the
hanging pipe services or duct. If it is not in build the way like I have shown in the
services that how you can put all these services within the waffle slab construction then it
will be a little bit tough and it will look ugly if it is not being properly executed. So, that
is one of the disadvantages. So, coming to the end of this particular lecture.
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So, basically if we summarize. So, we started with one dimensional slab where the
parallel beams are acting only one direction, but due to any point load. So, the defection
of this beam will be more compared to the others. So, effectively the distribution of the
load will not be that much effective compared to that when you move to the more
numbers of grid. So, the load distributed will have some effect and it will be distributed
with more number of side support that will be distributed. So, this is the advantage of a
grid structure and it is also called two-dimensional structure and this is one dimensional
structure, right?.
So, this is also referred as your waffle slab construction. We can use this or also we
referred this as the coffer slab. In the typology we have orthogonal where it is very
rectangular rectilinear form, we may have diagrid. So, where it is not perpendicular. So,
we have something like this. Then we have a Three way that is basically making this
kind of grid and then last, but not the least the woven where we have seen like something
like this on the bucket and all. And advantages or disadvantages already we discussed
that definitely it can hold the long span ok. Again, reduces material these are the
advantages and disadvantages what we have the increase in height or maybe head room
then also the problem with the different fixture like lighting and all.
If it is not being included in the section itself and definitely it needs good formwork.
Formwork is also a that we have discussed earlier. Formwork is basically also referred as
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the shuttering of the structure and also skilled labor. So, with this also we have seen the
examples. Normally these kinds of structure being applied where large span to be
covered with the less number of columns, less number of material and the useful
application in the airport in parking area etcetera some convention hall as because this
waffle slab also looks very beautiful from inside. So, that can be used for the decoration
for the even for the small building like even for the restaurant and all and wood, timber,
concrete that can be used. It was used in history with ornamentation and now also I have
given you example of Mumbai airport then the other example from the public plaza that
is from Italy. So, that is basically the use of this grid structure.
So, with this we conclude this particular lecture. These are the study materials that
already been given in other presentations, you may go through these books and also you
go through the links given for different pictures, different stories where you can get more
information from that. With that I conclude here. So, next we will cover the shell
structure and we will discuss about different applications of the shell structure, types of
shell structure. So, till then I again we very much thankful to you to attend this particular
course and we will be meeting again on lecture number 26 that is on shell structure.
Thank you.
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Lecture - 26
Shell Structures
Hello everyone, welcome back again to online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today, we are at Lecture Number-26 and it is all about the
Shell Structures. In previous lecture 25, we have seen the advantages of grid structure
over the large span and how it can be used and for different decoration purpose as well as
to give large span support without any obstruction.
So, similarly the shell structure is having much advantage for this large span again. And,
with this it is similar to the previous one, but definitely the form will make by curvature.
So, we will discuss various issues on shell structures, we will discuss different types of
curvature and also some applications with some examples. So, let us start it.
So, if you see the definition of shell structures from different sources it says, a shell is a
thin structure composed of curve sheets or material, so that the curvature plays an
important role in the structural behavior, realizing a spatial form. So, basically two
important terms that, we should see; one is very thin structure is one right; the second is
your curvature.
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Now, looking back another definition, another explanation of this structure, where it
says, a thin curved membrane or slab usually of reinforced concrete that functions both
as structure and covering.
So, both the definitions are having similar word; one is definitely thin and the other one
is your curvature. So, these two will make the form which is definitely, existing as
spatial form that it will make and that can be used as a cover or that can just be used as a
structural member.
So, now, we proceed with that and here you can see that image where, it basically giving
form of a shell. But, before we go into the engineering part of that, as I mentioned in
very first lecture of this course, that whatever we design, whatever we develop, the
structural elements that’s are very much inspired from the nature.
So, this kind of structure do exist in nature and we just take that particular form, take that
particular phenomena and do some engineering to just make a prototype of that. But,
before we discuss that natural shells and from where we are inspired, let us also know the
transfer of the load.
It is pretty similar this diagram is actually a common to you now, because I have given
these in a presentation where we covered dome structure. So, similarly here we will not
go by the form of the dome, because the curvature in one case can make dome, in one
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case it may just develop an arch sometimes may be a bolt, sometimes even making some
structure like this, which is basically anticlastic curvatures. So, we will come to that what
is anticlastic, what is other type of curvature, but this kind of form being created.
Now, in this case definitely the compression you can get for the circumferential hoop
stress and then what we have in the meridional stress, which is again the compressive
you can get these members how they are you know pressing to close to each other. Now,
if I put pressure on top of it and try to just match it to the ground. So, this will act like
this.
So, this will be in compression, but the lower fiber where the circumferential hoops at
the lower part of the dome, it is having tension. They will try to go away from each
other. So, this is why here the tension being developed.
Now, in this case where the two curvature; you can see one curvature in this direction,
the other curvature in the other direction. And, that is why it is called Anticlastic, where
both are of the similar direction, we call it synclastic.
Now, in this case if you see that, the member in this direction is in tension. So,
sometimes you know we have also discussed this point is just being supported if you
consider this as membrane. So, this is being supported with the mast with the cable. So,
that is tension whereas, the other will balance it with the compression.
And, also at the edge we have the shear in both direction like, you have the force and
then you have the edge shears in this structure.
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As I told you that we are inspired by the natural elements which do exist in the nature
and these are some of the shell structure. So, in this you can start with the egg shells or
may be the sea shells, we have nut shells and then this is something very familiar, this is
basically the coconut that particular shell.
So, you can consider the form this is nothing, but a dome you just replicate it in change
the material and put concrete and reinforcement you can get it. This oval shape also you
can use it with some materials.
Now, the advantage of that in all the cases if you see the thickness is a very very small
thickness, but it is strong enough and give a good shape or form. So, these shells are
basically for those particular creatures. So, they are giving support, they are protecting
them at the same time what we make for our structure, like the shell structure that is
giving the protection as well in terms of building. Now, let us go through some of the
examples and just try to relate. This is one example form Sydney Opera House from
Sydney, Australia.
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In this case also this shell form, which is very naturally placed with the water body and
all it gives us very beautiful view, but along with that also it creates nice interior. So,
here it is nothing, but if you compare it with some of the shell structure, you get the
similarity how it being formed?
So, the thickness if you just browse through the different construction phase photographs
and all will say that is very small thickness and holds long span. Similar kind of
application is also there we do not need to go abroad.
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So, in India itself Bahai temple or also referred as a Lotus temple, which is giving a form
of a lotus. And, here you can see the thickness and how it is being placed to get this span
and at the center if you just get the visual appearance or something from inside you will
get the large volume being created with this petals, which is again made of a concrete
and steel.
Now, this is one example from Spain where this is actually Oceanografic Museum or
Valencia Aquarium also referred. So, here you can see the thickness. So, with this
minimum thickness, with the curvature, proper geometry, we can get this kind of
structure.
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This is the example of TWA Terminal of New York, JFK International Airport. Again,
this terminal building used is the shell structure.
This is one auditorium at MIT campus. So, here also it is something made with the shell
create a huge volume inside.
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This is one example from the creation of Zaha Hadid, it is Heydar Aliyev Cultural
Centre. Again, here this particular thickness of the shell being used and create some very
beautiful structure.
Coming to this is something we discussed with the curve and all and here it is the folded
plate structure. So, one particular lecture, I remember, I think you can also follow up
that, I have shown one example with a paper like a plain paper and the folded paper.
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So, the thickness of the paper is nothing when you make it flat probably, it will not hold
much load, but when you make the fold. So, that is basically can able to sustain, can
resist more load and that is why that is making the form of this folded plate structure.
So, this is again a shell structure. So, shell structure is not basically a form, shell
structure is a very thin, it can be membrane, it can be folded, it specially being created
with some curvature. So, with proper geometry we can really go for this. And, obviously,
you need the materials to support it. So, definitely with a concrete and steel you can do
this kind of optimization to make more efficient shell structure.
Coming to the materials, so reinforced concrete is one already mention, steel can be
used, the steel and glass, then plastics can be used for some demonstration, aluminum
can be used and also timber.
So, many cases like some structure being made with the timber or proper timbering, it
can give us nice result. Coming to the typology of shell structures, this is very important
and we have to understand. So, one by one we will try to understand it. So, that in
upcoming slide, I have not given more sketches we will try to understand with the
sketch, what exactly they are.
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So, shell structure being divided based on the curvature; one is your singly curved, one is
your doubly curved. And, whenever you have single curve you have always a chance to
go for development. So, developable shells and non-developable shells.
So, these are two categories. Then under singly curved you have the surfaces of
revolution. So, with revolution like, if you have some particular profile and you just
revolve it. So, then by that what form you will get that is basically the surface of
revolution.
Surface of translation or ruled surface is basically, where one surface, other surface they
are actually blend they are you know merged together to form and translate from one
shape to other shape. The ruled one where some kind of elements is being repeated in a
particular pattern to give this.
Now, again the similar kind of thing that, we can go for doubly curve where more than
two curves being used to make the shell structure. And, depending on their direction we
have synclastic and anticlastic; again synclastic will have similar surface is of you know
revolution, and surface with the translation, and your ruled surface and again this is a
same category.
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So, if you just follow up. So, basically based on the surfaces we have two categories; one
is your revolution, other is your translation or the ruled surface. But, depending on the
curve again we have say, you know single double and in double you have two.
So, in this particular slide, what you can see very carefully, these are very nice
illustration and it will clear the idea of your monoclastics, synclastic, and anticlastic. So,
start with a monoclastic; here you can see that two surfaces, they are crossing each other,
but the form that being created only use one site.
So, basically if I try to zoom this particular part is something like that and now only this
particular surface, we create a curvature. So, this is only one direction ok. And, single
curve. And, now we just extend it, so, we get the form of this kind of thing. So, now, it
can be of a circular form, or it can be of an elliptical, or may be hyperbola.
So, when you go for this kind of form it will essentially lead us to the barrel vault or
those pointed arch vault. Now, coming to the synclastic; where the same example being
given, now it is not only the one direction, but the other direction. The other direction are
also they are having the curvature.
So, basically if you get this form is basically you will get something like this. So, a
surface you just try to curve x direction and y direction and they are in the similar
fashion. So, here if it is basically like downwards. So, anticlockwise or clockwise you
take one particular direction for both the curvature. Coming to the anticlastic; yes similar
to the other one you have this curvature in this direction, but the other one is opposite
direction.
So, in this you can get this kind of curvature, where one is your convex, one is your
concave. So, in this case if they merge together, they will form the anticlastic. So, this
anticlastic category is coming here, synclastic here and then this is basically singly
curved. Now, because of the formation due to the surface they are also having much
classification.
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Now, here if you see the formation, where it is like elliptical or may be hyperbolic or
circular. Now, circular is making a form of cylinder or may be cone, if you just pull all
this points to a particular apex it will give you.
So, hyperbola you can get this example and looking at this view ok. If, I draw this you
can identify this are something very common you know for any plant and on the cooling
tower is make something like this. And, this can make a tent or something.
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Now, coming to the surface revolution shell structure as we have seen the cone, in this
case this is inverted cone, now this cone being formed. So, how it is being formed? So,
you have a circular base, you have a height, then you just make a sight of the cone and
then you just rotate it 360 degree.
So, it will give you this particular revolution and you get this form as a conical form.
Now, instead of that you have a circular base, you have the similar kind of top, you just
connect those and just with the reference to the center of the cylinder or the circle here,
you just make a rotation not rotation is basically revolved 360 degree. So, you get a form
of cylinder.
So, these are two forms and here basically we have to remember both the cases, the
inside is hollow. So, only we have a thickness and then we get this form.
So, here this kind of tank being is basically, you know what we call rectangular thin
sheet and that is basically rolled to get the form of this particular cylinder. So, this is
surface revolution, due to revolution this kind of thing happen. Now, only I have
explained it with cone and cylinder, but it may be of a different shape where like you can
have some elliptical rotation. So, we get a surface like this and then make a rotation.
So, basically that will give this form of a dome. So, earlier in dome the lecture where we
discussed dome, we discussed about the onion dome. So, that can also be formed like
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this. So, where this profile is very important and one axis and then they revolve 360
degree will create this form.
Now, coming to the surface of translation. So, surface of translation is basically where
you get this kind of barrel vault. So, you have one curvature, one arch and then you
extend it and create this arch form.
So, this is one translation that we can see. Now, in state of one you can have the both
directions. So, then you can have another kind of volt into picture. Here the example that
I have given here, this is basically creating an arch and this particular covering to the
path way.
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Now, coming to the translation again, where the earlier one is just the monolithic
because only the curvature is in one direction and we just extend it. But, in this example,
it is basically the example of your synclastic.
So, synclastic curvature; that means, wherever you have one particular surface, one
particular curvature, in one direction and the other one of the same directions. So, to
make it clear to you just let me show you, how we can?
So, this is one direction from a cube and we take the similar profile and then this is
another direction. Now, if you add this two, if you know add these two forms; so, this is
making this barrel vault and this is making this barrel vault and we make the
combination of that. So, that is basically giving you the form like this. So, all these
corners are visible and you get this. So, in all the cases the curvature is in the same
direction, that is why it is called synclastic.
So, here it is the translation of surfaces two surfaces they are merging together. And, that
can be reverse as well, so we can have surface something like this, something suspended
that is also possible. So, I am showing in this direction.
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Now, in this case the curvature is something where we have to add, this is one direction,
the other curvature is of this direction. If, you merge this so, basically that is creating a
form which is something like this.
So, if you can just try to imagine. So, this form is like this and this curvature is followed
this. So, this kind of form that the final form should look like this. So, here this is having
a curvature in this direction and here the curvature is in the opposite direction. So, we
call it anticlastic curvature. So, there are many examples of anticlastic curvature, where
the hyperbolic paraboloid being used or two parabola they merge each other in opposite
direction as translation.
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Now, the ruled surface is something where you have a circular base or something, then
you just decide one member and you just rotate it in a different pattern. So, that is giving
a form of this, like you rotate this particular element with the similar angel and it will
give you a form of a twisting tower. So, here also you can see similar kind of this is an
example of cooling tower. So, this is your ruled surface.
Now, before coming to the advantage and disadvantages of shell structure. Let us clear
this like whatever we have discussed and the examples that we have seen. Now, go back
to those pictures and let us give the type that we have seen.
Yes, so specially if I just ask you about this. So, this curvature what is the category? So,
we have how many? one is your surface that is revolution due to revolve, one is your
surface translation, the other is surface ruled. So, in this case it is the category of I am
sure that all of you can get it, this is surface translation.
So, surface translation. Now, about the curvature; this second level category. Here you
can get this direction very good, but at the same time you are getting this direction. So,
you have multiple curvature. So, this is example of doubly curved.
So, surface translation doubly curved. Now, you have to assign it is anticlastic or
synclastic, because monoclastic is the only for the single curve, singly curved shell
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structure. So, as because we have different direction so, this is basically example of
anticlastic curvature.
So, there are examples if you go through the work of Felix Candela you will get many
application of this kind of form. Now, in this case what would be your answer? So, this
is something where again we have one curvature in this, one curvature in that side.
So, again it is surface translation, then doubly curved and then in this case this is at the
same directions. So, basically the example that we have taken there, it is similar to that.
So, this is basically your synclastic curvature.
Now, coming to this now it is being clear, in this case you have two surfaces; so
hyperbolic paraboloid is example of anticlastic. And, in this case it is elliptic paraboloid
it is your synclastic. So, anticlastic and synclastic form these two examples it is clear to
us. And, again here the surface these are resultant of your revolve or revolution and here
it is surface translation.
Now, coming to the advantage of shell structure; it is very light form of construction,
because again the thickness of the material is less. Useful for large span with small
thickness very minimal thickness, sometimes even the span of 60 meter can have of only
60 mm or 75 mm thick you know structural thickness of the roof.
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Dead load can be reduced by economizing foundation and supporting system as because
this whole system will depend on the curvature. The way you make the curvature that
depends on that how you can get the rise. So, the rise you know that we discussed earlier,
when you discussed about the arch.
So, whenever you have this form, so rise forms this particular abutment so this is the rise.
So, wherever the vertical support, so this is your rise. So, this rise how you will make,
whether you can go for a flat, whether you can go for something very organic, whether
you go for very systematic regular shape or the design that you will follow, we can
definitely reduce the dead load.
Aesthetically looks good over other form of construction definitely. So, if you see those
buildings those you know Lotus Temples, Sydney Opera House, each of the buildings it
speaks it is beauty. First of all that particular form that attracts me, but second is the
application of the shell structure to create the large span with the less amount of material
and properly executed.
Coming to the disadvantages of shell structure, shuttering and formwork is problematic

as because it is taking a huge span. So, just remember if you can go for a height of say 4
storey building, how you can really go for this shuttering? It is very complicated and also
it needs proper execution and formwork to get these smooth surfaces. As, because the
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load being transferred with the curvature, so this formwork is basically very important to
determine the curvature in a right way.
So, that the load can be distributed the way we want. Then, greater accuracy of
formwork is required as I mentioned like it is all sustained with the curvature. So, it is
important that how you form it. So, if there is some disbalance so, the equilibrium will be
disturbed and this structure will not be that much stable, which is not really desirable.
Skilled labour and supervision is required to achieve those kinds of accuracy, then rise of
roof may be disadvantage, because many a times see whenever we use the shell structure
it covers a last span like hanger or something, but definitely we cannot use the upper
portion of it. And, this rise sometimes like to get the proper shape, proper stability,
geometric stability, this rise is giving something extra. So, maybe we do not require it.
For that sometimes it can also go for a low rise or almost flat kind of shell structure or
else we just go for the folded plate structure, that is basically maintaining the rise as well
and as we will have a discussion on the folded plate structure. Separately that is why I
am not extending it in this particular shell structure. Folded plate structure itself will
have lecture within next few lectures we will see that.
Now, coming to the summary already like I have discussed it twice in this lecture, but
then the finally the summarized form; the shell is basically, a thin structure, important
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thing is your curvature and then based on that we have seen different application, from
Lotus Temple to your TWA Terminal, then Sydney Opera House. Now, coming to the
category that we have so, one is your singly curved and then we have the doubly curved.
In doubly curved we have synclastic and anticlastic. And, here we have basically
monoclastic, only one side. So, that means, in synclastic it is the form where the
curvature being made in this similar direction, anticlastic where the curvature being
made in different direction and monoclastic is only one direction, more representative of
a vault.
Now, again to create this form each will have different surface, curvature of the surface.
So, one of that is basically the surface revolution; where the profile being just revolved,
then you have surface translation; where different curvature like concave convex they
merge together and different way. Like once two concave merges together will get the
synclastic, where one concave one convex that will really form the anticlastic.
And, then the surface ruled where it is giving a form of a twisting tower, a cooling tower
that I have shown. And, the regarding the material again concrete being extremely used,
extensively used in this kind of shell structure, then you have your metal, like steel,
aluminum and other thing and then we can also get some example of the wood to make
this shell structure beautiful.
The application, the advantages that we have seen that again the large span, then again
reduce the material and no doubt about it is looking visually pleasant. Now, coming to
the disadvantage; again high rise sometimes not many times you prefer this kind of
volume that we have seen in say some volume in your Lotus Temple in Delhi, so
sometimes that particular thing dome structure helped us to get the good feeling with the
large volume and all.
So, along with the high rise sometimes also the problem is with the formwork. As
because this shape of the shell structure depends on the curvature and all. So, formwork
is very essential. The perfect execution of the formwork will determine the final shape of
the curvatures. So, this is very important and needs supervision and skill labour as well.
So, that we need to look. So, it has advantages disadvantages for any structure definitely
there are particular application, there are some gains, but at the same time, if we do not
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take proper care of that during execution, during design, or during material selection,
may be our target will not be fulfilled. So, with that I conclude here with shell structure, I
have shown some examples, but there are many personally shell structures I like very
much, even many of you like this kind of shell structure around the world.
So, what I suggest you browse through the internet get more examples and time to time
keep posting. So, that I will also get to know about some interesting shell structure
around the world and that can always help both of us like all of us to know more about
the type and more examples in different category of your synclastic, anticlastic or
monoclastic curvature form shell structure. And, different materials like nowadays not
only concrete metal, but also some new innovative materials can make it happen.
So, with that I stop here and these are the further readings that you can go, you can also
browse through the internet link that I have given in some of the slides, where you can
read more about that particular structure, to know about the material, the formation and
again that will link redirect you to some more examples. So, that is useful I sincerely
request you to do that.
Next, we will discuss about the trusses and space frame again it will be some useful
structure which will be helping us to design large span structure. So, we will be
discussing on the next lecture till then, I would like to thank you again to take part in this
course.
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Thank you.
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Lecture - 27
Trusses and Space Frames
Architecture: The Synergy. Today, we are at Lecture Number-27 and in this lecture, we
will cover up the structure under Truss and Space Frame. So, previously we have seen
the advantage of grid and then also we have discussed about several other structure;
dome, volt, and now even the shell structure we have discussed in the last lecture. Now,
in this lecture we will try to focus on the advantage of using truss and then go for the
space frame. So, lets get started.
So, before we start anything just focus on this slide. So, basically this is a wooden
structure where we can only see different members they are actually connected together
and make a form. So, this kind of form is normally being seen in may be for temporary
pandals or may be sometimes with your like factory warehouses and all and these are
referred as truss. Here the member is made of wood, but that can be also made by some
other materials as well, we will learn that in this lecture.
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Coming to the definition if we just go for the Google search from dictionary dot com or
something, it says framework typically consisting of rafters, posts, and struts supporting
a roof or breach or may be other structure. So, here it is basically framework. So, the
framework is normally that we can refer to like something giving the skeleton of any
structure. So, it looks like a skeleton and then consisting of the rafter, posts.
So, these are the members of the truss that we will discuss, post is basically like the way
we support. So, if we just consider a triangular member, so, here we get this kind of post,
it may be of your King post or Queen post will come to that and then basically they need
to get a support through tie and this truss can be used for your roof of a building it may
be also used for bridges mostly like many different kind of trusses being used over like
many years to construct the bridge.
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Now, coming to the definitions: so, trusses are an assembly of structural members, based
on a triangular arrangement and member they are pin jointed and where they jointed,
they are basically node. So, what exactly it is? Like, I will show you with the
demonstration. Then the joint connection are formed by bolting or welding at the end
members together with a gusset plate.
So, basically whenever we see a truss, so, basically we have multiple members. So, it
maybe I section, it may be wooden batten, wooden lock and then when we just arrange
those in a triangular form, we will make it more rigid, it will make more stable with a
joint. So, then this is a truss.
Now, depending on the load that it can carry based on that the number of members will
be decided, the arrangement will also differ. The angle will be determined based on that
whether it will be having low rise; rise I think all of you now get to know about what is
the rise. We have discussed the same thing about the rise when we discussed about the
arches also when we discussed about the you know shell structure when you discussed
about the dome structure we talked about the rise and then depending on the angle we
can have it like broad angle or very narrow angle to that.
Now, whenever the multiple members, suppose we take this example of a model of a
bridge; so, many members they are connecting; so, more than 3 members. So, with the
help if you just try to see with a plate, it is been you know connected. So, this is basically
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called your gusset plate. Trusses can be two dimensional or may be three dimensional.
When it is two dimensional, we call it planar and then when three dimensional we call it
prismatic. Now, before we go forward to know about different type of loads acting on the
truss and how it can help, so, let us understand why that triangulation will help us.
So, suppose we have a member, we have a beam and then we have 2 post. So, post-beam
structure that we have studied earlier. So, here due to the lateral force, so, it will try to
bend and after certain time the joints and the members are not having that much
resistance it will collapse due to this force.
Now, instead of that if we just make a tie at another member to it, so it will make it more
stable. So, we also referred that as bracing earlier. So, it will help the structure from
collapsing due to lateral forces. So, this is becoming a member. So, when we just divide
it, so it will form like instead of like your rectangle or square, now we have 2 triangles.
Like with this concept, we move to the truss.
Now at the same time if we have say particular plate, it will have a deflection when you
apply some load from top of it, so it will like bend like this and it develop a moment,
sagging moment. Now, instead of that we just make a fold and, in this case, what will
happen? The load acting on that will be transmitted easily. So, in these 2 members, the
compression will develop and once we try to put the pressure from the top it will try to
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go away. So, tension will be developed, in order to account we add a member to it; This
is making a very simpler form of truss.
Now, you make the repetition with the adequate member then you get different kind of
truss form. So, in order to make stability, you can add the post or else you can also go for
different kind of truss arrangement. So, basically the triangulation, like this. So, I have
this particular truss with me. So, different color showing different members and basically
the bottom one the blue one that you can see it is basically acting on as T.
The main reason if I just remove it, so, without that I have this member. So, if it is just a
pin joint, so on applying pressure it will try to go away from each other. So, due to
compression the bottom will get the tension and it will try to go away. So, in order to
resist that I add this member. So, I fix it. So, in this case all the members are equal and
the angle formed is 60-degree, it will give you the best result, the desired result, but at
the same time if you use this particular truss forms.
So, then the height is also very high considering the rise is very high and you can
understand that for a small span it will not be really a good solution and in that case, we
can go for some other arrangement as well.
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Now, what I have just explained? So, here is the same thing like in order to make
unstable structure stable we can go with a triangulation and that advantage of tie and
strut how they can make it. So, that can be alternatively explained by suppose you take a
chain that I have given the example earlier also. So, you take a chain and then put a
weight at the middle.
So, it will really give you the stability, this particular form where like there is no member
at all like we have these 2 members. So, due to this we have tension developed in this
and here the compression will develop if you have tie. You just make it reverse; you just
make it upside down then you get the form of your this is again P. So, a truss and then
you can get it supported, you can make a tie.
So, this will be in compression this will be in tension for the regular truss. So, it is
explained again here with the same thing like why compression and why tension? So,
this is basically the forces in simplest truss form.
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Now, coming to the different components of the truss, so, we have like top chord which
also referred as the rafter that we have just seen in the definition. And when you have
this truss; that means, it is not a single one, you have more repetitive one and then
basically you add those particular truss with this member, this is called purlin and this is
basically your rafter and then which is actually holding it, it is basically your bottom
chord or also you can call tie beam and then all these are actually members.
Now, in order to give much support, also you can go with like your what we can say that
these are basically your runner which will make this structure more stable and this is
basically the clear span that we can get and nominal span is taken as center to center of
the support and the arrangement being designed with that and overhanging part is also
important due to this particular junctions.
So, the peach roof whenever it is being used for the buildings, so, this kind of truss being
made, so that the rain water can easily be drained off with the slope and this projection
will also help to have protect from the uplifting due to the heavy wind and also it will
protect during the rain.
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Coming to the material of truss, now, we have seen that timber can be used and it was
used extensively in past even nowadays also for specially in the hilly region and the area
where like light structure is recommended for the earth quake prone areas and also, they
are also we can use it. Alternatively, we can go with a steel and aluminum frame as well,
but normally aluminum frame is being used for the prismatic truss for making the
temporary structures that I can show you and I think all of you are familiar with this kind
of setup.
So, normally during the concert during a program faced in the college, we do this
arrangement and it is very light in weight and that is why it is being really possible to
you know make it in quick time and then it is not basically a single 2D truss rather than
that it will have like, suppose it is a post and then the triangulation in the post is making
this particular truss is prismatic.
But most commonly for the industrial use and where the heavy span to be taken into
consideration we go for steel sections and we make the truss out of steel. Coming to the
types of truss, so, if you search in Google, so, you will get different kind of form of the
truss and we have different names either based on the arrangement or based on like the
person who has invented discovered or who actually proposed this kind of truss
arrangement, but, basically based on dimension we have 2D and planar.
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So, 2D is basically what we were discussing about it and the 3D truss is basically the
prismatic truss. So, it may be of 3 members is running like this at the bottom. So,
basically the cross section would look like a prism. So, this is the prismatic truss based
on use definitely we can make a category of your roof truss and the truss used for the
bridges.
Now, planar truss is having the member like rafter, purlin. So, I guess rafter and purlin
thing is very clear. So, if not again I am trying to show you in short. So, basically this is
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a pitched roof. So, these are the members. So, what you have? multiple number of
trusses. So, now, all this members are basically the truss member the bottom chord is
also called as a tie and these angular member the upper is called rafter and in order to
connect those we also have this direction member that is called purlin and whenever they
joint the members we call it node.
Now, this node can be joined just with the help of a pin very simple or else if you have
multiple numbers, so, we can have a gusset plate and we can use welding, we can use
rivet. So, there are many examples and here you can see that the use of the you know 2D
truss in this.
Now, coming to the prismatic truss, so, in this case like a series of such triangular truss
being added and make a form of this. So, it is pretty similar to the example I have given
for your concert set up musical set up and here it is another example where you can
identify that how this prismatic truss used to create this span. So, there is no column in
between in this structure. So, the huge span being supported with this frame and even
this is very important that we can go for 3D truss to have a column less space.
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Coming to the types under roof truss and bridge truss commonly; so, I have listed very
few in this category, but there are many more into this, but most commonly used trusses
are like King Post, Queen Post, Pratt, Howe, then K-Truss, Warren Truss, Bowstring
Truss, and Baltimore Truss.
Now, in the King post is basically there is a central post. So, this is basically the King
post. So, in the truss in the triangle only the centrally we have a member this King
whereas, Queen along with the King we have some other angular member adjusting to
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the rafter this is the Queen post then Pratt is basically multiplication of that. So, we add
more vertical post along with the angular. Howe truss is basically you have vertical
members like if you add only 2 vertical members to the Queen truss it will become to
this category.
Now, K truss is basically the truss formation is very tough and, but the members will
make a letter the form of a letter is basically the K, this is basically the other inverted K,
whereas, the Warren truss is basically equilateral triangle they placed one after another.
So, we have the members, we have a top chord and the bottom chord and then we have
the members regular members.
Now, Bowstring truss is basically where it is not the rectangle or you know rectilinear
form, here we are getting an arch form. So, this is also very common in the rail bridges
we have multiple of such, many bridges are looking like this and where we can see this
kind of arrangement. Baltimore truss is very complicated, where it is again, we are taking
some vertical members and to give support to those angular members we add more small
vertical post and angular post to make it.
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Now, here the few examples are there of the truss. So, here you can easily identify which
truss category it is. Can you guess? I think all of you can get the idea; it is basically the K
Truss.
Move to the next example. In this case it is again in circular. So, again go back to the
category. So, which one that example is? So, this is similar to the Bowstring truss.
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Now, this is something out of the bridge and this example I have given this example
many a times, the Eiffel Tower. So, this is basically a nice you know application of the
steel truss and it is just some architecture means which we can refer in many cases, but
along with that all the transmission towers, telephone towers, those are again being made
with a help of the truss. So, this is Eiffel tower, but all other tower always like it is very
similar to look like this, but those are made of truss.
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Coming to this basically this is a temporary structure being made and made of wood. So,
here you can see the you know series of truss is being used. So, to give this form, it is not
about single rise. So, we can get a particular truss in this. And can you refer or can you
say this truss which category it is? So, if you see we have King, but along with that we
have. So, this is not King not Queen. So, additional to that we have. So, can again we go
back to this and here it is something Howe truss and then also we have the additional
thing.
Now, the truss always need not to be with a triangle or you know trapezoidal form,
sometimes it may be of semicircular form and here if you see that multiple trusses being
used at the top you have some truss, but the bottom member it is not exactly the member,
we get a section and then this is holding this space. So, this is for a station and you will
get the similar kind of truss application in almost you know many railway stations.
Even if you consider the Howrah station in Kolkata, there also you will get similar kind
of form and these are the truss being used in multiple layer to get the day light as well.
So, in truss category there are something called knot like truss So, for a factory many a
times we get this kind of truss form.
So, this is basically the truss being made and the light can enter through this particular
pattern or sometimes we may also make it inclined. So, light can easily you know go
inside and can help or maximize the day light.
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Now, this is another example. The modern building, where again the prismatic truss been
used to support it and like this is one application shown in this.
Now, application of trusses as we have seen almost, but I am summarizing it. So, it can
be used for the bridge, it can be of the roof, many a time we go for the transit stations
that refer to the railway stations, some metro stations, then building canopy in front of
the building we can get this kind of truss, building roof top; definitely sometimes for
temporary or may be permanently we can use that roof top then for the parking area if it
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is a surface parking or so. You can have this shade transmission towers like have already
mentioned during your Eiffel Tower think then Crane truss that we can get it, we can see
in this picture. And then the sports stadium truss is also important. So, have this
membrane structure and all we also use the truss to support it.
Now, advantages of trusses is basically can be use for the long span and as and when
required we can increase the members and make the truss little bit complex rather than
the simple one, but that can hold the load. Now, minimize the weight of a structure as
because it is just the member not any solid slab to be provided, we can go for that.
Reduce deflection as because it is giving more stability compared to this particular shape
because of the triangulation. Support heavy loads compared to the equivalent section of
like solid member.
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Coming to the disadvantage; increase in rise. Definitely in order to get better stability,
we have to increase the rise and that is unnecessary increase the height of the building.
So, again this is one and the other disadvantage, we cannot use the upper storey because
of this pitch nature, this slope nature. Expensive for small construction, definitely for the
small the truss will be expensive, but for the purpose like when we need to cover long
span for commercial uses and truss been repetitive so that then it will be economic as
well.
Now, after that we directly move to the space frame. So, it is similar to the truss
formation, but now the truss is not being in a planar or is very you know 2D form.
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So, now go for like more 3D kind of formation and this is one example. This is under
construction building of Zaha Hadid. I have shown this example previously also, the
finished one, but this is under construction whereas, the member this is basically being
used different tubes and they made some connection with some connectors and then form
this space frame.
Now, space frame is three-dimensional structural framework again. Other one is a

framework this is three dimensional is designed to behave as integral unit and withstand
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loads applied at any points. So, the main beauty of that the members are so designed. So,
we have to just make the shapes. So, it can be of a pyramidal shape, it may be of
tetrahedral shape. So, with any such shape articulation with the proper connector it will
act very suitably.
So, the load distributed they will distribute to the next member and all more efficiently
and more importantly as because it is just a tube and many a cases being made with light
material like aluminum alloy and all, so, the dead load of the structure will be less and
that can cover up huge span without such vertical support in regular interval.
Now, space frames are three-dimensional lattice structure made of linked pyramid or
tetrahedra that already I mentioned like this and it is basically acted based on the
triangulation method. Load span and edge condition will depend on the form and depth
that we picked up, what should be the depth of this and because of the continuation of
member are linking. So, load sharing will be optimized like this kind of structure we
have seen in recent time for the petrol pump, where like we only have this particular
structure, many a time this is been covered with some alucobond if it is open.
So, we can see that with very less number of vertical support. This whole span being
covered with that roof and this is being covered with some light material, we can
sometimes use some translucent material which will allow light and the area underneath
will be lighted.
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Now, in this case what exactly just we discussed that the space frame is three
dimensional can be of the pyramidal shape. So, most important thing is to know about
the component, one is the member and then the connector because, whenever you think
about the connection, it is not only one or two members, multiple members and that need
to be fixed in a right manner.
So, then like on top of it we can connect it very suitably, so that it can form this
particular space frame and then the depth we get this height that will determine like how
the load will be distributed.
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Coming to the component of space frame; so, we have members and then connectors,
under connection the connection, may be made by welding, it may be connected by bolt
or may be sometimes with the threaded connections. So, one by one; the welded
connection, all the connections are getting weld with the members and then the bolted
connection that you can see, if you zoom this particular part then the members to the
connector is being adjusted with the bolt.
And now in the threaded connection its technique where like those members are being
fitted with hemispherical or spherical connector where we can make it. So, it is basically
something the holes are there with the certain angle on this and we just fix it with that
particular thread.
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Coming to the material that the steel can be used, aluminum can be used even timber can
be used or some of the restaurant that they here this is indoor stadium where this
particular space framing design with the timber and here you can see that the material is
very light and aluminum can be used and here the steel is the material.
Coming to the types, now based on curvature we can divide the space plane covers then
we can go for the barrel vaults construction as well and the spherical dome. So, space
plane is basically that I referred as you know the cover may be for the petrol pump and
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all, it may be the supported by the end column, but very few in number or else it may be
supported with the cable, so, only a vertical post mast at the center and it is being
supported and this is been hold.
Barrel vaults where these members are bend and then we get this particular barrel form
and the spherical dome is basically referred to the geodesic dome where the triangulation
form they are actually making the dome. Based on the arrangement of elements, we can
have double layer, flat double layer, flat multi-layer means more than 2, then double-
layer braced barrel that where the double layer is bend through the barrel form.
Free form spatial structure can also be applied where it is not about the straight or the
curvature it can get a free form and then the braced dome; so, basically that refer to the
geodesic dome and all.
So, let us just quickly look into this. So, this is very clear about where it is very plane
and normally used in those areas where you can see that as canopy of a building the
barrel vault. Here it is the space frame being used like this. Sometimes, this can also be
used for like metro station or railway station to have league and this is what exactly the
space frame is being used to make the dome. So, this is based on the curvature like one is
very straight then you have this curvature this is straight and here it is basically a
spherical.
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Now, coming to the arrangement elements, so, here you can see the double layer. So, this
is layer 1 and this is layer 2 and here you can see the layer 1, layer 2, and layer 3. So,
how they are connected? So, definitely these will able to carry more load, but at the same
time the self weight will also increase. This kind of structure if we design properly, we
can also just cover it with some material and we can use the upper floor.
So, load applied on these members they are just triangulated they are distributed and they
will transmit to the end support. So, that is the load distribution. So, here it is more
complex.
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Coming to the barrel vault, it is the similar thing. If you just try to bend this in this
direction, so, that will lead to your barrel vault and here as I mentioned that it is not
exactly semi-circular curve or may be something very straight, so, it is a free form spatial
structure.
Now, compared to that the brace dome, so, that may be a simple one, like with only
single layer can be just connected like this or else it may be a double layered where this
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hexagonal shape being added. So, here it is based on triangle and here it is hexagonal
shape. So, that is giving this particular form.
Now, the typology of space frame. So, how we make different layers? So, layer may be
diagonal on diagonal. So, the bottom one also diagonal the upper one is also diagonal,
diagonal or square where the bottom is square. And then how we connect it? We
basically connect those points with that. So, how it will look? So, it may be of the larger
diagonal, square on square offset, then also you can get this connection of this particular
point or else we can have square on larger square can just get it connected or may be the
square on the diagonal grid.
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Now, this is one example from Pragati Maidan, recently been dismantled. So, here also
we have seen the use of like your space frame at the top.
In this also if you see this image very carefully along with those prominent members
there are very thin members along with which is basically nothing but the space frame
holding this entire volume. So, this is really interesting here it is a domical form, but due
to space frame it is able to hold this much of span. So, this is beauty of using space
frame.
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This is another example. This is next to your Air Force Chapel in US next to that. So,
here also the space frame being used, but in a diagonal form.
This is from one particular station where you can easily identify the point and here it is if
you just understand the connectors. So, it is basically the threaded connection that is
being made and here it is again making a form where it is not a circular. So, it is
connecting in a dynamic form to give this particular shape and how the triangulation is
made and if you see it carefully all the members their cross sections are not equal.
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So, it is depending on the load, the main members and the supporting members that will
be decided. So, it needs good computation and engineering to come up with the right
solution for that and that top covering will also, you know depending on top covering
how the material will be used. So, this material and the cross section will be decided.
Now, this is again a huge structure made of space frame and here it is again if you follow
up that thing, it is basically double-layered barrel. So, this is a single layer and double
layer and how they are connected to each other all the members. So, this is really very
interesting to make any hanger for the aircraft maintenance and all. So, this kind of thing
can be applied even for the some auditorium we can use it.
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This is where you can see that how, it is not a form like 2 wings kind of form being
adjusted with this.
And this is the geodesic dome that already we have seen this is another picture of that. Its
loop, so perfect and due to the space frame the spherical, but it needs accuracy.
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So, for that like the application already we know that commercial-industrial structure,
auditoriums, sky lights-sometimes to insert the light, the building canopies, toll booths
for the small structure, exhibition halls, the sports stadium as well. So, wherever the truss
being used then you can also go for the space frame.
Now, advantage is similar to the truss. It is lightweight and then that is why it decreases
the self-weight or the dead load and less number of columns. At the same time, it is
basically a prefabricated unit can be easily transport at the dismantled form and then you
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just club them together to get the form and that can be done with semi skilled labor as
well. So, this is a very rapid construction. Then this is sufficiently stiff to carry the load,
so, there is no compromisation on that. And it can be flat, curve, or free form that we
have discussed and the visual beauties definitely.
If you see the dome made of that is perfect execution. Coming to the disadvantage of this
particular part is again for small span it will be expensive. So, we should not really try
this kind of thing for a very small solution, it can definitely if you just want for the
aesthetic purpose, but if we want it as the structural member, wherever we need to cover
a large span with light structure this is one of the greatest option.
Now, coming to the summary, already we have summarized the truss and then the space
frame both are acting with the similar triangulation method which is giving a more
rigidity more stiffness to the structures and then based on that we have discussed the
different application of truss and space frame, where like basically the whole members
like the members of truss or space frame they are taking compression and tension and
they are balancing out it, so that the structure will maintain the equilibrium condition and
for that I have shown you very limited photographs of the buildings as because within
this lecture we have to cover 2 topics.
So, I would suggest you, that you go through internet, go through read several articles
and books and add more real life examples or if you have visited some place you have
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seen similar kind of structure do share that with me in the forum and definitely I would
love to see those and discuss over it.
And these are the study material already being given in different slides, you can follow
up those books and you can definitely refer others than these as well. So, with that I
conclude here and will be discussing the next topic that is folded plate structure in lecture
number-28, which will be again a very useful and interesting structural member,
structural arrangement that can help us to make good architecture.
So, we will see that how architectural form and folded plate structure they blend in the
next lecture. So, till then I again thank you all for take part in to the course and I will be
waiting for the next lecture to discuss more on the folded plate structure.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 28
Folded Plate Structures
Hello, everyone. Welcome back again to online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. In last lecture, we have discussed on the advantages of truss
and space frame for different uses, different application as like for the bridges, for the
buildings and for large span structures. Similarly, now there is another structure added to
this category that is the folded plate structure. So, today our focus at Lecture Number-28
will be your folded plate structure.
So, let’s get started. Now, before like we discuss about the folded plate structure and its
component, its technical detail let us understand some of the folded plate structure which
do exist in our nature. So, this is basically a palm leaf and here we can see that nature
that how it is been made and like the applications, sometimes even for the you know
hand driven fan we use this leaf when it is get dried up and it is giving a good stability,
this is one. And, if you really have experience of that those edges they are quite stiff and
you can it can really hold a good load on top of it.
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If we just make it flat if I make this section flat it is nothing but very thin plate where
like applying load will make the bend, this is option 1 and option 2, I just make a fold.
So, it is all of a sudden you know it will increase the capacity of resisting the load on top
of it. Similarly, the structure that also we have that is the sea shell, so, in this case also
we see that particular structure which is make it more stiff and very strong for like which
act as a protection for this particular creatures in the nature.
So, we can get inspired from that we can develop something. So, in case of like a single
piece paper if you try to just hold it so, it will try to bend. So, you cannot really hold it
like this, but if you just try to just make a fold and again hold it so, it can have the
capacity to take the load. So, let us just do not go by this particular sketch and we have to
believe it. So, we just try this out.
So, I have a very plane piece of paper. This is a particular cartridge paper you normally
use for the drawing sheet, it is little bit thicker than the normal xerox paper, but then also
whatever I have said so, based on that. So, I am placing this in front of you and try to
hold it from one edge. So, it is very difficult like if I want to hold it like this I cannot
because of the self weight and because of non availability of the end support it is having
this particular deflection.
Now, even if we just try to support it from both the end then also you will get the
bending right. Now, in place of that I just not make a fold just give a notch here and now
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it is stable right. So, if you can see from this direction it is stable up to certain distance
and again it is trying to get this particular bend and now, I can put a load like I can put
this pen so, it can easily hold it. If I just put something bigger than that so, it is not able
to because I can understand it is not.
Now, in that case if I just make a fold like this now it is more stable now if I want to put
this load then also it is heavier than that, but I can definitely increase the load more than
that. So, this is just a slide changer I put it there. So, it can hold this load. We cannot
imagine this can be possible with a paper when it is having no particular fold.
Like that I just want to improve that so, I can have this kind of folded plate it can easily
be made with the same kind of paper and now I just want to test it. So, now, if I want to
put this particular duster, see, no deflection and now if I remove it this is basically a
stone and it is very heavy you can see. Now, I just put it there see again there is no
changes and not only like it is giving support to my hand, but if I want to up lift it as well
that no such support then also it can hold it. So, this is advantage of the particular you
know folded plate.
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Now, if I want to make it more complicated like it is a single fold and definitely, we do
not have an end support this is another made of that it is a letter M just coincident. So,
now, if I want to put this load say it can easily hold this load, but which is normally if
you just consider the thickness of this particular paper it is not possible. Now, replace
this paper with some good material like some concrete, some timber it can do excellence
to carry the load and for long span as well.
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Because, for this kind of span if we just give support end-to-end like I just put these two
walls and then I want to hold it. So, let us see how it can. So, I just try to demonstrate
this. Now, see this is again stable. So, it is possible.
So, now, move on to the next thing.
So, basically folded plates what exactly it is? That in I have just shown very simplistic
form, but here you can see various form made of paper. So, it is related to the origami
where like different fold can give you different result and here it is basically the
formation the form that being created and, in all cases, you can get that some volume
being created. So, this particular volume being created, this volume being created which
is having no other obstruction. So, this is advantage of the folded plate structure.
So, what exactly it is? The folded plates are assemblies of flat plates or slab. So, plate or
slab it is alternatively been used, inclined in different direction definitely it may be
inclined in this or it may be something different may be members are not equal as well
and rigidly joined along their longitudinal edges. So, basically when you have this paper,
we just divide it and just make a fold. So, the same paper is folded is squeezed and then
carry the loads without need of additional supporting beams in most of the cases.
Folded plates combine slab action and beam action together. What exactly it is like
whenever in a folded plate load been applied. So, first it will transfer the load through the
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shorter edge and then here you have the support. Now, as because we have multiple such
so, the connecting members also get some balancing out the resultant reaction to that.
The thin inclined beams of greater depth whenever you increase the depth, it will be your
more rigid it will give you more stiffness.
I give you another example say for like you are studying you are on a study table and just
you want to rest so, you can just place like this. So, in this case like if you try to spread it
so, after certain time you will fall, but if you just make it stable like this. So, that will
give you more stability you can do you do practice or you just test it and you will get the
similar results. So, when you make it very flat when you actually decrease the depth so,
it will not you know give you much stiffness compared to where you have larger depth.
And, then sometimes you know this particular layer they are stabilized and then it resists
again your buckling. So, whenever you have this member again so, it has a certain level
of carrying the load and as because it is having some self weight so, it can also be
flattened. So, for that if you just fix both the end with the beam then this will be more
active.
So, this is another advantage of the folded plate so, that can be developed.
Now, coming to the fold thing again the edge are formed and this is basically the stiff
edge and when you just make it multiple so, we have end support to be provided here
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and then the edge support at the end where you can use some truss, we can use some
beam as well and the span being like this. So, the span that you have to create in this
direction where you have multiple members in this direction. So, only in one direction
you have to put here this particular edge support or edge beam can solve the purpose of
you know holding the end load.
Now, again the similar thing with the support this is a single sheet can have the bending
when you make the fold it can hold some load, but when you add more load the way I
just tried with lighter one and the heavier one and then it fall. But if you support this end
condition then it can again can resist more load on to that. Now, this is basically the
bending in folded plate top cause compression and the bottom tension similar to your
truss and then it will tend to flatten out due to gravity load.
So, how you can solve it out? You can give support from this edge and which can stop.
So, it is basically the flatten out due to gravity load or the applied load to this, but this
can help it to still intact.
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So, here it is basically the folded plate structural behavior how it happens. So, load
applied on this so, external force is transferred to the shorter edge first and then the
reaction that generate that is divided between the adjacent elements. So, the component
will be divided, the vector will be divided that load the vector analysis or you can get this
distribution and then finally, the force is transferred to the supporting columns.
Now, in these sketches which has been taken from a book that is mentioned here also as
well Structure in Architecture. So, in this case it is just the formation where the folded
plate how it been formed from a single paper, this figure 2 where it is been shown how
the load been distributed at this particular shorter edge, but at the same time with the
span what we have is basically the shear, we have the bending shear as well as the axial
shear and in order to stop that what you need to do we have to put the edge support.
So, it can be of the option 1, which may be a just some frame or maybe it can be a truss
or just it can be a edge beam to support it, the way like I have shown here. And, this is
something what is showed that it is equivalent to this particular space where like if I have
this member then I just cut this portion and I can make this fold. So, may be the area, the
volume that like area that can covered so, within that I can make more rigid it can hold
much more load to that.
So, it is again optimization of the structural section where this can be converted to the
folded plate as because previously also we have discussed whenever we have this
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rectangular section. So, if you see the bending force so, there also the outer fiber will get
the maximum stress, but at the inner portion or interior portion is having under stress
means which is not able to carry that. So, then we can go for optimization of that and the
I section is one of the result of that. So, we can go with this folded plate.
Now, dependency, that how folded plate will be efficient or on what it will depend on the
pattern of folding. So, it may be very regular folding or it may be something different.
So, half fold and maybe it is eccentric folding, so, here you can see different kind of
folding being placed, the geometric basic shape that will take it may be a rectangle or
just simple fold or it may be a triangulation by which you can accumulate and it can
make geodesic dome kind of structure.
The material, definitely the material plays important role to take upon the decision of the
shape and pattern because ultimately structural safety is one concern and for that like it
may be concrete, it may be timber, may be plastic, may be glass some corrugated sheets
been also made with this pattern. So, this case like the material used for the construction
also it will depend, materials will affect the decision on the type of the folding plate.
The connection of the different folding plane is another important thing. So, it may be of
simple edge-to-edge connection it may be something like where it is more flat
connection. So, this corrugation can also be possible where something flat is been done
or maybe it is something which is very much eccentric in that. Design of end bearings
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whether will go for supporting it with a continuous wall or just the support like column.
So, and then the edge beam is been supported with the truss or a beam.
So, depending on that folded plate the characteristics that will depend.
Now, the materials as I mentioned wood can be used, steel is definitely be used,
reinforced concrete will be a very cheaper if it is been made for like mass scale
application. Aluminum can also be used to reduce the self-weight of the structure,
plastic, glass can also be used, some corrugated sheets and all already available in the
market in form of folded plate.
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Now, coming to the types; so, basically it is been divided in three types. One is the
surface structure, one is basically making a frame or portal and then you have the spatial.
Now, in the plate surface; that means, only the roof instead of flat now we have this
particular folded plate done. So, this is representative thing and where the end will be
supported by may be a column or something. At the same time where we can have a
frame; so, the whole structured been folded so, here if I take this example. So, this is the
same member getting the fold, the roof, and the wall as well. So, this is basically the
category number 2 so, which is very similar to the folded plate frame structures into this
category.
And, the spatial folded plate is basically getting a different form like this is one option
where we can get different kind of folded dome. Some different kind of dome can be
formed with this it may need not to be only the triangle, but it can go with the pentagon,
you know hexagon combination or else it can be some different formulation, but with
proper calculation that can give us this kind of results.
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Application of folded plate definitely it can be used at the roof structure for stadium or
may be many a cases some railway stations we can have this kind of you know structure
or may be for the parking many a cases we can get this kind of you know umbrella roof
structure like basically if you get. So, this is holding a particular span so, this can be
possible.
It can also act as the wall structure here you can see that how the folded plate been used,
we will get a pictures of that as well then it can also be used as a floor, this is something
interesting where like if you have some you know insulation or some services to be taken
between the floor, then we can use this kind of system. Where this hollow part not only
basically reducing the material, but also it will help to run all the services. So, this can be
of this floor structure or else sometimes nowadays you can see this kind of stair as a
folded pattern.
But again, the application can be of more like even some of the cases in construction for
the sheet pile we also use this kind of folded plate which will give the stiffness to resist
against the lateral force. So, there may be all the trenches we put for the sheet pile in the
entire area. So, then we can have this particular sheet pile as the folded plate.
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Now, we will focus on some of the examples and try to understand the beauty of using
this folded plate and many a cases it is been used for the churches and chapels. So, here
this is an example of church of Notre Dame and it is the example from France. This is
the exterior view of that you can see that how the wall is getting that particular fold and
this is basically the interior.
Now, the interesting part of that with the fold is the nice application of those glasses to
welcome the light from outside. So, this ambiance inside is really interesting. So, this
folded plate the outer structure looks very pleasant and interior like ambiance and the
experience is even better than that with the application of folded plate.
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And, this is a very famous if you search folded plate architecture. So, this will be the first
result that you get this is Air Force Academy Chapel in USA and again it is nice example
of like if you just compare with the typology it is not the roof, not wall itself like it is the
triangle, but the fold and all other thing you can get it some here like how the fold been
made in this particular structure.
So, and this is the nice interior view where the ends are supported with some steel
members and it is one of the you know greatest example of the successful use of folded
plate structure.
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Move on to the next one, this is Yokohama International Port Terminal where most of
the terminal buildings they need huge span to be covered without much restriction
because of the heavy flow and also have a good feeling of the volume. So, either they
can go for the space frame or may be the arches, or the shell structure, but this is
something where the folded plate being placed as the alternative and the final output is in
front of you. It is looking amazing with this particular you know cut with the very nice
line and you can imagine the span that it holds without any vertical support. So, this is
again a successful application of folded plate.
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Now, coming to the Tempodrom, that this example I have given long back as well. So,
this is one multipurpose arena and again the structure been made the outer structure is
basically the fold. And, here along with your straight line that finally, it is also taking
shape of a curve and this is the interior that is also very well decorated. This is forming a
form of like some petals kind of ambiance and it is very much regular and it is formed in
a circular form. So, this is another example of the folded plate structure which is looking
very good and solving the purpose.
It is basically the corrugated sheets nowadays we use the for the covering. So, this is
available with some instead of tin or asbestos nowadays we get this particular form and it
is been placed as the wall as a folded plate. So, the example in that category like the
folded plate wall so, this is another example added to that. This is the Sint-Ritakerk this
is again a church and here you can get this particular nice very simple, very much simple
structure just the fold on it and then you get this nice ambiance inside with the sky light
at the top.
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Now, coming to this, this is the State Farm Center this is the assembly hall in Illinois
campus. This is making a folded plate domical structure. So, this entire set being made
with that and this is something where like spatial form of folded plate structure that being
placed here.
This is Sports Center in Switzerland and you can see that how beautiful it had been made
not only the roof, but as well as the wall. So, this is the category where the frames not
only only the roof been used or may be the flat surface, but here it is making the portal
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instead of a very typical post beam connection. Here it is getting your folded plate
connection in all the direction even the roof, even the wall and you can see that solid
void specially at the night time you see this particular representation where like the solid
void and application of the dark, the use of this concrete and the illumination it is giving
nice view that rhythm been maintained.
And, this is very important for folded plate structure when you arrange those plates you
need to maintain proper geometry, proper symmetry if it is required for the structure then
only you can get the desired result. So, application of folded plate texture been used in
multiple area. So, we have seen churches, we have now the sports arena and then we
have a multipurpose hall there as well.
Now, this is a bigger application of that folded plate structure or very light structure. You
can see that how this been made. This is a stadium, sports stadium in China whether like
where this entire thing been covered with semi translucent material where the light can
easily penetrate, but it can also provide the shade to the spectator watching the sports
activity. So, this is again a beautiful application of the folded plate how it is been made
and here the glass material been used. It is also possible with the use of the steel and
glass we can go always it need not to be timber or maybe it always to be like made of
your concrete, but also the glass steel which can have this application.
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Coming to the advantages of folded plate; we have seen the advantage of the folded
plate. One is very light because of the reduction of the thickness of the slab useful for
long span without obstruction this is similar to the space frame, but yes here also we can
apply the same reduction in material and resulting reduction in dead load and
construction cost as well. So, the moment you reduce the thickness of the structural
member definitely it will reduce the dead load and that material cost definitely reduce the
construction cost provided that you are applying it to the mass scale not at very small
level project where may be things will not really be proven right.
Aesthetically pleasant, definitely, the example that we have seen this one or maybe the
previous one; maybe the day time or the night time it is giving really nice view, point of
the architecture that been created. The interior space been maintained without any
compromisation and also the light and shade part in to it here also it proves the same
thing.
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Coming to the disadvantages like framework is difficult; definitely when you make this
structure it should be very accurate as because like the load will transfer to each adjacent
member. So, say I want this to be very much uniform. So, all that connections to be very
properly executed, then the shuttering to be you know very much appropriate and also it
needs supervision and skilled labour as well. So, that is the point that we should look
into. This is not exactly the disadvantage because to get something really great we have
to do this, but still like compared to the traditional post-beam can be easily erected it
needs some more attention to get the desired result.
Then accuracy in form work or shuttering is just I mention that is very much required
because of the shuttering the way you make, the final outcome will be same if we use the
concrete because concrete will take the shape of the shuttering. The form work you give
accordingly that will, if there are some undulations and then the concrete will take the
same thing. So, we will not get very nice experience, nice view on the inside.
But, more than that, that may lead to the collapse of your entire structure which is also
true like in the previous lecture we have discussed about the space frame where like it is
very beauty that the small-small members connected together will have very good
resistance, but any failure any failure at any part of that member will like be a
catastrophe for the entire structure so as true for this folded plate structure as well.
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And, then the problem is there as well; the increase in rise and definitely the folded plate,
but in order to get this it is contradictory to each other like definitely you if increase the
rise then the total height the effective height of the building will also increase. So, if
there is a height restriction of a building or you have to optimize the height given you
have to make multiple floors. So, this option may not be good solution for all this like
arches, truss, this will not be, but wherever you have that particular freedom you can
easily go with that.
And, what is also a need to be mentioned that I probably not mentioned in the previous
lecture that is for all your truss or any pitched roof kind of construction where the slope
been maintained or maybe it is round or may be a pointed. So, it will not only take care
of the structure, as well as like it will also take care of the perfect drain off of the rain
water or may be if it is in the cold region so, drain off of the snow.
So, this is useful form that can be used for some climatic purpose as well, but also with a
visual purpose so that synergy that we need to make between the structural form section
and the purpose of your structure and other thing that can be easily blend. And, slowly-
slowly when we just started discussing about the post beam structures and now move to
this particular you know folded plate the shell structure and other thing.
So, we have seen that good application and the final product which are very famous in
the world is really giving us nice experience and also increase our interest to know about
the application of that and definitely whenever we get a chance to do it specially for the
student pursuing architecture. So, for them in their design like wherever like we can see
get a chance to design a parking lot or may be a shopping mall or may be a sports
stadium, indoor stadium we should definitely try this out to get a better result because it
will solve the purpose of long span as well as it is giving some kind of aesthetic beauty,
good form to the architecture.
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So, with this I just conclude here and, in the summary, again like what we have
explained that instead of a very simple plate if we just make it fold so that all will
actually increase those points. This is making this thing more stiffer and then the load
will be distributed like when the load is given it is converted to the side load and then it
is going to the edge and transferred to the support. And, for that it can be of like you
have the plane surface, you may have like what just I have shown like something like
with the roof as well as your wall together.
So, if we just make it something like that just mind my sketches here I have shown you
like similar to this which is basically the frame or the portal, this is basically the flat and
the spatial is basically your this folded plate dome that some of the applications are
already there. So, this is very useful and the material concrete can be used but, for that
the form work should be very much perfect.
And, if not, then if you use the steel and all it will become little easier, but the perfect
execution is required how you join this and how you give the end support to stop the
bending or the failure due to the gravity load that how you go for the edge beam on the
support, whether we support it by the wall or we entirely make the building like the
example we have seen that the Sports Center that in Switzerland there we have seen how
beautifully they have done it. Most of the churches they have used it and they also used
those solid void things to welcome the light to maximize it.
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So, there are applications that we can really think of and we should try to apply in our
design like specially for the students they can apply in their academic design who are
professionals. They can also think of where the purpose is done, but definitely for this
kind of application you need to little bit of bigger project so that the cost which may be
the formwork that to be made in some module. So, that will be cost effective and for the
small also you can try with different materials, not only concrete we can think of some
glass or some PVC material to have nice look that can be done.
So, these are the reading materials that you can go through and also you can follow up
the links given in this PPT, so that you can know more about this, you can know about
the buildings that have shared with you and you can definitely add on more and you
should do that. And, you just share with me some of the more examples that you found
or either you have visited the place or you have gone through some of the articles,
internet sites and then you can add on. So, I would like to see those input from your site.
And, then moving to the next lecture, we will have the Membrane Structure. This is
again a very beautiful structural system and be very useful, we will be discussing on our
next lecture and till then I would like to thank you all to take part very actively in this
course and we will be meeting in our next lecture.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 29
Membrane Structures
Architecture: The Synergy. Today, we are at Lecture Number-29 and we will be talking
on Membrane Structures. So, before that, in last two lectures we have discussed on the
struss, space frames and the folded plate structure. And today we are going to discuss
about the membrane structure which is also alternatively known as fabric tensile
structure.
I have touched upon few things when we discussed about the tensile structure, but in this
lecture, we will focus on different applications of that, different forms that we use for
this membrane structure and the applications. So, without wasting more time let’s get
started.
At the introduction what exactly the membrane structure? So, it is a spatial structure and
which is made out of tensioned membranes. So, membrane structure or fabric structure is
one kind of tensile structure. So, the component that we have in this is membrane or
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fabric in one and the other is the structural support that may be a mass, that may be a
cable, that may be a rope. So, we will see that different kinds of support systems as well.
Now, at the same time alternatively like there is another way of defining it, as structure
that is characterized by a tensioning the membrane system, typically with as I mentioned
the wire or capable to provide the critical shape or structural support to the structure. So,
in this image if you see the slide. So, I have given you two options, first start with this
particular picture.
Here you can see that how the curve being generated and a thin membrane which may be
of cloth like material, we will discuss on that as well like different kind of materials that
are being used to make the fabric for the tensile structure and how beautifully this being
created. So, here again you can get the curvature in opposite direction and if you recall
our earlier discussion that on the anticlastic and synclastic curvature, so I am sure that
you all can understand that this is the curve in opposite direction, so it should be your
anticlastic curvature kind of form and it is making a hyperbolic shape. And this structure
is very light in weight and being supported. So, this particular roadway being very
beautifully covered without intermediate support. So, that is the beauty of this kind of
spatial structure. We discussed about the dome, we discussed about the space frame and
folded plate where this kind of space creation is possible without much vertical support
in between. So, depending on the fold that we have seen that how we can make those
structure steep enough to resist against the applied load.
And here it is basically very light structure and only it is being stable with proper tension
with the tensile members or the cables. Here this is another one where you can see that
there are columns which basically making a framework and everything we covered with
a fabric.
So, this is another example and I am sure that all of you must have seen in some videos
or maybe in real life this kind of structure, it may be applied for a small seat out area or
maybe near restaurant or maybe in some of the a temporary construction that to be made
with this membrane and structural support which create the proper tension to hold it, to
hold the shape and it is very useful.
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Now, to make it simpler this is I think all of us have some experience of watching circles
and all and we know the tent. So, how it is been formulated if I want to make a cross
section of that, so there must be a single compressive mast that when we discussed about
the tensile structure that there will be some mast which is basically compressive mast
which is anchored to the ground. And then from there different cables are being placed
and this particular cloth, here the cloth is referred as the membrane or fabric that being
given the tension and form being created. So, you do not require any other vertical
support here. So, the stain like structure is a tensile structure and the membrane we use
we can create the form. So, this is a very good example, the way I thought I should show
it to you, so that you can easily correlate with this example and the concept of fabric
structure.
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Now, coming to the components as I already mentioned overall fabric structure or

membrane structure is the one of the components is membrane, very thin like material
and which the membrane normally being used in the biology where the tissue and cells
being discussed. So, like that here also it is very thin cloth like material and then the
other component is support system.
Now, in the support system it may be of a single mast, it may be just the tension cable
like we have seen in the earlier example. Like here along with the mast here we have the
4 masts if you just can see through. So, we have this post and we also have a central post
and then this is given tension to the all cable. So, this particular formation, this kind of in
internal volume form being created, so that it can help us for solving the purpose of
creating this circus tent and all.
Now, coming to the support system. There are different kind of support systems. It may
be just with the mast support; only with a single mast we just anchored this particular
membrane to the ground. This can be one option. It may be not a single mast; it may be
with a particular arch form. So, we create multiple arches to create a tunnel and then we
just cover with the membrane. So, this is one kind of form where we can use the arch or
sometimes instead of a single arch, we can also go for the space frame.
So, the last discussion, in the previous lecture when we discussed about the space frame.
So, spatial space frames where we have seen some kind of curvature like this where
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different members they create the space frame and not in a particular shape, but with a
dynamic shape and then we can cover it with a thin membrane. So, then it will become a
membrane structure as well as the space frame structure and the space frame will act as a
supporting system to that. So, we will have some more slides on this. I will come to that.
Now, coming to the membrane. So, broadly we can if we can classify them. So, it has
two categories, category number one is your structural coated fabric and the other one is
your mesh cloth. So, what exactly they are? So, structural coated fabric is again it is
having the mesh. If you see this is a typical cross section of that particular image, where
this is basically the vertical and horizontal like your two way X and Ydirection, the
fabric are actually make this arrangement and this woven form is then protected with a
structural code.
So, in this case the base cloth is similar, but in order to increase the strength of that the
coating being provided. So, different layer of coating may be provided to have better
insulation, to have better thermal resistance because as we use this for the exterior, so it
will get exposed to the rain, it will expose to the snow in the context where like snow fall
is there and also with the extreme heat.
So, rainfall then the heat from the sun and as well as the wind and other things. So, your
structure your member should get a protection and for this will get some help from this
different level of coating. So, the top layer is the surface treatment which will help to
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make this intact. Compared to that the mesh cloth is just this interior part. So, they are
interlinked. So, they are forming these interlacing form, so they tangle with each other
and that will give some kind of stiffness to the membrane.
Moving forward the available materials in the market. So, we have polyester, we have
vinyl-coated polyester which is better than the normal one, then vinyl-laminated
polyester, PVC fiberglass that can also get a paint and it is useful. Now, these are the
materials the woven PTFE or ETFE they are really being helpful. Now, what exactly the
PTFE? That is your poly tetrafluoroethylene. So, this is the full name of that. So, these
are having better response towards like extreme variation of the weather and all. So,
these are very useful material having better resistance again the heat and cold breaking
and all.
So, looking at the materials. So, normally we should focus on certain criteria to select a
material for fabric tensile structure or membrane tensile structure. So, what are those
points? These are listed here. So, we will first see that the tensile strength which is the
base or the backbone of this kind of structure. As I mentioned that this is stable, they get
stability due to proper tensioning.
So, the tensile strength to be measured then the tear strength is also important because
when you put the tension and all, there will be lateral movement, there will be some
force acting from the top. So, due to that, what will be the strain that the that will tear the
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membrane so we have to check that threshold whether it is with the permissible limit it
or not.
Then also, the adhesion strength to be measured the flame resistance is one of the
important criteria as because these are normally being used in public gathering to make a
convention hall, maybe a circus tent and all. So, for extreme heat or due to some fire
case, how this will help or how it will resist against those odds that should take into
consideration, should be taken into consideration.
Now, the weight this is very important. Like, if you use only the mesh cloth or you use
mesh cloth and then the structural coatings, so finish weight that is this like yourself
weight of the membrane that also need to be considered as because we are not giving
much support, so it should not be too heavy, so that it will sag or not giving the
satisfactory result.
Then the base fabric weight is exactly like where you do not add any coat, then what is
the weight of that per square feet or something like that in the unit. Then available top
coating, whether the fabric that you select can be coated with something or no it is not
convertible with any coating, so you should just use it for the purpose. So, that flexibility
we have to check.
That resistance to the cold and heat cracking is another important parameter. So, cold is
for the cold region and heat. So, expansion and contraction, so these to be taken care of
while selecting a material for the membrane. Then translucency is another parameter
because most of the cases we use it to welcome the diffused light like you will not get
the radiation, but definitely with the translucency you can maximize the daylight use to
the interior space.
So, we should also look for such kind material, where this translucency is available.
Then the date load definitely this is overall the load that being imposed the self weight.
So, that should be minimum was without compromising the resistance or stability. Now,
the other structural property like how it will expand do when we apply the tension, the
elasticity of that material is another important component to that.
Now, the life expectancy is also you need to consider because when you invest though
that these are the fabrics or maybe the cost of construction is comparatively cheaper than
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the wall construction or the roof construction, but then also it will not sustain for a longer
duration unless otherwise it is maintained periodically or maybe it is very well coated
with some structural fabric or something. Then, it will extend the lifespan of this and the
cost. Any implication anything you go and purchase from the market, costs definitely
will play a crucial role that whatever the available options to you which one will be
cheaper and also satisfying most of the criteria probably you will go for that kind of
material.
So, in my left hand side towards like this what we have the right hand side of your slide
you have all these available materials and the left hand side of the slide you have all the
criteria which you should look for selecting membrane materials for the structure. Now,
move ahead. As we discussed the two components are very important for the membrane
structures.
So, one is fabric that we discuss, the type of materials, the coated structurally coated
materials or the mesh cloth and then we discussed about the available materials, then
their decision criteria and other thing how to select them. Now, move on to the second
part that is the support. Depending on the support we can categorize these fabrics tensile
structure or the membrane structure into five categories.
So, one is your mast supported. I just have tried to draw something to explain you like
with the circus tent. The second one is the point supported structure where there is not a
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single mast, but with the tension cables so we can create different points and we support
the structure, not with the mast. Then the arch support is in state of a mast we provide
different arches made of say some wood or maybe in any material we form the arch and
then we cover up with the membrane that is possible.
So, that is into the category of the arch supported. Frame supported is basically we
referred to the any frame. We can make the rectangular frame or something or space
frame and then we use the membrane, so that it will be in this category. And then other
point is the simple saddle where the multiple points are required to give the stability. So,
to understand it better let us go through the examples.
Coming to the first point that this example is very common and I think now you are
familiar with this image that is something from the Arizona State University Campus.
So, there you can see the membrane and the mast, ok. So, this comprehensive mast being
placed and this is actually grounded well, and then remaining part is basically the cable.
In this image if you see carefully, so very very thin cable they are actually making those
membrane stable with a minimum mast and all. So, this is mast supported.
Now, coming to the point supported here you cannot see at the middle there is any mast
in the middle like this. So, you have the support at the end and then from there the
different cables they are creating the point. So, due to that combination, you can get
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different points and that is giving a form of a dome, whatever the desired shape that we
are looking for membrane structure.
So, this is again some different arrangement, this is point supported. And the main
difference here that if you see that the mast is placed at the center. We are getting this
conical shape, and we can also say that this being similar to the circus tent that I have
shown you and here there is no such mast. So, we have the support at the end which is
not a part of this the volume and then from there through cable. We are creating some
tension points and we just hold the structure. We give the shape of the fabric structure.
So, this is the second category.
Move with that this is very clear that here you can identify that different arches being
placed and then we just use the membrane to cover it up. And here you can see that to
create the opening, lateral openings, so the membrane is cut in such a manner. So, it is
creating a vault, barrel vault kind of form in this. So, this is arch supported.
Now, coming to the frame supported. It is again arch form, but here you can see that they
are creating different structural greed in this and here also you can if you zoom it out,
you see that it is not a single arch form. So, here frame being used to create the overall
volume and this cloth or membrane is being attached for creating the overall fabric
structure. So, this is frame supported membrane structure.
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Coming to the simple saddle. Here you can see that we have the mast, we have other
support and in order to make the continuity between two curves and all, so there are
some angular support as well. So, this is the category of simple saddle.
Now, in this case if we see by the form like how we can make some classification of the
membrane structure in terms of form. So, we have 4 defined categories. So, out of that
like first one is your hypar, then the conic, barrel vault and inflatable. So, before we
discuss in detail each of them, this is something like summary of all these types.
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So, first with the hypar. Hypar is basically we can say that when like the support are
being placed in different height and then we give different tension to the different
portions of the cloth or the membrane or the fabric and we create a form of say hyperbola
or hyperbolic paraboloid something like that. So, that is basically leading towards some
anticlastic formation. So, what is exactly?
So, here the example if you see that this is a piece of membrane this white color being
supported with 4 different supports, but they are first of all inclined and second they are
having different height. So, here you can get this length, here you can get this length. So,
these are not uniform. If they are uniform so that means, they are basically creating this
kind of structure. So, all heights of the supports are at the same level.
So, we get a very simple form where it is very flat. But at the same time the moment I
reduce it, so it will try to bend here, the opposite side it will try to bend here, but at the
same time this will try to hold it at the original position. So, that will create a curve. And
when you increase the height farther, so that will create a curvature in this direction and
this will create the curvature in the opposite direction. So, here also if I want to draw, so
one curvature is in this direction, the other is in the opposite direction. So, now, I think
you can understand what kind of curvature it is. Can you guess?
You are right. That, this is basically your anticlastic curvature which we have discussed
during our earlier discussion where we discussed about the form, the sale structure. Now,
coming to the conic. So, conic you just try to recall it by the example of cone. So, cone is
some form like this and then you just cut a portion of that will be the conical. And in this
case, this is the example, now you see that the curvature is in the similar direction. So,
here it will be your synclastic, right?
Barrel vault is basically the barrel form of that when you can see that multiple such
arrangements together is creating a vault kind of form, then we refer it as barrel vault
membrane structure. The last but not the least, the inflatables one where again it is
having the similar curvature all the all through, so this is again this is example of your
synclastic curvature and mostly it is inflatable in terms because this is full of air.
So, this form being created through pressure difference. So, we add something. Like, if
you blow a balloon then it will give a form and that will balance the exterior pressure and
the interior pressure, and that will get some stability. And we will have discussion the
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next upcoming lecture, we will be discussing thoroughly on the pneumatic structure
where we will discuss this inflatable option once again. So, let us just understand. If you
will to go to example, I just want to give clarity to the definition of synclastic and
anticlastic.
So, when you have two surfaces, and you have one curvature, in one direction only one
direction. Though this is intersection, so this is basically the curvature, this is basically
your monoblastic. Now, I draw it again. Now, you have a curvature for this surface as
well as this surface. So, in both the cases if you see that the curvature is in the similar
direction and then if you just multiply the plane users revolve this plane. So, what you
will get? You get a form of a dome, right.
You may not get a dome, but you can get something of dome like. So, this is basically
having the similar. So, this is your synclastic curvatures. So, same direction with two
surfaces. Now, contradictory to that if I draw it again, so I have one curvature like this
direction and the other curvature of this direction. So, they are conflicting each other, so
then it is basically opposite direction. It is called anti; anti means opposite, so anticlastic.
So, we have to remember these terms very carefully because these being used in the cell
structure, this is being used in other kind of formation where this curvature is concerned
to give the form overall form of the structure. So, like this if we take a piece of cloth and
we put some low-end support and then we put some high-end support here and we just
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try to pin up, so basically that will give a shape and this will try to give a shape. So, we
get a shape like this. The way we have seen here will get the shape of this hypar.
Now, move to the example of hypar. It is the same you can understand that why this
curvature be created. So, you get a clean curvature here and also get a curvature here
they are opposite direction because of the height they are placed, their inclination, their
height, they are different, they are not same. If they are equal, so they will give a plane
surface. So, this is the criteria to create this shape. So, this looks very pleasant,
aesthetically pleasant, but along with that it will be very helpful to create the curvature.
If it would be flat then there will be formation like when there will be the heavy rainfall
and all, so there may be a little sag. And then suppose many a times we have seen it like
for a market or so, that you just make it with the polythene, without any slope the both
the heights are same. So, during rainfall and other thing, so whatever is basically
accumulated here and that sag. So, it is not really welcoming.
In state of that if you have a high ride and the lower height, so you create the slope, you
can drain out. And here the thing is you create the curvature both the direction, so the
load applied on this due to this snow and all that can be easily distributed, they can easily
drain off and that can be easily distributed. So, this is very good application of the tensile
structure along with the membrane and the structure is very simple. Like if you want to
just make it for the installation you can simply use such kind of cloth which can be little
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expanded due to this tension and all and can get this kind of shade or shamiana we can
refer.
Now, coming to the conic membrane structure, this is the similar like a cone maybe the
truncated cone, so this form being created. And in order to put the tension, so we create
the support from the bottom and these are the posts. So, this we create. And the central
point definitely in order to give this shape you have a mast. So, mast support is in the
most of the examples that we can get from the mast support fabric structure these are the
conic.
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Coming to the barrel vault, I have shown there one example and here it is another. This is
normally being used for a parking. Here it is in the case of the parking bay of this the bus
and all. This is the waiting area. So, a regular formation of this arch which is very
symmetrical, they being repeated and to provide the shade and all some fabric being
used.
So, basically this is something like this that being created, very uniformly and these are
the form. So, you can get any form of that. We do not require mast to support it, we can
also sometimes have a centralized mast and then we can support it with the tension cable.
So, this is also possible.
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Coming to the last category the inflatable where the structure being made with the help
of air to give the form. So, initial form being made and then we inject air to maintain the
shape. So, this is also very important structure to create as temporary. And the main
advantage of this kind of structure is the moment the purpose is solved, if you want to
dismantle its very easy you remove the air, you can fold it, it we can easily transport to
the other place. It is not very much permanent or heavy as because the light structure the
only disadvantage that we may have like due to heavy wind, so this may differ from
some of the its initial form. So, the interior fitting of the lighting and all that we need to
take care of.
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So, coming to some examples, this is mostly being used for the sports stadium or the roof
of the sports stadium. So, here the stars being used and the membrane is being used to
cover it up.
This is example from Germany. This again I am repeating this example in different
context, and here today it is just because to show you this use of membrane and the
tension members to create this beautiful form and architecture.
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There it is again from the Arizona State University that I have depicted there. So, central
mast and the support.
Now, this is again a sports center. And here you can see that the conic form being
created, the overall dome being created and these are getting the supported. So, you have
a surface and you just spoke somewhere. Sometimes you may use it to get some puncture
like to give some area to welcome the light inside.
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So, this is another example. This is The Millennium Dome. You can see that how
beautiful it is the huge dome being created and strategically by calculation definitely, this
mast is provided and the whole surface is being supported with some tension. So, this is
holding the overall form, so that you can minimize the number of supports inside and we
can have the column less space.
This is another example of a port fair is being created and you the use of the fabric is also
shown here.
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So, coming to the advantages. It has advantages considering the longer life cycle because
like you can just dismantle it quickly and you can transport it; less construction debris
because it is nothing to like break and so you can dismantle is easily, and whenever you
require you just go and plug and play kind of concept.
Design customization is also there, you can design about different angles, different
directions, different curvatures and that is possible with this lightweight and very flexible
to use that already mentioned. High strength to weight ratio; comparing the weight of the
membrane which is very less, but that can also get a good strength. And when you use
the membrane which is structurally coated, this will again be higher than the normal one.
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Now, along with these advantages there are few disadvantages that I mentioned that the
poor rigidity. When there is a high wind blow or something, so it cannot perform well
then, any loss of tension as because the tension is the main fundamental to give the
shape. So, if there is any damage to any part of that, so the whole structure will collapse
within a few seconds or something. So, this is one of the criteria which we need to take
care of, this is not exactly the disadvantage, but yes, we have to take proper care of that
when we execute it.
Thermal resistance is poor as because of the team member, so there are problems. So,
proper HVAC system to be adopted for better result. Now, poor insulation again due to
the thin one. So, but now for the coating and other thing in recent time, if you use this
poly tetrafluoroethylene kind of material or some coated material, so this insulation can
be improved.
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So, with this like we complete this section. So, here basically if we summarize quickly,
so two members, one is your fabric and then we have support, right. In fabric we have
discussed that structurally coated and then you have your mesh cloth and there are
different list of a figure and how like we decide those different criteria to select it. In the
support, it may be of mast supported, it may be of arch supported, it may be of point
supported, it may be of frame supported or maybe it is saddle, ok.
And regarding the form of that what we discussed, one is your hypar, second we
discussed about the conic, third one that we discussed about the barrel vault and last but
not the least is inflatable structure. So, air inflatable is basically your synclastic curvature
and hypar is basically where you have this kind of members. So, you get the anticlastic
curvature.
So, the advantage is definitely it can cover the last band with the minimum weight,
minimum investment, but there are problems with like having poor resistance to the
heavy wind and other thing that we need to take care of that. With that I conclude here.
These are the some references like you can go through and you can get some insight to
this topic. And also, you can go through the link I have provided.
With that this lecture end here. So, upcoming lecture will be discussing on the
pneumatic structure that is something we discussed as the inflatable structure. So, we
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will discuss more on that. So, this is end of this lecture. Thank you so much for taking
part into this course and I will meet you soon.
Thank you.
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Lecture – 30
Pneumatic Structures
Hello everyone. Welcome back again to online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. In this lecture, Lecture Number-30, we will be discussing on
Pneumatic Structures. Previously, Lecture Number-29 and few lectures before that, we
have discussed the structure of spatial in nature and with different applications for
covering large span and also reduce the date load and all.
So, pneumatic structure is in the same category. Again, it will solve the purpose of
covering last span with minimum weight, but there are some few disadvantages as well.
So, we will discuss in this presentation. It has a relation with the previous one like where
we discussed about membrane structure.
So, in one of the forms that we discussed that inflatable that is the structural form being
created just to with the air, pressure and that is one of the starting points of this
pneumatic structure. So, let us start this particular lecture and go through the different
examples to understand the structural applications in a better way.
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Now, before I read out anything from the slide. So, let us see this particular boat ok. So,
we all are familiar with it, some of us having the experience of using it or maybe we
have seen somewhere in some documentary, some videos and movies. So, this is
something where it is very thin material and when we put air into it, due to that air
pressure, it creates a volume and it can float and it is so light so that it is stable as well.
So, the life boat, or maybe the life ring whatever we see this is having a similar principle.
We do not need to go that far. Even we all are familiar with the balloons, during the
birthday celebration or during any celebration, we have seen. It is basically a very thin
membrane rubber material and when you put air, it will get the volume and it will give a
shape of like the way you desire like sometimes you can create the customized shape or a
heart shape or maybe something a tubular shape or maybe just a spherical shape or
sometimes it may be egg shaped. So, that is one of the examples of the pneumatic
structure. So, it is actually the structure that includes membrane that filled with the air
and give the form and that also the stability.
So, due to the balance between the interior and exterior pressure difference, the form is
in existence. The moment you release the pressure, it will be deflated and then it will be
just thin membrane; nothing else. So, here pneumatic structure are flexible membranes
that I already mentioned that derive their stability from air pressure. So, two things; one
is thin membrane and then the air.
So, if we combine them in a perfect combination, then you will get the stability, the
form. In pneumatic construction, pressure difference between enclosed environment; that
means, the interior space and the exterior are responsible for giving the shape. So, this is
the main fundamental of pneumatic structure. In this case most of the cases, the
synclastic curvature means the doubling of curvature being used where the curvature is
in the same direction.
That we have discussed in detail in the previous lecture like for the dome and other thing,
the curvature like doubling of curvature, but they are in a similar direction same direction
rather. So, these are synclastic, but anticlastic curvature being also been created. Thus,
for that the purpose is something different, the system, the methodology will be different.
So, we will try to cover that as well.
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The membranes minimal weight and small size when deflated; first of all, weight is
minimal because thin membrane, you can see that the volume that being created that can
be carried by one person ok, when deflated and you can fold it and you can put it in a bag
a small size bag. So, this is the advantage of this and when deflated, it can be easily
manipulated like you can give a enclosed form or something to carry and the transport.
So, this is one of the advantages that we discussed at the very beginning of this
presentation.
So, before we go and discuss in point of the architectural buildings or maybe any
structure that use this; so, this is I think very familiar to all of us; maybe some of you
have experienced it or maybe you just watched the kids playing over it. So, this is
something which is very common in the fair ground, where the kids they are jumping
over it.
But what structure it is? It is a very perfect example of pneumatic structures, where these
are perfectly stitched, those color membrane and cloth and the air through air pump the
air is inserted to this and it making a balance between interior and exterior air pressure so
that it is giving a particular shape and as because it is placed in a coarse form, So, there
will be no such tolerance or something like a turbulence to this structure due to the heavy
wind and all. So, people will jump and that is because it is for the kid. So, if you could
accumulate, I will say 10-20 kids. So, their weight is not that great so that it can easily
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hold the load. So, this is one example of the pneumatic structure. So, from one particular
part, it is a controlled pressure that we have to provide. So, it may be a continuous one or
it may be just filled ones and then, if we can have a leakage proof material, So, then we
do not need to do it ok. Sometimes in the city, we that some big size balloon that is
flying over that and it is showing some ad of some company or something. So, again it is
the structure, that spherical volume or sometimes even not the balloon shape, it may be
of a plain shape, So, it plain shape something is floating on the sky to give a ad. So, these
are example of the pneumatic structure, where the due to air we can get it. Even not only
this made of cloth or maybe made of this plastic, made of rubber material. So, let us take
another example, it will be clearer.
And then, we can understand in a better way that I was talking about this particular
safety ring for the emergency purpose, we can use it. So, this is again a structure where
the air is injected to that. Then, this is something where it is nicely depicting what I
wanted to say that when it is deflated position, it is nothing by a small like very thin
membrane very lightweight. But when you put air to it, it is giving you the volume that
you require; but if you release it, it will automatically be in its original position. But
during this deformation like here in this case of balloon, we have seen that many a cases
like we blow up a balloon and we put it for 10 days or something and then, automatically
it is coming back to this shape even it is closed. Because there is a very slow leakage
through the surface and there will be permanent deformation.
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But whenever you apply it with a good membrane or having good strength, so probably
this will not occur. You can reuse that material in many places. So, for any temporary
fair shop or something that you want to give any display area. So, we can take help of
this kind of structure where air will be used as the main structural support to give and
create the form.
Now, here this is now a days very popular and even in television, even in all different
YouTube videos, even in your E-websites ok, e-commerce websites you will get that this
kind of multi-purpose furniture which is just made with some membrane and with the air
inserted to this structure will give you the form of a sofa or the bed. So, this is something
very important and when you just remove it, you can fold it and you can put it in a very
concise and small area which is very much effective.
So, optimal use of these structural membrane, the membrane structure with the air and all
is very useful now a days. Now, coming to the general characteristics looking at this
example that these are very common, I do not really think you get surprised to know
something about that something about that.
So, light weight, definitely it is very lightweight material because of the thin membrane
and all. The safety point is another important issue and now, it will have two kind of
answers to it. So, when it is a small scale, very closed form application, so it is safe.
Because it is just put to the air, so there will be not much dead load. So, collapsing of this
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structure will not really affect much. But again, the safe when it is being applied in the
open area and there is a heavy wind flow. So, then if the air is not properly maintained
on corner or counter the additional force that sudden load applied to that structure that
may cause some damage and that will not be very comfortable. Because the interior
fixture and all the that will have some deformation.
The quick erection and dismantling are definitely the case. So, in case of the sofa, you
perhaps if you have not done you just go through the video of this inflatable sofa or bed,
you get that is a very small like material folded material and there is a point that you just
about the electric air pump and then, it will just inflate and then, they will create the
volume.
So, slowly it will give the form. So, it is very quickly can erect even that example I have
given for the particular facility for the kids. There also it is to be done. So, we do not
need to transport the exact structure from one fair ground to the other. We can just
remove the air and we can fold and we can easily transport.
Now, coming to the economy, as because it is having very less number of support or
very strong support. So, it is economical; obviously, so what you need? You need some
anchor to hold it, to ground it so that it will not blow away with the air or something.
Good natural lighting; if we use some translucent material like in membrane structure,
we have discussed the translucency is one of the criteria to select the membrane. So, here
it is true for this case as well because it is also the membrane. The only difference there
we have given support with the must and the tensile cable. But here its only the air. So, it
is having the good natural lighting. The human health; this is the important case because
for maintaining the shape you have to give constant air supply to this. So, there will be
some pressure difference and who are inside to this structure, they should also be getting
adjusted with the pressure difference from inside and outside.
So, we cannot really increase the pressure so much or you cannot make a vacuum so that,
it will put some effects on the human health; so, that you need to take care when you
apply this kind of structure for any purpose. So, normally this kind of structure being
made for convocation hall or maybe sometimes for exhibition hall or maybe small kind
of some interesting public places that I will show you some of the pictures of that kind.
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Now, coming to the components what exactly the components are? A typical component
of a pneumatic structure is one is envelope.
It is nothing but the membrane that we discussed earlier; the cable system that will
anchor everything to that. The pumping equipment because the air is the source of
making the structure stable so, the pumping equipment. Then, entrance, we can create a
balloon, but the main problem we cannot go inside it ok. So, in order to do that we have
to have an entrance and that should be air locked.
So, that should not release the pressure so that we need to take care of that and constant
monitoring on pumping and overall pressure difference from outside inside to be
maintained and the foundation; in order to make the stability. So, foundation is also
required where like the endpoint maybe through cable, it is attached to a particular post
or it may be with some foundation, initial foundation on main piers, we can just add on.
Coming to the materials that can be used for the envelop is the membrane material.
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So, again it can go with the fiberglass, PVC fiberglass, the polyester, then ethylene or
tetrafluoroethylene that where we have discussed about PTFE or maybe ETFE, nylon.
So, this kind of material which will have enough strength to carry and having good
strength to width ratio that can give some advantage for this and for the anchor system,
we can use the steel cables just to hold it. So, we just hold it from a point and we just
make a tie at the gent or you can use the ballasts. So, where this can be supported with
the temporary arrangement of few bags of cement or maybe it is a permanent post or
maybe a very solid post being just elected there and getting connected with this structure.
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Move forward, the basic typologies of pneumatic structure, we have two kinds; one is
your air supported which is normally also low pressure and other is your air inflated. So,
we will discuss one after another. So, low pressure means where normally before I go.
So, we create with a single layer of the membrane and we put air and we get this volume
right. In this case, the low pressure to be maintained. The pressure inside is slightly more
from outside.
So, if it is P exterior and this is P interior. So, P interior is slightly more than P exterior
and that is why it is holding the shape. But as because that will be habitable. So, we have
to also take into consideration the pressure that one human can hold and that to be
calculated.
Now, where the air inflated is not a single layer. It basically the two layers of the surface
ok, the membrane and air are not injected directly to the shape ok. It is injected in the
medium. So, between two layers, the air is inserted in this. It is basically very high
pressure. So, if we consider this is as your P I within the system and P E. So, then P I is
much better than your P E and there is no effect on the human who were inside to this
because it is within that. So, that this is giving better stability.
So, for that kind of inflated, we cannot have a continuous two layer. So, in order to give
rigidity what we can do if I just want to draw a barrel vault like this. So, instead of a
continuous one, we have the segment. So, individually we just put the air and then, we
get this facility like this. So, this is making a cushion kind of thing in between if I make a
cross section. So, basically it will be something like this. So, series of that is connecting
each other is creating this particular air inflated or high-pressure pneumatic structure.
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Now, coming to the air supported whatever we discussed, let us just go through this. It is
single fabric layer enclosing a space in form of domes or similar shape. So, it can be of
dome is very easy or else we can also go for a barrel. So, where like it is not the dome,
we have at the end we have a closed form and then the entrance to be made. The fabric is
supported by inside air pressure; obviously.
The low air pressure makes air supported structure more vulnerable to the flutter or
under wind load as because the interior loads the air pressure is slightly more than the
outer. So, if anything implied, heavy wind blow and all. So, this will not really help. So,
it cannot take hold of the volume. So, it will take different shape like this, which is
vulnerable. So, in that case, compared to that as because it is high pressure. So, it can
hold it in a better way.
Since, the usable space is under air pressure, door openings must have the air tight, air
locks to prevent any leakage. Air supported structure require continuous air supply.
Usually, with standby electric power generator to run the fan continuously. So, that air is
maintained because whatever the air loss from the opening the door or and that is why
here we use the revolving door so that can be maintained.
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So, this is the example where you can see that this is the entrance and this is the support
grounded and this is a single air balloon kind of structure and this being made. So, here
this is something that have picked up on the internet. This is a very popular image that
you can get and the source is given. So, you can get more information about that.
So, in this case you see that the structure the whatever the snow load or maybe the wind
load. So, they can easily be drain off because of the synclastic curvature and the interior
pressure is holding the overall shape and the wind load which is lateral which is really
vulnerable, if we have a very little pressure difference and at the bottom it will have the
tension.
So, like all shell structure at the bottom, we get this tension force or tensile strength as
that structural phenomena. So, it is not really different from that. It is also having the
tension. Coming to the next category that is the air inflated pneumatic structure.
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So, it is hermetically meaning the air tight. So, this is the property of the air tightness
enclosed volume that are inflated under high pressure much like a football to provide
stability. So, it is enclosed. So, for football like this is a particular cell and input it. So, it
may be any such balloons like structure. So, there are different cartoon characters, now it
is available. So, you have to blow and then, there is a point. So, where you can enclose it
and you can lock the air and it can give you the shape.
So, it is available like in terms of different cartoon character, different playing instrument
and many. So, that is one. Then, the tubular or cushion form being created in this case
and high pressure is maintained. So, it is basically something like this. So, before we go
further, let us show you this example, you are familiar with this facility as well. So, this
is something I have picked up. So, these are plastic, air pocket.
Here, I have just removed the air. So, it is very thin, I can fold it right. So, these are
available when you order something from online. So, you can get this particular
packaging. So, this is with very small space I can just hold it ok, its nothing. But at the
same time, when I inject air, when I have not released the air, so it is giving a volume.
So, you can see the volume and it can easily carry the load. So, this is very flat, but you
can have similar structure where you can give some bend and all.
So, only with the air which is giving some cushion which will really give the shape will
hold the particular shape. So, the difference between these two, they are of the same
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material, but only difference here it is I have removed the air and here air is within this
particular plastic. We just keep giving this cushion. So, this is one example of air inflated
pneumatic structure.
So, when air is kept locked between two layers and now, without the air pressure they
would have no stability that already I have explained with this where I can just crash it
like this. The air inflated structure also requires some continuous air supply to maintain
the stability. It is same like during that particular process there will be slow leakages. So,
in order to maintain that we have to put the air; not maybe regularly.
Even like I can give you the example of the cycle tube. So, when you pump it like if your
tire, the tube is a very new. So, maybe it can run for another 2-3 weeks or maybe one
month; but at the same time slowly when we do not use it, we put it somewhere in the
sun and all there will be slow leakages. So, then again, we have to fill that with the air.
So, this is a similar thing, but with the membrane, not with the rubber material or that I
just mentioned.
So, this is one example the difference between that you can get these different cushion
and this example, you can get if you have used some cartridges laser print cartridges and
all so that is inserted within some padded or something like you get a packet, where the
outside you get this kind of air inflated structure. So, that it will give the proper cushion
to the cartridge so that there will be nothing no damage during the transport and all.
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So, in this case if you see that the only difference we get that two layers are there and
then, the air is in between and they are balancing each other to this and here, we can get
the high pressure compared to the exterior, the outside pressures and there will be no
such impact on the human related thing. The earlier as because there was a single air, so
that was the problem with the additional air injection or the creating the vacuum and all.
So, it is basically the putting more air into it not the vacuum. Vacuum will squeeze this
down. So, when you want to dismantle you have to do that to get the the vacuum can
work, to remove the air from that.
Now, let us have a quick test on what we understand from this air inflated and then, you
are supported. So, here are some pictures that is randomly placed and a number is alined
to that 1 to 8 and let us understand what are those? like which category they are? They
here the choices are only two; one is your air supported and one is air inflated.
So, just have a look into this and just try to give an answer and maybe spend another few
second to it and then, I will show you the answers and you match how much correct you
are and to know what exactly it is. You got your answer ok. So, now let us just check
how much correct you are. I think most of you are 100 percent correct. So, let us
understand this. So, number one is called air supported dome and vault why? We should
understand why, we should not believe on the text that is written.
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So, as because this is single air and filled with the air so, it is in the first category. So, air
supported dome and vault. The second is another one, but here it is the vault structure
because this is something where we do not understand exactly the volume it the cross
sections, it maybe something which is evolved and get a form of a dome or maybe
extended that is vault. So, this is one the second was straight way a very simple air a
single air is there. So, air supported.
So, I think you have both of the answers got correct. Now, coming to the three number 1.
So, here it is something where air supported vault with support cables. So, what exactly
like when you have a large structure and made of the three membranes, and each may
sway and to give us some support. It is not the two layers, but we just tie it up with some
cable.
So, we fix it so that it will maintain the shape. So, it is very useful tool that with the cable
or rope will give this particular additional stability. So, that it will not sway or it will not
deform much due to the wind. So, this is again the air supported wall with the support
and then, this is similar the fourth one is the multiple dome of that again it is air
supported.
Now, coming to the 5 is very clean and crystal, if you take this example it is similar to
that if I hold it. So, it is giving the same shape and air is inserted here is locked between
two layers. So, it is air inflated structure, cushion and then, similarly when you just make
multiple. So, I just made multiple of such and make a form and they are actually
connected to each other. So, we will get the form of this number 6. This is basically your
inflated vault.
And we can go with the number 7, where it is not in a vault direction, but in a concentric
ring and it is forming a dome of air inflated and here it is a multiple dome, where the tool
is being done. So, there is additional support. In this case the entire thing to be given, so
it is very interesting to compare the 4 and 8. So, the top is same. But here it is single
layers which is giving the volume of the wall as well as this is the base and here it is just
the support.
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Coming to the example of this, so this is one example of that Inflatable Tea house, where
the membrane is being made like this.
Here, it is the Eden project; basically, this is made for our greenhouse for the botanical
garden purpose.
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Here Yorkshire Diamond Pavilion; again, these members they are actually filled with the
air. So, in this case this example is for the air inflated. So, this member, they are filled
with the air to give this form of this structure.
Now, coming to the Fuji Pavilion and that too in 1970. So, this is something where again
it is air inflated structure that club together and create this beautiful pavilion, the
exhibition space.
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Similarly, the US Pavilion in Osaka in 1970, the same category here. It is the similar
thing where the membrane being created and then, for additional support that being
created with the support of frame; coming to the applications of this.
So, for the sports and recreational centers, exhibition, convention center, greenhouse
whatever the examples we have seen, maybe for any other demonstration also we can get
this kind of help.
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Now, coming to the advantages of that again, it is light in weight similar to the
membrane structure good for large span without internal supports. Its true for all this
spatial structure here. Rapid assemble and disassemble is definitely you inject the air and
you remove the air, that is all. Low initial and operating costs as because of like hardly
any such heavy materials being used there; easy to transport when deflated. It is a similar
with the example we have seen that.
Suppose, this is the structure; if I want to put it in my pocket, maybe it will take much
time; but I just deflate it, the same material and I can hold it. I can put it in my pocket.
So, this is very simple example you can just enlarge the scale and you can get that the
statement is very correct that we can easily transport when the overall system is deflated.
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Coming to the disadvantages; yes, it needs continuous maintenance and excess pressure
to maintain, specially for the air supported where you have to maintain the pressure in a
controlled manner so that there will be no adverse effect on the human body, who are
really enjoying the interior space. Continuous fan operation is required to maintain the
pressure. So, a backup should be there. It should not be something like only it is
supported based on the electricity supply. So, then that may create some problem.
Insulation is poor because of the thin membrane. Definitely, this has some poor
resistance to the thermal thing or something; but yes, definitely if we go for some good
material that this poly tetrafluoroethylene or some coated material that can be taken into
in a greater extent that can ease of some of the problems.
Service life is relatively short because each time you inject air and then remove. So, it
will not have a lifespan of a concrete frame structure or meaning sales structure; but yes,
for portable thing this is very useful and the probable application that may we think for
like the rehabilitation center, where we have to locate many people to make and we have
to erect it very quickly. So, we can transport this kind of material and we can create a
shade so that the people from the disaster area can be easily rehabilitated in that place.
So, this is the advantage of this pneumatic structure and can be applied. So, with some of
the disadvantage and advantage, we should take a call what is our purpose and
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accordingly, we take a decision on which kind of structure to be adopted and the form.
So, this is the end of this particular lecture.
So, the summary is basically everything is explained. So, basic two types are your air
supported and then, your air inflated. So, air supported is basically a single layer; air is
injected and with the internal pressure, it is holding every load and where it air inflated.
So, two layers, the air is actually locked in between two layers and very high pressure is
maintained to create the shape and remaining the membrane characters is similar to that.
This is the application and application are already discussed in different exhibition hall,
pavilion and this is the case and very light material, easy to transport, easy to assemble
and disassemble. These are the advantages. With this I conclude here. This is the reading
materials. Again, you can go through the web links given for the relevance slides so that
you know more about this subject and get better idea, better examples, I have given some
examples; you can also add more example.
You can give me that feedback, you can put it in the forum. So, we will discuss over it.
With that we will move forward in the next lecture is basically Lecture Number-31 that
talks about Structure and Architectural Forms in Windy Areas. So, now we will move
through a specialized design for different kind of environment, windy or earthquake
prone or flood time to time and we will discuss more on this lecture. Till then, I really
thank you to take part in the course and we will be meeting in the next lecture.
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Thank you.
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Lecture – 31
Structure and architectural Forms in Windy Areas
Hi everyone, welcome back again to online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today we are at Lecture Number-31 and as I told in my last
lecture that, now we will be discussing some structure and architectural forms for
different purposes. And we will start with this particular topic with the Structural Form
and Architecture in Windy Area. So, without any further delay let’s get started.
So, at beginning if I just ask you what is wind, what do you understand by wind? So,
wind is basically the bulk of air, but definitely we call it wind when it is in motion.
So, in this first slide if you can see the one GIF image is showing what exactly the
phenomena. So, we can feel it, we can measure it the intensity. So, when there is a blow
of wind, blow of air, so that we refer to the wind. Now, why this particular motion being
created? It is again a very simple thing and I think all of us have read this kind of
definition or explanation in our school days.
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So, the wind flow is developed due to change in temperature. So, whenever due to the
sun, land is getting the heat and then the air in contact to the ground at that lower level
also get the heat and become lighter. So, hot air will go up and that will create empty
space. And in order to occupy that empty space, the cool wind on the surrounding will
take a motion towards that.
So, here you can see the same due to the sun, then the warm air is basically the surface in
the lower surface, the air presence; so, they get warmed and then they create a low
pressure zone. And the tendency from high pressure to low pressure movement, so cool
air will come to this and that will create this particular wind.
Now, each day we feel this wind and if we do not feel it, so we feel very much stuffy, ok.
But normally before any storm or something, we feel this cool air. So, up to certain level,
up to certain velocity of wind we like the wind blow, we enjoy the wind blow. But when
the intensity will be getting intensified, then probably that will be a threat to us.
Yes so, that will be threat to our building. So, we should know the different phenomena
that will occur during this heavy wind blow and how we can really design our building
structurally safe and also can resist this kind of wind pressure in case of the emergency.
Coming to the types of wind. So, it is again broadly classified into three categories; one
is your prevailing wind, another one is seasonal wind and then local winds. So,
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prevailing winds is basically round the clock over the years. So, there is a specific
direction and very predominant direction that most of the cases it is glowing from this
side to this side, maybe from south southeast generate from southeast direction and move
through like this. So, this is the prevailing wind direction.
And based on prevailing wind direction also for a region, definitely it will based on the
region, it is not uniform for each and every space. So, for a region it will be predictable,
it is actually similar over the time; and taking this prevailing wind we can also place our
building and we can orient our building.
In the second category the seasonal wind, it is something which subject to change when
there is change in weather. Say if it is winter, so there is certain temperature, maximum
temperature, minimum temperature; if it is summer, then there will be a maximum
temperature and minimum temperature and because of this temperature difference and
all, the wind pattern also may change. So, that is the seasonal variation and the seasonal
wind. So, during this the summer evening, mostly if you consider the southeast part or
the east part of India. So, this kind of situation may generate, specially in the summer
evening. So, we expect some storm, heavy storm or that may also lead to the thunder
storm like this.
Now, local wind is basically produced due to the local variability in temperature and
pressure condition. So, it is similar to the case where you have a region, where you have
water body, you have the paved surfaces. So, where it will absorb the heat very quickly
and the air in contact of that surface will get the heat and get warm and then that will
create a low-pressure zone. So, this is very much temporal, very much local in nature
where these wind blow form form your cool region to the hot region the wind blows that
may occur.
This may occur in the two different ways; see you have a land, you have some buildings
here and then you have some water body and it is, consider a sunny day. So, then
definitely with this heat from the sun will make this surface, drilling surfaces and the
adjacent atmosphere very hot. So, the air will get the heat and then goes up and form this
river which is little bit bad conductor of heat and it is not that much warm compare to the
land. So, wind will blow from this direction.
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Now, consider the same situation at night, the same location; but now you have night
situations. So, consider these are the star and all. So, this surface may be concrete or any
hard surface; it will get warmer very quickly, at the same time it will get colder very
quickly.
So, that time the temperature of these particular region near this water body or sea, it is
basically warmer than this place. So, we get warm air in this part compared to this, and
then the movement of wind will then form the land to the water.
So, it is basically depending on the topography, depending on the position like whether it
will be near to the water body or maybe sometimes it may be near to the hill. So, based
on that, this can change. So, whenever there is a change in temperature and it has relation
with the pressure as well; so then low-pressure, high pressure will be created. So, when
temperature increases, then definitely that will create to the low-pressure area, and then
from high pressure to low pressure there will be movement.
Now, we here is basically self-explaining the scale of this kind of storm. So, when it is a
very mild very you speed wind, so we prefer to enjoy that; but when it is our magnificent
scale, then probably you will get this kind of hurricane, this kind of tornado and maybe
the sandstone which will be very much vulnerable and threatening to us.
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So, type of storm; hail storm we can have normally in the cold region we can get this; in
thunder storm we all are knowing this particular storm, the heavy storm with the rain and
also the lightning. Then the sand storm, then ice storm, tornado, then you also have
heavy snow or blizzard, then derecho storm is again a vulnerable form of this storm; then
the tropical storm, normally being observed in the tropical area, and the hurricane.
So, here you can see that how devastating this could be if it passes through urban area;
many settlement, many people will be in threat to encounter that. And the consequences
are something like this; I have taken very few examples where like the buildings and the
other property got damaged due to this heavy wind blow.
So, here you can see that upliftment of, this is basically upliftment of this car; and even if
you see the condition of the roof, it is actually very badly damaged.
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This is another one where not only your building, the surroundings trees will be in a very
much threatened and they may also affect your building subsequently.
Coming to this example; again, this is the turning of the building where you can see that
the whole building, though it is very light and temporary shaded, but due to the wind
blow, so it just changed. So, normally whenever you have this breach roof and all; so, it
depends on how wind is coming that, wind direction will depend like direct that what
will be the change, what will be the change in the position of the structure.
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So, in this case it is prevailing, like is expected the wind is coming from the that
direction; and as because the structure is not well anchored to the foundation, as because
it is a temporary setup, maybe for like some settlement. And then if it is not properly
anchored, so this will create a thrust to it and then it will basically tilt. So, this is the
result of the same.
Looking at this example, this is where the portion of the building is totally blown away
by the wind and you can see some of the debris here. So, it is very badly affected. So, it
may happen when you have some material that is not that much strong to resist the load
or maybe the intensity of the wind is so much that it failed to resist.
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Coming to the damage of a building or any property due to speedy wind or heavy wind;
So we can have a catastrophic failure; catastrophic failure means the is the total failure,
the dimension, the magnitude of this failure is very large. Where the foundation failure is
something, where if your building is like a stilted structure and these joints are not that
much strong or this foundation is not anchored with the form of footing, thses legs are
not anchored with the footing. So, due to heavy wind, it may really fail this particular
foundation. So, these we have seen in other cases.
In case of steel frame, though it will have a better resistance again that lateral load; but
sometimes when you use a glass or some other cladding to the steel frame that may get
badly affected for this. And specially the roof; if you just think of the gavel roof or the
pitched roof, where normally this hurricane and other thing are very much predominant.
So, then that will create thrust, that will create suction and then this particular roof will
be blown away. So, up uplifting of the roof is one of the major problems.
Then in case of the masonry houses; if the wall thickness is good enough, then the
magnitude of the damage may be somewhat low. But if it is something where you have
some old structure and it is not being maintained; so then may be the disaster will be
more. Then for the timber houses is very light structure.
Normally sometimes you prefer to build it for just make the temporary structure or
maybe where we cannot really resist the heavy wind and we just allow; we just use the
725
basement in the areas where this hurricane and tornado are expected to get. We make the
structure in such a manner that during that storm, the heavy storm; then we just take
ourselves to the basement and we allow wind to blow above ground and that may
damage as we have seen in the pictures.
Coming to the reinforced concrete frames. So, in this case reinforced, RCC frames will
also have; if they are joints are not properly made, so that may get affected. Or else in
case of RCC frame whatever the wall we will use; if use very poor joints or maybe the
thickness is very less and for the external world, then probably damaged the magnitude
of the damage will be more.
Compared to the catastrophic failure, also sometimes it may not be a total failure; but
there are some component failure, one is your roof sheeting. So, normally in the village
area due to heavy wind; this particular roof sheeting whatever it is made of asbestos or
teen, so they will really create a pressure here. And then if the other parts of the building
is also have some opening, then that will create a negative drag and these dragging will
leave this particular roofing and then it will blow away.
Instead of roof sheeting, sometimes we also use roof tiles with the help of the rafters and
the frame and that may also fall into this category. And it has been observed; if we
reduce the slope, if we want to make it very flat; then that will be more preferred than a
very wide angle, because then the upliftment will be really more.
726
Then door, windows definitely if it is facing the wind direction; suppose this is your
building and then here you have your window position and then maybe there is a door.
And if wind is blowing like this, so sometimes this may get badly affected; because with
storm that may also carry some other debris from like we have seen in case of the
tornado in many instances, you can also browse through internet to see this kind of
devastating effect. So, that may damage the windows and doors.
Coming to the walls definitely; if the thickness of the wall is not adequate or it is not
properly done with the proper material and the joinery, so that may easily collapse. Then
the cladding, whenever the base surface we use for the stone cladding or some terracotta
tailing cladding, then with this wind pressure it will also peel off. So, many buildings
you might have seen in the corners; like if it is not properly cladded it with the stone and
then all of a sudden you find that the portion that tiles they just are blown away with a
window and normally at the corner it happened more.
Now, coming to the effects; Now whatever we have discussed now let us understand
with these images; what I have picked up from a document of your nidm.gov.in. So, in
this case if your house is not properly connected to the footing. So, it is not having a
proper foundation is just some way manage, then it will really turn this building. So, this
building can totally turn off and that we have seen in this case. I have shown you this
727
figure, so this is one example of this where the building is not anchored with the
foundation.
Coming to the second category where foundation is not the problem; but roofing
materials are not anchored properly to the building. So, normally for this kind of pitched
roof building, we have a series of rafters; and then on top of it we just anchor it. Now, if
this anchoring is not properly done, then this kind of upliftment lifting of roof may occur.
Now, on contrast sometimes if wind pressure is not that much to appealed the main
structure; but you have some projection like this verandah. So, then it may also uplift the
roof of this verandah or maybe the tiling or something like this; if it is not of that
magnitude, it can damage the smalls projection and all. So, we have to as I as suggestion
like; what we need to do this projection could we be taken care of and we do not provide
such without proper anchoring with the main structure.
Now, this problem with the wind is one and when it will be a thunder storm, so along
with a heavy wind and the rain and if it will continue for certain time; so that will also
aggravate the damages. So, first of all this wind will make this structure little bit shaky
and then there will be some problem of this uplifting of the roof. At the same time with
the heavy rain that will be water locked, then if the building material is not that much
water foot and all; so that will become weaker and then the total building may collapse.
728
So, damage will be more, if it is water locked situation, heavy storm and along with
heavy rain.
Coming through the speedy wind as we have seen that in this case as well; like when you
have a continuous roof for the verandah, so this will create a void and then if the wind
direction is from this side, so that will really create a pressure at the bottom of the roof
and that will really flipped. So, this is not really recommended.
But at the same time if we just split the main roof and the other roof which is separated
and which is not properly anchored to the main structure with proper joist and all. So,
that may also lead to the uplifting of the roof of this verandah.
So, this projection, whenever we provide the projection, we have to really take care of
that. So, that is why the overhangs and the portico and verandahs experience high wind
pressure; as because it is directly exposed to the wind and because of this void, it will
create this pressure.
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Now, coming to the wind load to a building; so when we consider, when we design a
building or decide upon a shape, size of a building and even the structural design, we
should take care of few points. And strats with the aerodynamics of flow around the
building; like definitely it will depend on the shape of the building, in it is plan and
elevation both, we will come to that again.
The second point is windward vertical faces being subjected to the pressure. So,
windward means, in your building there is a prevailing wind direction. So, if wind is
coming from this direction. So, this is called windward face and that is the opposite to
that, is basically your leeward.
So, whenever wind is blowing from this direction and it will come into contact to this
surface, the first surface; so it will create some pressure, try to deform it at the back side,
and then whenever it getting some slope, so it will try to move up. And with this due to
this obstruction in this particular space, it creates some suction effect.
So, that is why the lateral, the leeward and a lateral face getting the suction effect and the
vertical one is getting your, windward vertical face is getting main pressure. So, that we
need to take care of that; if intensity is more, so this will create the problem. So, that may
damage the building in different way.
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Now, in compared to that, if you have a building something like this where the openings
are parallel and wind can easily pass through and the openings are quite big enough. So,
that we be little bit in a better situation; but that may also lead to get suction at this roof
and it is roofed upliftment may occur.
The sloping roof getting pressure or suction effect depending on the slope that, already I
mentioned; if we have the angle is more and then you get the suction effect. And again
along with the main structure what we also need to look for the projection of window
shades and other roof projection in verandah, so that we need to take care.
Now, coming to the basic building shapes, so what exactly it is happening? If we have a
circular one and this is your prevailing wind direction. So, due to this curvature wind is
taking the surface and there is no such negative pressure or suction being created at the
opponents. So, this is one of the preferred shapes that we can go for the windy area. Now
whereas, if you have a squarish plan; then also it will create some kind of suction, it will
create some pressure and that may prone to the vulnerability.
But now if we know that circle is better than these or circular form is better than this
rectilinear form; then why we are not going for this kind of solution, as because most of
the buildings we see, so they are all of these rectangular forms.
731
The reason is with a rectangular, the composition of walls with right angle, which
provide us to utilize the space in a better way, even the furniture layouts will be easier;
and then we can better optimize it. Whereas, if you only have the circle, then the division
of the internal space will be little bit challenging.
But if square is the plan, then up to that level it is still, ok. But in reality, what we found
that, is composition of different rectangle and then we will get a zig zag form. So, in this
irregular form of this rectilinear composition will create some more pressure or
sometimes they create more pressure here and also these types of buildings are more
vulnerable to get affected. So, what we can understand from this; if we want to make our
structure very simple, very simple geometry, regular geometry, preferably with a curve
overall, so that may be helpful for this.
Now, coming to the other wind effect of the building. So, this is considered to be the best
out of the given option and whenever we elongate this side, so that will be more risky.
And when it is like this, so then it will be even more risky depending on the wind
direction. And if we have this L shape or sometimes maybe the shape is something
irregular, so that may create some problem. So, due to the unequal sharing of the lateral
load due to the wind to the different components will create the problem.
732
Coming to that, was for a single building single building unit. Now, if you consider the
placing of multiple building; if you place building in a very regular form and the wind
direction is something from this side, so that will create a tunnel effect ok, which is
sometimes not welcoming. So, if we will have this arrangement something like this from
a high pressure to low pressure. So, wind can really create problem for this region.
Whereas irregular zig zag planning avoids the wind; so prevailing wind may be from this
direction, so then they will not gaze get that particular route to get intensified. So, this is
sometimes preferred. So, instead of your row planning ok, so this is not preferred for
this; and then we have to make this zig-zag whatever to break the wind pattern or
something. So, that will reduce the intensity. So, normally in urban area that is why we
get this kind of situation, where different alignment will not allow wind to really take the
intensity. Whereas, in you must have seen in a countryside or maybe in the case of
western country example. So, you have a field, agriculture field and then you have some
settlement and then when wind is coming from this direction, it is getting the strength
and definitely it is more devastating.
Even the recent times in India few of such cyclone that had come. So, definitely when it
is moving through the empty area or over the sea, so the intensity is quite high from
know, when it is created. And this basically very much devastating; but when it enters,
733
when it heat the land and then penetrate to the front buildings and also it is getting it is
losing its power and that is why I like in urban area this kind of pattern is a preferable.
Now, coming to the tall buildings that we have discussed this previously when we
discuss about different effect of wind and as because with the height; increase in height
this particular sway, lateral sway is actually very much high. And that is why like you
can feel the building sway like this. And if we do not adopt such a high-rise structures
component, then probably this will be a catastrophe.
So, we cannot really increase the height of the building and that is why like when we will
be discussing maybe in upcoming lectures on a high-rise structure, will touch this again;
where we will say the different kind of core-structure, different kind of tube structure
that will help to make this high rise to protect against this lateral load especially with the
wind. For them definitely earthquake will play a different role to that; but along with
that, with the increase in height, wind is one of the major factors to be considered for
high rise building design. So, here like this phenomenon is there.
734
Now, coming to the wind effect and different options, so if we see this; then wind
direction is from this side and then basically it can enter through this particular space and
then it will create suction to uplift the roof and also if we have another opening it can go
outside. But if it is restricted by a vertical wall or what we have mentioned there that is
the windward wall vertical wall, so that will try to bend and then it will collapse.
Coming to this option, as I mentioned that there is no suction being created; as because
wind can easily pass. So, this is very important to know that, if we want to stop the wind
it will create problem more, ok. More problem will be created, so it is better if we can
pass, allow or wind to pass with a design, then it will be safe.
735
Now, if in this case like wind is being obstructed; like in this case this wall is very weak,
but the foundation is strong, that is why it can get a deformation. But in this case the
whole joints, like different joints from foundation, your roof to the wall is very weak and
then that will have a total collapse.
Coming to the other portions where like you will get this particular wind pressure in this
direction and there is a pressure difference from inside, outside; so that will create a
suction and then basically this overturning may occur.
So, if wind is coming from this direction, so your building is supposed to tilt like this.
So, something like, this overturning will take place, where if you have rigid connection.
But if there is some kind of poor joints; so first your roof will be blown away and then
there will be damage to the wall as well.
736
Coming to the wind effect minimization. So, in this case where you can just expose your
buildings direct to the wind or else sometimes you can create a buffer or we can provide
a shield with some trees which are very strong to resist against the wind, so that can also
reduce the pressure and the damage will be less.
Now, based on this we understand that the regular form that we want, the basic shape
should be very much squarish or maybe circular if possible. And again, with the height
737
we have to really think of the aerodynamics and then we can make design for stall
structure with such structural system, which can resist the lateral load due to the wind.
So, here I have just listed few types of a structural form pertaining to the hurricane
resistant structure, spiral wind resistant structure; dome shape structure is another good
structural form that will do very good with aerodynamic property, then pyramid shaped
structure and the egg-shaped structure. So, here I will I picked up one one example; and
again like my previous lectures as I mentioned that, you should also search for more
example under this category and will exchange the idea, so that will be clear about what
exactly the structure and for what it is.
So, this is for the hurricane resistant structure and this is again a dome shape. So, it will
really give a 360 degree wind for wherever the prevailing direction, so that can pass
through. But more importantly this component, so these punctures been created where
like if wind can pass through; so that will not recreate the negative drag pressure or the
drag effect.
The backward portion of the opposite to the wind direction like it is compared to the
leeward facet of the building. So, here it is circular, so this can be used or instead of that,
we can have a roof something like this which is stilted, so wind can pass through and this
particular roof can also help to wind to easily pass on this surface.
738
Coming to the spiral wind resistance, where it is basically the tornado; in this picture we
have seen that it started with this and then it is basically making a spiral and it is
aggravated. So, taking the shape, the aerodynamic shape can be taken up.
So, there is a building, in this case this is the shanghai tower. So, there this particular
philosophy has been taken to that minimize this particular wind load with the shape, so
that may really reduce that damage and can protect the building from the lateral force.
739
Coming to the dome shaped, it is always preferred for the windy area where you can
have this kind of movement; where the wind from this direction can easily pass through
and that will not create much thrust on the structure. So, this is one of the forms,
architectural forms that we can apply for the area where the wind is a problem and we
can have a heavy wind special in the coastal region or something. Somewhere
occasionally not every time or not throughout the year; maybe a particular time, where
we can expect this hurricane or tornado, so this kind of structure may also help.
Coming to the pyramid shape again; as because the wind is increasing, the pressure is
increasing with the height, so if you reduce the mass at the top and then we just create
this particular pyramid shaped structure. So, wherever wind will contact this particular
aligned surface, so that will lift up and it will act like a mountain.
So, then that will not really create the problem with a plain surface. So, this is important
parameters. So, where pyramid shaped structural form can also be used.
740
Coming to the egg shaped formed. So, again it is a variant of the dome shape. So, where
also taking this, so this is basically London city all, you can see the London Bridge here
and then in this form this particular water body. So, whatever the wind will come, so that
will take this particular aerodynamic shape.
And to explain that aerodynamic shape it is basically; if you see that, the profile of a
plane, so basically the cockpit of the aeroplane. So, this is basically making this
particular shape with a curve where lies it can easily drag through, so that will not create
much thrust on the surface. So, taking this similar concept of this linear, the propeller
and then this curvature; so, this kind of egg shaped, oval shape or the domical structure is
preferred in windy area.
Now, coming to the end of this lecture what we understand from this discussion that, yes
wind with a certain acceptable intensity or the velocity is enjoyable or that will also help
us for the better ventilation. But when it is beyond certain limit, it will be threat to the
human settlement; and for that definitely depending on the structural forms, structurally
elevations, structural arrangements, it will affect, like it will decide the damage
magnitude.
741
And for that, definitely it is preferred to have a plan like circle, where you do not have
that much negative pressure been created. If not, try to make building symmetrical no or
squarish form; not really very irregular or zig zag pattern that may be more prone to the
vulnerable situation with the heavy load.
In case of the elevation, it is preferred to have a aerodynamic shapes which may be

domical, semi-circular shape or it may be egg shaped depending on the prevailing wind
direction, so this may done. And whenever we consider it for the high rise structure and
we will discuss that in detail; so then along with your regular member, so what we need
to add some diagonal bracing which will make the structure more, adding more stiffness
and then that will also resist again the lateral load created by the wind.
And we have seen some of the examples of for the building forms, which we can apply
for different purposes or make that resistant against the hurricane, again the spiral wind
resistant structure that we have seen in the Shanghai Tower.
And then a few things we have to remember, that is you have to maintain the good
anchoring of all the structural component; specially for the pitched roof, roof to wall,
wall to foundation that anchoring should be proper. Then the projection; projection we
have to take care, if there is a projection which is not properly designed or not properly
anchored, So that may create some problem.
742
And then again, the material that we select that also depends like that, also will
determine that how devastating the outcome will be with the globe wind, high speed
wind. So, the proper material to be taken whether it is RCC or whether it is a steel frame,
so that cladding should be done in a proper manner.
With that we can make our building structure more resistant again the wind like as much
as possible. And also what we have seen, in normally wherever you have the plane land
or empty land, the wind can easily get the density; but whereas, in zig zag pattern of a
building in a very close urban area, so wind will not really get the path and then it will
not really, zig zag pattern will not really allow wind to increase the pressure. And then
where is row pattern basically increases the wind and it creates the tunnel effect.
So, these are something where the individual level or at the arrangement of the building
level we can think of, and we definitely should follow some guidelines; already available
in Indian standard or maybe other guidelines which are available. So, what I suggest that,
with this basic information, you just go through the links and there are few guidelines
provided by different state level government disasters deduction department they have
published some of the reports.
And then from those reports guidelines, definitely we all will get benefitted and we can
apply that knowledge wherever we will design something for a area, where the wind is
definitely a issue; not even if it is not for throughout the year, maybe in particular season
maybe in between summer and rainy season.
So, with that I conclude this lecture and like this we will be continuing with the next
topic that is structure and architecture form in seismic area, where the earthquake will be
taken as the parameter and then how like what are the effects of the earthquake, and then
how we can make our structure earthquake resistant for a normal structure, low height
structure as well as the tall buildings.
And to be specific to the tall buildings, we will have different discussion; we will have
some lectures which are upcoming, where we will discuss about different high-rise
structural systems. There we will also touch upon the advantages and disadvantages. But
prevailing the next lecture, we will focus on the seismic effect on the building design,
building form.
743
And these are the study materials and also not restricted to these two references; I have
given the link where from I have collected some information, you can always browse
through that to get more and you can get some more insight from those documents. So,
with that I would like to thank you to take part in this course and I will be waiting for
you for the next lecture.
Thank you very much.
744
Lecture – 32
Structure and Architectural Forms in Seismic Prone Areas
Architecture: The Synergy. In my previous lecture, I have explained you about different
structural arrangements, structural forms in the area where it is basically windy or heavy
storm is a common phenomena and we have seen how different forms, different shapes,
different height and different structural arrangements could help to reduce the risk
associated with the wind and the heavy storm.
Like that in this lecture, now we are at the Lecture Number-32. In this, we will be
discussing on the structural form an architecture in Seismic Prone Area which is also
very important, specially like if we consider in case of India also we have certain zones
having high risk of earthquake.
So, in this lecture, we will focus on different forms that are prescribed even different
form that are not really recommended for seismic prone area and also, we will see how
we can reduce the risk of the damage of the building during the earthquake. So, let get
start this.
745
So, at the beginning of this lecture, let us just understand the earthquake or seismic
activity. So, it is basically the shaking of the surface of the earth resulting from sudden
release of energy. So, this energy may be generated due to volcanic eruption, due to
different pressure, different stress for the tension and compression and it is normally be
happen in the lithosphere of the earth section and it is very sudden and it is very rapid
shaking. So, within very few seconds we will really fill havoc shock of this kind of
earthquake.
So, in recent time to in India, way back in 2015 during the month of April and May, that
time the part of the border adjoint like Nepal and Bihar, so, those parts actually felt a
massive earthquake. So, it depends on the intensity and it depends also like where the
earthquake evolved and then like depth of the earthquake. So, in this case if you see that
below the earth surface where earthquake generates where it nucleates, evolved, that is
called hypocenter and then just perpendicular to that point to the earth surface is called
epicenter.
And whenever the depth is more and again its intensity is very high so, that will actually
propagate with some wave and that can expand over large area. And this earthquake, the
scale of the earthquake as we can see here in this slide that it may be very weak that we
cannot feel. If you search in internet each day a number of earthquakes happen across the
world, but hardly few of them are really felt because of maybe the intensity is not that
much in Richter scale or maybe that depth of this hypocenter is not that much that it will
really propagate enough.
But sometimes if it is very close to urban area or the intensity is quite high maybe more
than 5 or 6 in Richter scale then, definitely it will be havoc. So, in this sudden and rapid
shaking, it is also happened due to the breaking and shifting of the rocks beneath the
earth surface. As because we know the property of the soil, so, even the core of the earth
is still very warm and then the portion is in very semi liquid form somewhere.
So, sometimes due to the release of the energy, so, that the plates they will just overlap
each other or they will slide on each other and that is the reason the earthquake
generates.
Coming to the wave as I already explained that when the depth is more than the wave
will also propagate and that will be spanned over a large area.
746
So, basically the seismic wave being classified in two categories: one for the surface one
for the body and the body will have two type of waves. One is P wave, and one is S wave
as you can see in the slide and whereas, the surface the wave can be of the Love wave or
the Rayleigh wave. So, what exactly that is let us understand this. So, whenever like you
have some object solid object like this and you just try to hammer it from the bottom, in
that case what will happen that it suddenly the lower portion will get a concentration of
the stress. And then it will try to move to upwards. So, these are vibration is really move
upward.
So, if we just try to figure it out with some phases, so, first phase you get the stress
concentration here, the next level it will go to the upper level and like that it will go at
the top and again it will repeat from the bottom.
The time I have taken to explain this, in reality it happens even in very less time. So, it is
the movement and this movement can be this wave can be passed through air, can be of
liquid and can be of solid.
Now this is the P wave that also generates where this movement can take place. So, you
can see that the direction of your stress due to the earthquake is this and then how these
particular fibers that you can get the stress concentration how it moves like this.
747
Now coming to the S wave instead of hammering it from the bottom if you just try to
hammer it form the side so, what will happen? Again, just let us try to understand this.
So, when the load is being applied from the side, so the bottom portion will try to move
towards this direction where the upper portion will try to be in its static mode and then
the next time like when it will try to adjust, so, this will move at the upper portion. So,
then basically the motion will be something in this and it you will get a form of this
particular rectangle like this.
So, the earth whenever there is an earthquake, the stress applied to this will try to move
these, the inertia will try to keep it and then when it releases the load, release the stress
and then it will move up. So, like that the S wave also be active during this. Now coming
to the Love wave so, then again you can see this is a movement of the soil where the
portion how it can like shift from one place to other place with some displacement where
is the Rayleigh wave is a rotation so, where it will form a wave and it expand.
So, during earthquake all of this happen together. So, basically there will be a shake. So,
if I just take this as object and this is as the earth surface, so, that movement is very much
repetitive again the motion is really very fast. Now coming to the fault that happened like
this is basically the deformation of the displacement of the soil like earth surface that
happened during this fault.
So, it may be a strike-slip fault where we can have area and you have a river like this and
then with the movement of the earth during the earthquake so, this will display. So, this
portion will slide on each other. So, this is the strike- slip. Now coming to the normal
fault where some portion that basically sinks from that its actual level which was like this
and then there is some slip.
So, this may be a normal fault. Sometimes it may happen due to the plate motion and all.
The portion they slide up with certain angle, so, this is basically the original level in this
and then there is an increase. So, this is basically the reverse fault. So, these are different
outcomes, different effects during the earthquake.
748
Coming to the effects of earthquake. So, again in this slide for we can see that there will
be some ground motion, there is maybe some landslide, ground displacement is also one
of the major effects, then liquefaction is very important where the soil will get saturated
and that will act really like a semi-liquid form. So, that like the whole buildings here you
can see that due to this shaking in earthquake the portion where the foundation is laid
that soil is giving like a semi liquid form and then the whole building they just flip off.
Now, here you can see the displacement, the cracks being developed and the particular
portion where we are adjoins, so they are having some displacement. So, ground
displacement is also there, then with this ground motion if something not developed on
the soil may be that effect the building directly. But in landslides what we normally been
seen that due to the motion it may create due to some flood activity or something man-
made activity or blasting. But sometimes due to earthquake also, this landslide happened
and here you can see that portion of this road just slide and they gone.
Now as a consequence sometimes if your earthquake the hypocenter is being under the
sea. So, that may create the huge wave. Tsunami and in recent times for last 10 years, we
have witnessed some of the tsunamis that really affect the people, the buildings, and
damage havoc.
Now, the aftershock is something where with the main shock then we get a small
earthquake due to the main earthquake. And here you can see that another motion. So,
749
here the plates are just stayed one after another before the earth quake, but during the
motion it slipped and due to that there will be some upliftment of this surface and soil
releases the energy and that is why its creates wave on the water body and that create the
tsunami.
Now, coming on the effects of that, so, here you can get this thing. So, here this wave
basically this particular movement that is something rotational. So, now, you can relate it
with the Rayleigh wave and then here is a shaking upward like in the direction and the
opposite direction of the earthquake wave. So, that is creating some kind of motion on
the building. So, this is what exactly happened and here you can see that motion that how
this can move on this direction at the same time in this direction.
So, if you have these axis X Y, so, first movement is basically it will try to move this
side at the same time it will try to move this side. So, it is basically and the movement on
both X Y direction and then if the building is not properly designed with the structure
that is resilient to the earthquake, so, that may damage. It may have minor damage minor
nonstructural damage or sometimes it is the total collapse.
Now, in this case if you see it carefully, the examples. This is the same building and this
is with a very minor earthquake. So, here you can only see in detail like there is some
cracks developed at the corner of this window and also remember these things whenever
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you your building materials will have some joints and the joint is of two materials then
basically those portions are vulnerable.
Now, for minor to some medium earthquake where there is no such structural failure, but
here you can get the cracks and some of the portion at the beam also develop some
cracks, but where is at the major and very sudden and high-intensity earthquake. So,
there is a damage and this is serious damage where a portion of the wall you can see that
it canfall down and then this is a permanent deformation, deformation that happened.
So, depending on the intensity and depending on the building materials their structure the
effect will also vary.
Now, if you see this two GIF images, so, first one I just would like to see you this is very
slow motion if you see this image very carefully and if I try to draw a line between this.
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So, you can see that the line I have drawn is static, but the it is varying that there is a
very slow motion due to the wave and then if I draw the line again, so, basically it will
increase. So, in this case it will have height. So, the same building its typology building
is there and then how the deformation take place.
Now coming to this, it is basically one example where it is also called as soft storey. So,
here the ground floor is basically a stilted arrangement where this being normally used
for the parking or maybe sometimes shops. So, it is not properly filled. So, the heavy
mass they will get some sway and we have to remember one thing during the earthquake
especially for the tall building, so, when earthquake attack the first contact area is this
surface. So, when this particular surface is trying to move with the direction of the
earthquake, it will try to be in inertia to get a move in this direction. Now the moment it
propagates the wave. So, it will try to move in this direction so then it will try to retain
back. So, for that it will create the wave and then there will be a shaking. So, left right
and then forward backward movements. So, like this it happened here and then there is a
collapse.
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Now, before getting into the different structural form or which are recommended which
is not prescribed in different codes. Let us just go through some of the images which like
we can see the devastated scenario being created due to the earthquake and this is to
randomly taken some examples from the recent Nepal earthquake some of them are from
the Bhuj earthquake and then some of the pictures that I have taken from the context of
some countries beyond India.
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So, here you can see that damage. It is self-explanatory that how this has collapsed. This
is one of the landmarks in Nepal and that collapsed totally during this 2015 earthquake.
And this is the scenario again where this is just looking like heap of building scrap
material, but exactly like this is the after scenario of major earthquake.
Here you can see the collapse again especially this particular core being just demolished,
this part.
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Then here it is another similarly you can also see and some of the structures are still
standing because of maybe they are new in terms of the construction age and then maybe
something like the structural components they used to they are somehow restrained that
particular they can they resist that particular whip. And now here you see also it not
really collapse, but the cracks developed which may collapse like after a mini shock or
something.
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Now, this is another one you can see that how devastating this could be.
And then this is another one.
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Now, reasons for failure: so, there are major many reasons like normally the earthquake,
it depends on the intensity. If it is too high probably there is very little scope to really do
something, we cannot stop that, but what we can do we can make our structure
earthquake resistant enough so, that we can get the evacuation time. The time taken to
just come out from that house which is considered to be very unsafe during that. So, that
there will be not that life risk and this is one and the other things that we should do to
make our building safe for this kind of disaster through different measures, like maybe
the selecting of the right material, selecting of the right building forms that we will be
discussing.
So, in the reason of failure if we just focus on this slide, so, it is relating to the soft
storey. So, soft storey is basically where a building heavy mass is being there, but the
ground floor is being supported with some columns and normally this is very common
for the apartment building where this is being used for the parking or any shop areas.
Short column sometimes we may have a building where you have the mass at the bottom
and above and then maybe a small area where we just use some columns, these are there.
And then inadequate reinforcement detailing is one of the reasons where like sometimes
we just in order to minimize the cost. We use less amount of reinforcement and that lead
to damage during the wave, during the earthquake.
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Then discontinuous force resisting system: sometimes some potion, we just make it
strong, but that should act comprehensively and then if it is discontinuous so, that may
develop some unnatural behavior during the earthquake and may collapse. Strong beam
weak column: so, many a times we do not go with the, strong column and we just make
the beam depth increase the depth. So, in earthquake, resistant structure is basically it
says that strong column and a week beam.
So, here it is the reason were strong beam and weak column combination may not
perform very well during the earthquake. Inadequate detailing; again, it is related to the
reinforcement and other connection to different parts of the structure. Inferior building
material; definitely it plays a crucial role even the design is perfect, design is tested, but
during the execution the material used for that making that structure is not up to the mark
then that will be a serious concern. Then building adjacency is another one where you
have two buildings in with a very minimal gap to each other. So, maybe this building is
strong enough, but this building is creating is hitting like the other building very close to
its proximity and that may damage.
Now, coming to describe the same thing, so, here you can see that very minimal
reinforcement being given and here you can see that the failure due to the soft storey and
here you can see that your building may have a infield like there and then these are the
very weak column that being placed and it create the soft storey and then that may be
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vulnerable. Similarly to that sometimes we can have a weak storey. So, maybe this
portion is in case of this in place of these you have this infill and then you have top fill,
but in between it is there. So, during the motion with the heavy mass that will try to go in
this side if the earth quake wave direction is on that side and this will try to restrain. So,
this portion will show some unnatural behavior. This is also true when you have very
heavy mass at the bottom that may sustain, but the upper floors that are not continuous
like that particular resisting power is not continuous and then they may deform more
than the bottom.
So, this is another one and already I have told about the building material and then what
you need to do is basically to avoid this soft storey. So, as I told you like we have to be
very much sure about the arrangement of the beam and column and we should really go
for very strong column and weak beam combination instead of the strong beam and weak
column which lead to the failure during the heavy earthquake.
Now, earthquake resistant structure the design considerations that has a relation with the
size of the building, the shape so, the basic shapes that we take for the building and the
position and adjacency. So, these are the design considerations that we need to make
along with the structural design. So, that is also very important and we will discuss that
different structural arrangements, different structural system by which we can really
make our earthquake resistant structures to reduce the risk a during the earthquake.
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Coming to the size of the building: So, any building will have three dimensions the
length, width and the height.
So, in this case like in all this representation if you see the dimensions this x y and then
z. So, z is much more than this x and y. So, this is very tall building. So, it will be very
vulnerable because again like if we just omit this earthquake, but even this tall building
will be vulnerable due to the lateral wind pressure, but even for this like when it is
anchored. So, this will have much more deformation during this earthquake ok.
So, this will create some kind of structural failures this will be very vulnerable. So,
simple frame structure may not be appropriate for this if this is being constructed in
earthquake prone area. So, normally earthquake cannot be predicted that much surely,
accurately, but the zones are being specified. So, that; obviously, we have to take that
chance as a factor when we go for the structural design. Now in case of just make a flip
then it will be too long.
So, whenever a building is too long, so, here x y and z. So, x is much much more then y
and z. So, in this case even on the motion like as because if this is too long, so, whenever
the wave being replaced with the motion over the area that will have some difference and
then this will develope some kind of stress concentration and then torsion effect.
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So, the moment like what we have seen in the in case of your S wave, so, that may
deform something this surface like this. So, this is again not really preferable to have it
or sometimes even the two different motions from two different parts will be causing
more damage.
So, what it says, that it one dimension is much more or much less than the other two
dimensions, it will perform very poorly. Now if we take a large, without any expansion
joint and all, so, a large portion of the buildings and then also it will be difficult and it
will not really perform well the earthquake because of if it is covered an entire area. So,
the motion of the earth and different settlement during the earthquake of the sub soil may
do like affect this kind of form.
Coming to the shape of the building: so, it is advisable that you just select some basic
shape, make the plan very simple and focus on the performance.
So, in this case if you see that very squarish or rectangular shape or maybe octagonal
shape. So, these are considered to be good performer, whereas, whenever you make
some joints or make something very curvilinear then that will not really perform well
during the earthquake. And if you increase the number of joints and then your plan will
get complicated that will unnecessarily get affected with the stress concentration and
again that torsion effect.
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And that is why like yeah if I just want to get it correct, so, we just go with a very simple
plan like this which is very acceptable and the shapes where this kind of joints being
made T, L or U or maybe H, then this kind of corner then may be a plus building or the
cross building or Y junction. So, these are the portions where the stress is developed. So,
here you can see the stress is developed here. So, cracks will be developed if there is a
havoc earthquake and also like the motion.
So, depending on the motion like as we have discussed that this object will have motion
this side as the same time on y axis and the x axis. So, this will create some torsion as
well. And when your building is again in a close proximity, so, one may get affected
with other. So, they will hit each other during the motion and then probably that may
damage some of the structural component.
So, what we exactly want to do is basically to make plan simple and then just work on
performance. Now, sometimes it is not possible to go with the basic shape and we have
to design something like this school building hostel buildings are like that. So, it is
advisable that you make this building as two buildings and then you create expansion
joints, if possible, you just make it apart from each other.
So, there will be no such problem of adjacency as well. So, they will not really affect and
that is very important when in this in this context. If you want to make say a building of
Y shape and many such towers, we have seen having this where the hotel rooms are
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placed and the corridor is being placed. So, it is better to just make it separate and then
this portion you connect it with the expansion joint. So, that way we can also take up
those shapes, but these are not recommended as long as we can solve our design problem
with very basic shapes for especially the building in earthquake prone area.
The shapes of the building if you see the elevation, then also like whenever you have
some setbacks. So, two different towers so, that is also vulnerable here in this case and if
you have the overhanging portion and also, they will also get some kind of issue during
the earthquake if your ground is very sloppy, so, during the motion. So, there may be
some landslides so and there will be unequal settlement. So, this building may collapse.
So, in that case we have to also take special care. If we want to make something hanging
or floating column then where like you have the heavy structure and then at the bottom
you have a very minimal say structure. They will be also very vulnerable. Then again,
the soft storey and weak storey already we have explained and then the discontinuing
structural member where the beams and columns that being stopped, it is not really
anchored in different side. So, that may also create the problem. So, the stress
concentration and torsion effect are the responsible factors for them, the simpler the plan
better the performance during the earthquake that we have to acknowledge.
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Coming to the position and adjacency, again, this is what is happening, like wherever
two buildings and here it is the depiction I have picked up. I have given the source; you
can get some more information if you go by this link.
So, in this case two buildings are identical and there will be some motion. In this case
two buildings are looking identical, but if you see that their floors, their slabs they are
not meeting each other. So, the point is they are really hitting this particular slab is
hitting the middle of the column which is more vulnerable and here also difference like
different height of the building and all. So, in order to avoid that what we can do we can
use some kind of stiff padding absorbing the wave and then we bolt the two structures,
so, that may like help this particular adjacency problem of the buildings.
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Coming to the earthquake resistant techniques where the structure different structural
elements, different components, that may help to reduce the risk of failure of a structure
during earthquake.
So, here is the list, if you see the slide now the shear walls or the structure wall could be
one of the option. Structural bracing can be helpful to resist again the lateral load. The
tube structure that we will be discussing again when we will discuss on the high-rise
structure in upcoming lectures. Then the seismic dampers which will actually be help to
damp that movement and then there will be less effect on the structure.
Then the base isolation is another technique where during the earthquake, whole
superstructure being isolated from the base and with some base isolated then there will
be less impact on the building.
Horizontal band is also low-cost solution where different beam to be provided at

different level at the sea level inter level. And then also we can go with the earthquake
resistant expansion joint where there are some two buildings are very close to each other
or two structure is too large, so, in order to give the joint between them we can use it. So,
this being used for the building this may also used for the bridges to save that bridge
during the, the motion the shaking during the earthquake.
So, we will quickly go one by one and then try to understand what exactly it is.
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Coming to the shear wall, is basically what we can say that a column if you extend it in
forms of a surface which is cantilevered to the base is basically the shear wall. It is
basically made by the RCC; Reinforced Cement Concrete, and it will perform quite
better considered to the moment resistant frame of the simple beam column structure.
So, moment frame only you can see the deformation with a similar wave and then when
you go for the bracing you will have another one. So, when we will discuss the bracing
will get the advantage and when you have the shear wall, so that deformation if you see
the displacement is considerably less for the tall structure. If it is to be placed for multi-
storey building, not too tall it will really perform well. But what we need to remember in
this case when we please the shear wall, so that should have some symmetry. So, if we
want to place this year wall. So, that should be placed something like that apart from the
columns and other thing. In that case if we just place the shear walls like this a very
random selection so, that may not really be giving the performance what the way we
desired. So, always if we want to secure the corners which are vulnerable to the lateral
load. So, we can place those shear walls at the corners and all.
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Coming to the bracing of the structure that we have discussed previously in various cases
where we have this frame and then due to lateral load it will always try to deform. And if
we just use a diagonal strut, so that may act that will increase the stiffness of the
structure and depending on the position and depending on the shape the bracing can be
classified as follows in the slide.
So, it may be diagonal where diagonally it connects your floor to floor where the cross
bracing is also possible where instead of one if we add two. So, this will resemble it to
this. So, V type of bracing or K bracing is something where the two corners are being
connected to the middle then the Chevron bracing is just the opposite of the V bracing.
So, then we also have the K bracing. So, the form of this is basically that K. So, this is
called K bracing and the global bracing where it is not each floor being connected with
the diagonal struts its basically alternate floor or maybe few floors are connected with a
large diagonal bracing. So, this will help the structure to get better stiffness and it will
perform in a very in a better manner during the earthquake, the during that motion. And
here these are the examples that where this bracing used.
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And you can see that here it is something which is global bracing and where it is
basically the, again at global one not each floor being connected, but it is a different
form.
Now, coming to another solution of this is instead of a simple frame structure why do not
we go for a tube structure? So, we will discuss it in detail for the tube structure when you
discuss the high-rise structure.
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But in short it is basically where the parameter, the external exterior of the building
which is more prone to the lateral force due to the wind specially, so we place the
column very close to each other and then that is connected with the internal core and that
will create a form of a tube with a thickness. So, normally if we take a tube example of a
pipe and also this thickness being maintained, we are like the similar thing being placed
where the columns are placed is almost core but with some opening and we can have
normal tube we can have like bundle tube where different tubes made together. And then
we can have tube in tube structure like this where the internal tube is also been
maintained. And here you can see the difference like wherever you have multiple such
columns. So, that will perform in a better manner to resist the lateral load.
Coming to the seismic damper which is very important tool nowadays to reduce the
intensity of the earthquake wave and then that will act to just damp that motion. So, here
different types; one is your viscous damper where the diagonal dampers being placed and
this particular piston is having the motion with a viscous fluid. So, whenever there is a
shock, so, that will move and that will absorb the shock. Whereas, we can have friction
dampers where the plates will slide on each other and then again damped that motion.
Now, instead of that sometimes we can go for the yielding - dampers which are very
low-cost solutions where we use the member the metals which will really get this bend to
the yield level and then with the elasticity it will help to damp the motion. But one of the
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very famous such dampers is called tuned mass dampers, where heavy mass like a
pendulum that is being tuned. And you can see that when the force is applied so, with
that motion the building will try to bend on this direction at the same time this will adjust
it to the opposite direction and when it will try to sway on the other side then it will go
on the other side.
So, that it will manage and this being installed in Taipei -101 tower which is very helpful
during that particular motion and specially this being also helpful for the to resist the
lateral load due to the wind and here you can see the viscous dampers that being placed
like this which will reduce that sway. So, these are the techniques by which we can really
reduce the risk of the collapse of the building.
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So, here with the conventional structure it is attached to that and you see that motion
with the ground motion, the motion is quite enough. And instead of that if you use some
seismic isolator which is some kind of, the rubber material or spring material, so, during
the movement what will happen that the whole building will try to shift together. So,
there is little deformation on the structural joint. So, this has been useful and here are
some live examples how the base is base isolated being used for the structure.
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Coming to the horizontal band: as I mentioned that this is something which is low cost
solution and the area which is very vulnerable to the earthquake. So, there, at the lintel
along with the normal beam at the ceiling level. So, at the lintel level this RCC beam is
being laid and then that will really help.
So, again for the roof the root band is being grated, but the pitch roof and where it is a
flat roof. So, we have already the RCC structure. So, this is really going to be helpful.
Coming to the factor like, another technique that is earthquake resistant expansion joint.
So, this will look like this and you can see the movement when there even is a horizontal
movement, away from each other, so, they will go apart and then when there is a
opposite motion and then they will just try to close each other and that gap is being
maintained and that being designed with different frequency.
And when there is a movement up and down movement, so, it can go up like this it can
bend and it can also go down. So, it will be raised on this, so, basically this expansion
joint. So, wherever is the movement up and down and then you have the contraction and
then they will go to each other, so, that will help with this joint.
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So, now we are concluding this lecture what we have seen in this; that earthquake is
essentially not killing people, but the bad design which will not really sustain during the
earthquake will be very much afraid to the people. And that is why we have to make our
building earthquake resistant and the form that we should take should be very basic form
and we should avoid the curve form along with some joints like this or maybe some
irregular joints which will be really vulnerable and be affected with the stress
concentration and the torsion effect during the wave and we should really avoid that.
So, whenever you have two buildings close to each other we can either use that shock
absorber or maybe we can use this expansion joint that we have just discussed in the last
slide and the structural system we can use the shear wall instead of a normal wall or in
field we should avoid the soft storey ok. So, basically if you have the column. So, it is
better to fill this area and use that ground floor right you have to use the wall. So, we do
not make it like wall free and only the column being there with the soft storey. We will
also avoid your weak storey, we have to avoid and then also we have to avoid the
structural like deficiency. So, the detailing like the whatever the reinforcements it is
required we should go for that.
Now, shear wall is one component. Then we can go for the bracing, we can use the
dampers different kind of dampers we have seen. Then we can go for the base isolator
and then also we can go for the earthquake expansion joints.
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So, expansion joint may help that to just adjust the structure and also, we have discussed
something about the tube structure. So, there are some advanced structural systems, for
the high-rise building to protect against this kind of lateral forces.
So, with this I conclude here and I am sure that this discussion is very helpful to
understand about what type of design we should take to just avoid those vulnerabilities.
So, these are the reading material, further readings that you can get something and this is
one of the documents that I found very useful you can go. So, you will get some different
information, some more information about the earth quake resilient structure and all.
And with that we will move forward to the area Structure and Architectural Form in
Flood Prone Areas. So, we have covered the wind prone area what should be the case
and then currently we are we have just discussed about the earthquake prone area and
now we will be discussing on the flood prone area in the next lecture.
And before closing this, again I thank you all to take part in this course; we will be
meeting in the next lecture.
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Lecture - 33
Structure and Architectural Forms in Flood Prone Areas
Hi everyone, welcome back again to online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today we are at Lecture Number-33 and will be discussing
on different structural form and architecture in flood prone area. So, before starting this
lecture just let us quickly recap the things, we have discussed in last two discussions that
is the structure for the windy area and earthquake prone area.
So, how we can make our building safe during that hazard and different structural
system, different building shape considerations are found to be instrumental like that we
will be getting some insight in this discussion today, where we will see the you know
building form and different technology by which we can make our building little bit
resilient to the flood vulnerability. So, lets get started.
So, what is a flood? So, we all know and recently in this year, we have seen if you just
search by the flood in 2019, so, we will get many such pictures. If just go to Google
image and you will get the image of the floods scenario and I have picked up this one.
So, in this slide what we can get, few definitions or just concept of that.
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So, flood is an overflow of water that submerge the land that is usually dry. So, flood is a
condition where it is a waterlog situation and due to the overflow of the water, it may be
due to the overflow of the river mostly that the case. Sometimes, it may be some
unprecedented rain which will just you know submerge the city. If the drainage system is
poor and then that may be very much catastrophe.
Unexpected and sudden storm can also like create this kind of situation and recently if
you just search about some flood scenario in recent time like Patna in India, so, it is
basically some rain that has happened after a long year and the whole city that affected
badly. The primary effects of flooding include the loss of life. It is a direct one where is
the heavy flow that blown away the people that may or it may be something where it is
the after effects. Like, during the flood there will be more problem with the health and
then that may lead to the life loss that also damage the buildings different property,
different infrastructure. So, we will be focusing on the building in this lecture, but yes,
this floods scenario will essentially be a threat to reduce the economy.
And also it provokes the secondary hazards such as winds, if you see in this slide, the
winds storms, then lightning, slope instability, ground settlement due to that liquefaction
that we have just discussed in like in the previous lecture of the earthquake and here you
can see the pictures where it is very badly waterlog situation and then you can imagine
that problem one may face where it is really area is flooded.
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Coming to the flood problem and fundamentals the flood load that is there. So, whenever
there is a waterlog situations, so, water will try to pass. So, it will have a direction, it will
have a flow with a slope natural slope and on its way if it gets some obstruction
definitely that will create some thrust here and at the opposite side, it will have a
negative pressure or the suction like the wind. So, again here if you can see the direction
of the flow and then the opposite side, it will have the problem.
So, lateral forces resulting from static and dynamic water pressure in flood situation is
very dangerous and it may be really catastrophic.
And here you can see two such images where you can see the heavy flow of water how it
really damaged the building and it is a total collapse and you can get such example in
many numbers if you just search. So, this is really very risky wherever the situation is
like that.
So, first of all with this water, the ground the soil will be very much loose and then that
will really suddenly loose the bearing capacity and that may result to the collapse of the
building.
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And the reason for damaging flood if you see that in this slide, so, it will depend on the
flood depth like what is the level of the flood. So, if it is the surface level and the flood is
for say 4 feet or may be the 6 feet whatever the depths. So, that will have.
So, if it is very low, so, again the you know again it will depend on the slope that will
decide the movement, that will also decide the velocity and then the depth and based on
that whatever the damage of the building that may occur. So, whenever it is low
considerably low may be half feet or 1 foot; so, normally the buildings they are having
plinths, so, water will not really go inside to the room and we can just then also deal with
that situation. But if it is beyond that a 4 feet 5 feet depth is basically very much
vulnerable.
So, if the plinths of not at that height, so, that will damage the building very badly. Then
the flood duration. So, if we have very proper drainage system or some mechanism to
ease off the situations, so, then the risk will be less, but if there is a very bad
infrastructure or there is nothing to do the duration is so long, so, for last 7 days or
something the situation exist then the damage and loss will be more. Then uplift due to
the soil saturation that is also related to your liquefactions. So, whenever flood stay for a
longer duration, so, this kind of scenario will happen. Then horizontal force created by
the flood waves or currents.
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So, this is basically what you can see in these two images and whatever I have described
here, the direct thrust and the negative suction at the back where or the flow is being
obstructed by a building. The floodwater can submerge building and cause various
degrees of damage from staining the wall to the structural collapse. So, gradually it will
create the strain in the building, it will deform the building and then that will collapse
and it will also depend on the depth of the flood and the duration of the flood and also
the type of the building. If your building is kacha type, normally if you consider the case
of the rural area, so, normally they are making the brick, maybe made of earth or may be
sometimes it is like some kind of admixture cement to that.
So, they will be more vulnerable because they will not have that resistance to deal with
that flow and the thrust provided by the water. But compared to that if you have some
structure of RCC or maybe some very strong material, that can again resist something.
Provided that the foundation is well anchored and then the duration is not that much.
Even if the duration is too much, the subsoil will get liquefied and then even the strong
building will collapse and they will be just uprooted from that.
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So, here are some of the pictures which actually depicts the scenario where the situation
is really not welcoming, the buildings whatever it is new or old, so that badly affected
with the flow.
And here is the situation during the flood, we can see that everywhere is the water and
you can see how people they are threatened and if this will continue again the heavy rain
and all and so, this building may also collapse like this video.
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Here is another image where you can see that the situation during the flood.
It is from some different country, here also you can see that how the whole area is now
submerged.
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And this is something from Patna. So, in recent flood, so, you can see that construction
like some of the buildings already submerged.
So, you can only see the roof and half of them are already damage. So, again this is
really not welcoming to the society.
And this is another example where you can see the buildings how it is submerged.
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Now, effect of flood on building damage, it may damage the foundation, it may damage
the wall and the roof or everything together. So, it depends on the material that we use
like for the foundation, for the rural area specially, where the loss is more. So, we have to
rebuild your structure once the flood scenario as you know gone. So, you have to rebuild
the structure.
So, this is something really serious, but even sometimes if you make it with a timber or
light material and not anchored properly, so, the whole building can be blown away with
the flow and there are many instances of that. So, it maybe a brick or maybe brick and
concrete kind of foundation which may sustain bit and if it is like the RCC or may be the
steel. So, that will sustain depending on the depth whether you go for isolated foundation
or pile foundation. So, depending on the foundation, it will depend. Now the wall where
above the ground the water will first stuck with that particular portion.
So, if it is of earthen material that will have become porous, if the duration is quiet low.
So, that will be soften and then there will we collapse, then it may be of the cast iron
sheet specially for the low cost construction this being used, which we also not be strong
enough to protect it like the brick, even depending on the structural age of that
construction masonry work. So, it will depend whether it is glass or RCC. So depending
on that the collapse and the degree of the damage will depend, so, as true with the roof if
it is a thatch roof and all so, with a heavy rain and all, so, it will not really sustain,
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whereas you have a concrete roof, flat roof that may sustained and sometimes it is also
you know advisable like whenever your building is to be built in flood prone area, so,
better to go for a flat roof structure, so, that at least during that situation like people can
just accumulate there at the roof top and that we have seen in one of the images. And
whatever we have discussed there, so, in this like the design and construction of flood
prone building structure.
So, we can work on the elevation of the structure. So, this elevation is different from the
elevation that normally we use in architectural design, that the front view or something.
This elevation is related to the height of the building with corresponding to the surface or
the flood level. Then the dry flood proofing is one of the techniques, we will be
discussing that, wet flood proofing may be one of the solutions to reduce the risk during
the flood. It may be the flood walls that being constructed to protect it to certain level, it
may be the levee that we can create to control it and then another is the anchorage and
connection.
So, whenever you make any light structure that should be anchored very perfectly with a
foundation and if you make your structure with different materials, so, those connections,
joint should be proper. So, beam should be well connected with the columns and
columns are well connected with the footings and then so, as for the roof or the ceiling or
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the floor. So, that is there. So, we will go one by one to just see what exactly it means?
The dry flood proofing or the wet flood proofing and we will try to understand.
Coming to the elevation of the structure in the slide, so, elevation for the lowest
inhabitable area should be above the base flood elevation. So, this is very important.
So, in this case if you see that this is the base flood elevation level, so, you can easily see
in the case of the first one. So, your building is emerged. So, this is not advisable and, in
this case, you have plinth up to this, this is just at the base flood elevation. So, this is
somehow better, but when this level will go up because of continuous rain and also this
may definitely subject to go up. So, you should make your structure like quiet above
from this particular B F E. So, then you can make your structure like risk free to some
extend during the flood. But definitely when you make your building little bit raise from
the surface may be this is the you know the land surface.
So, when you make this plinth of that height, definitely cost will be additional. You can
easily make your plinth low, but if you consider the risk associated with this flooding
situation it may occur occasionally, means unpredictable then it is different, but if you
know that your building is your site where you will make your building is really having
this threat of the water logging or the flooding situation, so, definitely spending little bit
initially will really save a lot in long run.
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So, you can really sustain during this situation. So, elevation of the structure is one of the
important measurements by which you can reduce the risk during the flood.
This is the example what just I have shown, this is the picture where you can see that this
situation is waterlogged. But as because you have a risk platform and you can see that
this particular height where this is raised; so, may be this bottom portion you may use for
some basement and you can see that ventilation. So, the access to your room is quiet
above to the base flood elevation.
So, this is considered to be safe or having better performance during the flood.
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This is again the same case where you can see with this particular stair, you have the
level quite high and this could help during the you know a flood may be of the 4 feet
depth or something. So, this heavy depth flood situation also these buildings can be
survived. Coming to the dry flood proofing, so, here is basically to protect the house
against flood without allowing water to penetrate.
So, we make our building, we do not allow water to pass on. So, we make our building
so strong that it will resist that particular flow, so, that is something where you can use
some additional flood panel.
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So, this flood panel will protect that direct thrust of the flood water towards that building
and even here you can see like the doors and other thing is being protected with a
movable shield, which will be removed when the flood level reduced and then the risk
will reduce or that will be lower down.
So, in this case we will not allow any water to penetrate. So, this is the dry flood
proofing technique that we can adopt.
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This is another picture of that where this being protective. So, this is removable and this
is the entry. So, this is already being made with a some you know plinth made of some
stone, which will not really allow to penetrate the water. We have to remember if you go
for the masonry work or the brick work it will be porous. So, that may also get affected,
but whenever you go for this plinth of stone or RCC that will be. But wherever there is
entrance you cannot have this plinth and then you can go for with this flood panel.
So, this is the way we can go with our dry flood proofing.
Now, coming to the wet flood proofing; so, in this case we will just take that there is a
flow of water, let water flow, we will not disturb and if that flow is not disturbed that
will not also disturb us. So, the concept is to allow water to pass on. So, that is why it is
called wet proofing. So, here what you need to do? You do not need to make any plinth
as such, you have to make your structure still. So, still structure to be made where you
know this is having a good height considered to the base flood elevation and then allow
water to pass on.
So, in this case this being made and here is whenever there is no flood situation we may
use as a basement where the basement and this kind of structure being made and during
the flood situation as because the flood is not very uncertain like earthquake. So, there
will be forecast and there will be a you know scenario that this water level is getting
high. So, that is giving an alarm to us and then if something is very much of that utility in
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the basement kept, so, we can shift it in upper portion. So, that it is what is there. So, in
this case we allow water to pass on.
So, here is the example where you can see that all the structures that being made at quiet
not at the surface, it will have a height and we have only this particular columns and
some bracing to just hold the load and then during the flood normal for the area, in the
coastal area or near the bank of the river this kind of structure will help. So, during the
flood levels, water can pass on and then there will be no such damage. So, this can be
one of the way out during this flood scenario. So, wet flood proofing is one of the
options.
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So, this is another example under this wet flood proofing, where you can see that in
absence of the flood scenario that may be used as a parking and all. And then these are
the panels that is removable during the flood we can remove it. So, that water can easily
pass. So, whatever the direction there will be a predominant direction depending on the
slope.
So, everything is well calculated that if there is a seashore where from the water will go
and in which direction accordingly this can be oriented. So, this could be helpful. So, this
wet flood proofing technique may be adopted and that will reduce the risk during the
flood. Coming to the flood walls it is not the buildings. So, we will not allow water to
enter to my campus, enter to my one premises.
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So, then we create some RCC wall or some wall of some metal which will not allow
water and they will have a considerable height and then whatever the water logged in my
premises so, that will have some you know pumping system which will flush out the
water outside. So, by which if you create the boundary well sealed during the flood so,
that may also sustain.
So, a boundary water proof or flood proof boundary wall or that is also referred as a
flood walls will be helpful.
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So, here you can see that how this can be. So, this area is basically having this no water
and this is very dry. So, with the help of this panel and then the continuous you know
barrier. So, this will act as a flood wall and that will protect. So, that similar kind of
system we can adopt; it may be temporary structure or we can make the RCC wall so that
we will reduce the risk during the flood.
Now, coming to the levee: So, here it is not basically the wall form, this is dune that we
can make a bump. We can create a natural slope with some kind of soil, so, that we will
not allow water to come inside and whereas, again like the previous example. So,
whatever the water accumulates within my premises we can just drain out that water with
a pump to this site so that by this also we can make our structure safe not the wall just a
mound.
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So, here you can see that this is a railway track and there is some water body and this is
being protected. So, if there is increase in water during the flood. So, this will initially
help to not you know overflow this water to this site. So, this is the profile is being
maintained like this.
So, where water raise. So, this being calculated what would be the maximum flood level
for rainy scenario and based on that this levee can be created so, that the other site will
get the protection. So, this can be used for the road, it can be used for city bounded like
similar to a dam, but that can also be used for like where we do not prefer to have a
boundary wall for my building, we can use this. Along with that sometimes we also use
that flood barriers. So, its nothing, but a tube. So, this tube is filled with water and that
will have weight. So, that will have enough strain to just resist the flow of the water and
that can really help.
So, this is the hollow balloon like structure we either can put air or else we can put some
water already. So, that will act as a barrier during the flood. So, it may have the flood
wall as a system we can use the levee we can also have this temporary tube that may act
as a barrier.
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Now, coming to this anchorage and the connection. So, here what we need to remember
that, design should be like that which to be designed and executed to withstand the
influence of vertical load, uplift force, and lateral loads.
So, vertical loads definitely that will happen whenever like there is some force acting on
it and there will be some soil saturation scenario. So, there will be some kind of change
in the subsoil. So, we have to make it very strong. So, they should not be something like
where the building will tilt and then the foundation that will come out. So, that should be
anchored properly. Beam shall be connected to the piles, columns, piers to the
foundation accurately so that they will act very strongly against that particular load
whenever it is applicable during the flood scenario.
Then sufficient anchorage needs to be installed for the storage tank and other sealed
conduit and pipes and other thing. Because with the motion if this anchorage is not there
so, that will be blown away. If you have a water tank just in your premises or somewhere
like it is at top of your roof top, but it is just simply placed, so wherever there is heavy
thrust or so; so heavy wind thunderstorm that may also create the problem.
If it is like a conduit pipe and all so, that is also exposed. So, that may damage. So, if
there is any leakage. So, that may also get affected during the flow of water and in flood
situation and then definitely that will create multiple problem for the drinking water or
the daily services and that create the environment really unhealthy. So, we should avoid
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the scenario with a proper anchorage. Now coming to the summary, here we have seen
that again the flood is something where it is the overflow of the water, that may cause
due to the overflow of the river or it may be like due to the unprecedented rain in a
closed form where the damage system is not adequate.
So, all of as sudden a heavy rain and storm will make the scenario. And then it will affect
the foundation, it will affect your wall, it may really affect the total building as a whole
and then what we need to do basically, we have to just make us ready we have to prepare
our self to reduce the risk of that and there are different ways that we have seen in this
discussion by which we can reduce the risk.
One is the raise the elevation is the technique. So, where this elevation should be your
base flat elevation and like increase in the plinth this is one; then we have also seen the
dry flood proofing technique where like we will not allow water to penetrate and for that
whatever the openings and other elements are there.
So, we have to protect with a movable flood panel so that will help. So, whenever there
is no risk or risk is now not at that level. So, then we can remove it, then we can go for a
wet flood proofing. So, in wet flood proofing, it is contrast to the dry proofing. So, we
will allow water and that is why we take our building at different height. So, water can
easily pass through and whenever there is no water this can be used as a basement, this
can be used as your parking etcetera.
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So, this is your wet dam, wet flood proofing and this is your dry flood proofing. Now
apart from this what we can do extra that is your flood wall and also, we can go with the
levee. So, we can create the flood wall at the boundary so, that water level that will not
go out and whatever the water accumulated inside that will be pumped out to the external
and in the levee it is a mound again that will actually help for the city level or the
individual level and the sixth one is the anchorage, which will take care of with the
structure and also the nonstructural elements like the pipe and other thing so, that the
damage will be less so that we can do it.
Now considering the form, there is no such basic form that being described here, but the
thing is all related to whether we will allow water to flow, which will help to get less
impact on the surface and if you do not have this option to lift it up or you have other
concerns, then probably you have to go with the dry flood proofing where you have to
provide the proper shield during this flood situation by which we can reduce it. And
definitely with the previous discussion as well the wind, then seismic activity, this flood
if an area is of multi disaster prone area.
So, definitely we should be very much careful like maybe we cannot stop the phenomena
to get offered, if it is a natural in nature not manmade, but at least we can make our
building taking those kind of you know concept and following different guidelines which
are available so that we can reduce the risk during that hazard.
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So, with that I conclude this thing for study you can go through some of the flood
resisting design and construction guideline from American Society of Civil Engineers
publications we will get such more information even you can search some of the reports
that being developed like in the context of Indian cities.
So, that it will help you and even the risk what we have discussed today is very general,
but this phenomena like this flood and the risk associated in the rural area is quiet high as
because the building materials they use the technology, they will fail to resist during that.
So, with that we will have a discussion we will discuss in one lecture of cost-effective
structure and architecture. So, where we will discuss again how to make the structure
with the cost effectiveness and even without compromising all these threats.
So, basically how to make your building earthquake resistance or flood resistance with
the low-cost technology, even for the rural housing that we will be discussing in the next
lecture. So, that is the lecture that is upcoming which is lecture number 34, cost effective
structure and architecture. So, this will be very much helpful to know not only the high
raise skyscraper and different beautiful structure, now also this can be achieved with
some cost-effective technique in terms of material, in terms of technology, and we will
be discussing that in the next lecture. Again, I thank you all to take part in this course
and definitely like I will be waiting for meeting you in the next lecture.
Thank you.
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Lecture - 34
Cost Effective Structure and Architecture
Hi everyone. Welcome back again to the online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today, we are at Lecture Number-34 and we will be
discussing on Cost Effective Structure and Architecture.
In my previous lectures, when we discussed about structure for earthquake prone area or
structure for wind prone area or even for the flood prone area we discuss different
techniques, and mostly they are not basically the low cost technique. But sometimes in
architecture or even to make structure for the people who are having poor affordability,
we have to add up some low-cost technology.
But low-cost technology does not mean that it will compromise the quality of structure
or it will compromise the strength and it will compromise the safety of the users. So,
how we can really make it cost effective for the building in terms of various component
of your structure, maybe the material, that will be the discussion overall discussion in
this lecture. So, without wasting time let’s get start with this session.
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Now, what is effective, cost effectiveness? So, this effectiveness as we can see in this
slide, it is effective budgeting and the techniques which will reduce the cost of
construction. So, that it is not to select something you know very cheap or very low cost,
but we can make it effective, more effective with proper budgeting which is very much
essential before you know starting any construction work.
So, how the process starts? I guess all of you know. Like the moment we need something
to build, we desire something to build, then we approach to the planar, to the architect, to
the designer and then we just say our requirements. And then based on the requirements
what an architect or designer will do? They try to optimize the spaces whatever the
available; you have a site, then you have some kind of fund available with you and
within that one will the architect who are the specialist in that job will just try to
optimize.
So, that it will fulfill your requirement, it will be also done in your budget and at the
same time it will make a tradeoff between what can be done within that. But during that
budgeting even the selection of material, the finishes of a building that will depend like
whether I will go with the kota stone, marble or plain cement finish of the floor. So, that
will really affect the total cost of construction.
So, there will be a tradeoff between the quality of material, the different aspect of
material, like if you want to use some onyx marble very costly stone as a finish and
definitely one has to pay more. But at the same time when you just deteriorate the quality
of material in terms of like a deteriorate the cost of a material, but we should also look
like we should not compromise with the strength of the material for which that is being
used. Even there in the budgeting we can make it effective, not only the design build
form, but also the operation cost of the building.
Now, how it is going to happen? If you have a site where you can get a good amount of
daylight from sun, and on an average you do not have any other buildings or any
surrounded structures which will make shadow to your building and then you cannot get
any such open space in that case definitely the orientation of your building could really
save some energy cost to a building. A proper design will guide these through you know
maximize the daylight penetration to your building. So, by that way also the design will
help you to reduce the operational energy costs to that and there are other aspect as well.
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So, the budgeting part and the design part really plays a crucial role. Along with the
techniques that we use. Now, if we use some technique which is very complex in nature
that involves machinery, that involves skilled labor, then definitely the cost; maybe the
material cost is not that significant, but the other costs of the machinery and the
equipment will add some additional cost to your budget. So, that is also crucial to choose
a good technique for that.
Now, coming back to this slide again in this effective use of locally available materials
along with improved skill and technology can make a construction cost effective. Why?
If a material is available locally, locally it does not mean that next to your side, but
within a minimum reach, so that the transportation cost of a building material will be
reduced. At the same time like the damage to the material will also get some kind of
reduction in the total figure, and at the same time if it is locally available if that is already
being you know matches with the nature, so that can add some more beauty into that.
So, sometimes also in this we have a different subject called vernacular architecture and
some of you already gone through that subject, so where how we can use the locally
available material. But we have to remember one thing we cannot compromise anything
on the strength of the building, performance of the building, and the life of the structure.
So, we just use something and then tomorrow I have to replace it and tomorrow it will
not sustain after a heavy wind or so, that will not really help.
Even in the last discussion when we were talking about the flood resistant structure, I
have told you that if you increase your plinth level above your like base flood elevation
level, so definitely the initial cost to the building is high. But definitely the consequence
of that, like it will be really helpful where there is a flood situation then your building
will be in safe position. So, whether you will invest initially to secure it to you know
increase the durability and then longevity of your building that is definitely a call that
one has to take.
So, in this case you can use the locally available material, you can improve that material
and also improve the construction technology, you adopt some emerging technologies
that we will discuss in this also, then probably that can give you a desired solution. So,
here you can see this structure is being made with the compressed mud where like
normally we cannot simply take this mud because in a area where there is any rainfall
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and then this all washed out, but at the same time like if we just improve the material
with some admixture of the cement as a binder then definitely that can improve the
situation and that can use as a building material.
Now, moving forward we have to understand this 6 M’s of any construction, and each of
them are contributing to the cost. Now, where we are talking about in this lecture on cost
effectiveness, so we can contribute to each of these M’s and then we can reduce some
costs in certain part of time. So, let us look into this what are these 6 M’s?
So, it relates with the manpower. Since manpower includes the fees that you pay for the
architect. Like tomorrow who are pursuing architecture and want to become architect, so
definitely you will do that work in terms of some professional fees. And then as a client
if you go to an architect, so cost involved. During the construction you have to pay to the
contractor or to the labor and then various resource persons, the plumbing person, the
electrical person, so one has to pay either you pay directly to a contractor and then he
will take care of the distribution and how the appointment or else you have to pay, so
that is very important. That includes like your architect, then engineer, then you have a
skill labor, then semi skill labor this is very important. And then this is also very
important for us. We cannot deny it. If we do not have the wealth, we do not have the
money, then probably, we cannot fulfill some of the desire at that extent.
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Then the time is another important, if one can manage the time of construction then
definitively that can also manage the budget. If a project is getting delayed by some kind
of a situation where it was not preplanned or the project is not properly managed then
that will increase the cost of the equipment hired that you hired or the cost of the labor,
you cannot simply say that the work is getting delayed, I will cut the salary something
will be very complicated.
Then the methods, whether you will go with a very manual method, whether you want
fast construction and then you use some kind of automation to that, that can also
contribute to the cost. The material, the material can be conventional material, but at the
same time, now in this particular time we are already getting some sense of the future
shortage like for the conventional materials. So, like water will be a problem, then
getting the coarse aggregate and then sand as fine aggregate. So, these will be very much
problematic. So, if we can think of some alternative materials, that would help us to
make our things cost effective and without compromising the strength, means whatever
the strength we can get from a concrete and if you use the alternative material to
concrete, we should achieve that particular strength.
Then whether you use the smart system whether you use some advanced machine for
your construction especially and it depends on the scale of the project. If we want to
make a small one storey building and then I am planning to make a high-rise like
Shanghai Tower or Burj Khalifa then definitely the machinery that required the skill will
differ a lot. So, definitely for them the constraints, the criteria are different. But whereas,
like when you think of the buildings maybe something a low-cost housing or maybe
cost-effective housing then selection of the machine can also differ, the cost of
construction.
So, here that is the reason like building material, labor cost, building material cost, size
of construction, that this is basically the scale. If you just think of precast or
prefabricated element like construction material, that means, it will not be casted in the
site or cast in-situ. It is basically fabricated somewhere else and it will be just you know
plug and play kind of arrangement. Then, in that case like for a small construction, it will
not be cost-effective, because you have to have an area where these prefabrication can
go, you need some kind of machinery.
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So, for a large-scale construction definitely one can setup or lab and then can be tested
and then you know can bring into site, and then that can be easily used. And which will
save time, which will also maintain the quality, and like reduce the errors.
The type of buildings definitely this is another factor that is influencing the cost of
construction, whether we go with a very simplistic, very simple form of a structure. Like
we will make just you know housing a very rectangular shape, the building typology
something else. But if we just plan to do something of an auditorium or a big convention
hall with a dome then definitely that will change, the considerations will also change, the
construction technique as already have discussed.
Then the time. This time is the duration in one sense and also time of the year. So, if you
pick up a good time for like construction, not a heavy construction that will take a year
after year, but for any construction that can be managed with 2 or 3 months. Then when
you will do it? Like any RCC construction will require some curing, then whether you
will plan it before rainy season or after rainy seasons. So, these are the things that will
really affect the cost of construction.
Now, achieving cost effectiveness. So, there are many techniques, but this cost-effective
architecture and structure that could be a full-fledged course, but here my point is to just
give a very brief idea focusing on some of the selective material. But definitely what you
need to do like we have to extend the list. After this discussion definitely you get certain
idea and then based on the links I have in this slide or you search more on different you
know maybe materials, different techniques by which we can achieve this.
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So, four points that I would like to say here; the replacing conventional material with the
alternative materials that is very important, as because like not only like a new thing to
be tasted and some innovation can be applied, it is not exactly the case, but the
conventional materials now it is something it is depleting. So, this depletion will be very
rapid because of like the high demand. Each day many houses are being built across the
globe and the construction should be very much accurate and also timely delivered. So,
with this stipulated time like definitely conventional material will take time to get the
curing and to get the adequate strength.
So, alternative materials like prefabricated concrete material or else something different
technology that can help those materials to plug in very quickly. So, that can be used.
Now, in this case alternative material to the conventional material does not mean that the
alternative will be cheaper, but the main point is some way or rather it will affect the cost
of the building. Now, maybe in case one alternative material is costlier than the
conventional material, but the time it will take to complete the project and that the during
that time all the labor who are working for the project and there if we considered the
salary to that, and then the rent for those equipments definitively overall cost can be
lower where you use those kind of alternative materials.
Now, innovative construction technique that we need to adopt like whether it is

traditional post-beam structure then step by step that we go or else this is just you know a
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plug and play concept with the prefabricated panels, the walls, doors is already like you
have to bring to the site and then assemble. So, this kind of technology can be used even
some of my presentations, I have talked about the 3D painting. So, with the help of 3D
painter we can make houses. So, these are the things that are already you know coming
to the market and in future maybe will be going for a very super fast construction
technique, and then we can get a good quality building in a quick time.
Now, again if you take the third point then it is design optimization of the building which
is also essential. Even you select the right material even you select the right technique,
but the arrangement of your building, the design that is the prime job of an architect, then
that case like how to optimize the space, how to really make each line the drawing you
make that will be something like a wall or door or window.
So, how you can optimize it? Say for example, if you make certain length and then in
order to fill that particular length with some brick, so you have to cut always some brick
and you have to make the joints or else you make some certain angle where like or the
curve where it is very difficult and there will be more wastage of brick to get this
particular curvature. So, how you can tackle it in a better way, so that design should tell
about that. So, wastage should be minimized in terms of the available space, also the
material.
Now, the planning and management of construction; even you have very good drawing
with you, very well designed, very well optimized architectural design, you have good
technology, you have good materials, but in the management when you are going to
implement it on site and there is some mismanagement. So, there is not a good flow, like
when the materials to be procured and when it to be cured. So, the proper management
also influence on the cost effectiveness of any construction project and that too for the
building as well.
Now, coming to the cost effectiveness of a very simple building and these lecture as I
already mentioned that this topic is very interesting and that can be delivered through a
number of lectures and that could be a self-sufficient subject for the student of
architecture or you know pursuing civil engineering or anyone having the like area or
interest. But in this presentation, I will try to focus on a small-scale building not
skyscraper or so; so, where basically in the construction technique if you see in this slide.
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So, basically, we can divide our structure in 4 components foundation, wall, lintel, roof
and also you can consider the plinth and other components, but these are the major
components by which if we explore a building. So, these are the cases which is very
essential to get all kind of like precision.
Now, coming to the foundation, so for one-storey, two-storey building, earlier there are
examples where people they used the arch foundation or the inverted arched foundation.
It is considered to be cost-effective, almost it can save up to 40 percent construction cost
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of the foundation because the foundation itself is getting a huge construction when you
go for the super structure which is above the ground then compared to the cost which is
your foundation and footing is higher and this arch foundation.
So, we have to remember this that the soil condition we cannot always make foundations
similar to all of soil conditions, sometimes you may have a very good self-bearing
capacity of soil. So, SBC of soil will determine the type of foundation that we can take.
So, it may be of isolated foundation, combined foundation, then we can go for the pile
foundation and the mat foundation, so it depends on that.
So, we are now going to discuss that in detail in this presentation. But for ordinary soil
where the bearing capacity is good enough, so arch foundation can really help it to you
know get the structure. But where the soil is a black cotton type and then this is a serious
issue, then probably we will not get enough strength at the lower depth, then probably in
that case we have to go for under ream pile or foundation. So, in this case that pile being
used and then the under ream has been created to make the grip, so that will also help to
resist the soil pressure and that particular movement.
Coming to the wall; so, wall construction again like you must have studied different kind
of brick bonds where we consider the brick wall. And here we just discuss on the wall
with the brick and definitely that wall can be made of something else. We can use
timber, we can use the RCC wall as a shear wall or else we just use the steel frame and
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then the glass panel to that, but in this case like when you discuss about the brick wall, so
we have used the English bond or the Flemish bond, but the problem with them is not
with a strength or something they are really good. But at the same time in order to make
it cost effective we can think of reducing the material and that can be achieved with a
cavity wall.
So, cavity wall construction will help to reduce the number of materials for a given area
or perimeter or given volume of work at the same time that cavity will also act as the
insulator. So, that is a dual added advantage to that and one of such cavity wall
construction that is there in this slide that is called Rat-trap bond and here you can see
these GIF image I have picked up from internet. So, here you can see how it is been laid.
So, a brick size like it is basically being made like this where the cavity is being
maintained. So, that you can get your adequate width of the wall at the same time you get
some area for insulation, and definitely as because the same area is being covered, so
with a void then definitely that is saving the volume of the brick.
But at the same time there is another important parameter that is the use of the brick. So,
whenever you use the English bond or Flemish bond then we have to cut the brick we
have to use the queen closer or sometimes you have to come and get the half bat, but in
this case mostly we will be using the full size brick, so that wastage also to be managed.
But the constraint is when you design. So, we have to design with the units. So, all the
doors, windows, opening should be designed accordingly, so that there will be no such
cut and then there will be some break. In order to give strength to this wall because this
is useful for one-storey, two-storey, even there are examples of three-storey building we
can use some kind of reinforcement to give the strength.
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Coming to the lintel, in place of a RCC lintel we can go for the brick arch which will
help and reduce up to 30 to 40 percent of the cost. But again the case is where this can be
applied where there is no such problem with the earthquake because in the earthquake
we have discussed that if this building is situated or it has to be planned in earthquake
prone area, so we have to give a band. So, then probably this piece lintel will not help.
But yes, definitely arch can be one of the option and many buildings you know in earlier
days even in some part of the country even across the country people they still use the
arch to you know even give a nice shape, this curvature giving a nice aesthetic whether it
is a segmental arch or semicircular arch.
810
Coming to the roof, yes here we instead of a plain homogeneous and same thickness
concrete slab. Now, this is another cost-effective technique where use some kind of
terracotta tiles or this kind of form and then the concreting has been done and then after
removing the shattering from the bottom it will look like this. So, without compromising
the strength this can be achieved to the filler slab and that can save up to 20 to 25 percent
of the cost compared to the like your traditional RCC slab. So, this is going to be very
much helpful to reduce the cost of the building.
And at the same time this kind of arrangement even like someone may try something
different, like to put the lights, suppose these are the hollow members, one can use some
light fixture and all, so that will also enhance the aesthetic view.
811
Now, coming to the building materials, there are like a good number of materials, you
can list up on 100 or something like that materials that are now being tested and in a
process to apply in different context as the cost effective material. And now, it is the time
where due to the scarcity of the raw materials people are using the waste material to
create the building materials, there are different institutions, different you know research
labs, they are developing this within India, even across India.
So, now I have just selected few of them which are very much promising in the present
day and already that being used in some of the building construction. So, first is your
stabilized compressed earth block which is basically also the compressed mud block.
Then fly-ash gypsum; the fly-ash brick that we know then fly-ash lime gypsum product
that can be use as a alternative to the mortar. Then clay red mud burnt brick, so that is
basically aluminum waste or bauxite that can be used. Then the precast stone blocks or
precast stone dust concrete block. So, these are alternative available in brick size
alternative to the brick and the construction will definitely give higher strength and that
can be used.
Then the other alternative is basically the autoclaved aerated concrete which is light
concrete material and also available in blocks. So, in case of you know using the mud,
and the burnt mud bricks, so alternative materials that are available to make the wall
construction and this can be used for different purposes as well.
812
So, coming to the stabilized complex earth blocks, so this is basically the unburnt. So,
there is no energy required to burn it. So, this is the brick where the mud is used
extensively and where the 5 percent and there is some variation 5 percent and then 5 to
10 percent variation with a cement or lime as some adhesive and that has been
compressed with some machines.
So, that is giving enough strength and this is economical, stronger than the conventional,
one and also saving energy. Like, already for a traditional process the mud has to be
burned, and then that needs some fuel and all, and then simple manufacturing and here
you can see that this blog can be used that is giving enough strength.
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Coming to the fly-ash; now, fly-ash is basically the industry waste and now this is
something where now many parts in India, so they are in practice to use the fly-ash. So,
less water absorption can be one of the saving in the water industry, then it is also saving
the 30 percent cement, then basically the best out of waste. So, whenever the fly-ash is
basically the waste and then that can be used. It is having a good strength that can be
used at even if it is not load bearing, now in the case of the frame structure most of the
structure are the concrete frame structure, so this can be used as a partition wall or the
external wall or sometime even for the foundation or for the low cost construction.
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Similarly, the fly-ash lime gypsum product can be used that is manufactured by blending
fly-ash lime and calcined gypsum. So, it is a basically a cementation material like plaster
which can be used to make the joints etcetera.
Coming to the clay red mud brunt bricks; so, alumina red mud or the bauxite, this waste
is being used to get this. Now, the advantage with this prominent red color if you really
plan well for the external like exposed brick work construction for a building, so that can
give a pleasing environment as you can see in this slide.
815
Coming to the precast stone blocks. So, it is again made of the waste stone pieces where
there are the stone being cut for some purposes, so that has been cut in a very nice
manner that can be easily used. And sometimes even those stone dust can be added in the
cement concrete mortar and that can give precast block and that is little bit bigger than
the conventional brick size and that can give you nice aesthetic value as well as good
strength to make this kind of construction. The construction is speedy and then in this
case like it can save the use of cement and all.
Coming to the autoclaved aerated concrete blocks. In this case as I mentioned earlier,
this is lightweight, then precast and foam concrete. So, basically compared to the
concrete block of similar size this is having a lighter weight. So, compose of quartz and
calcined gypsum, lime, cement, water, and aluminum powder and cured under heat and
pressure in an autoclave. That is why the name also come into picture. So, that can be
used as an external wall or it may be also used in the internal. And this is been useful as
you can see within the RC fame this block being used as because it is light it is easy for
the workman, workman for easily handle it and can be used with few layers that a full
wall can be made.
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Now, coming to some case study where the cost-effective material or technology being
used. So, this is something in Yemen, Shibam. So, that is something of a mud structure.
So, it is considered to be high rise, and then compared to that this is something really
beautiful in a Thiruvananthapuram.
So, in this case this is center for development studies and many of the work of Laurie
Baker you will find here. So, the use of brick, different brick bonds and not only the cost
817
saving, that whole architecture the beauty is matching with the nature and also this is
something really interesting.
Similar to that like use of the corrugated sheet or some steel and then the compressed
block, so we can get a very beautiful architecture. And definitely we are not talking
about some high rise building where the mechanical system is required, but for a one
storey, two storey building this kind of compressed mud block, fly-ash brick or the
precast material can be used.
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This is another one where the exposed brick being used and also the filler slab that I have
shown during that roof construction technique. So, this is giving very nice view from the
inside. So, not only we are saving the money as well as also we improve the aesthetic
value to it.
Now, it is all up to us like what we adopt or what we not; because definitely when there
is some reduction of the material or picking up a new technology or material. So, we rely
on like whether it is tested, whether it is giving it will give the similar result or not, we
are much scared, and this is basically the building construction like starting from
planning to the execution and the final you start living your house in it, it is not very
short term process because a building is planned and then it will take some time for the
construction and then you start living.
So, during whole period it will take some time to adjust it and when you get some
examples when we will see the test result then only, we can adopt that techniques or the
materials. But now there are different developers, they are adopting this and its quite
being successful in case of prefabrication there are some construction in China, Japan,
even all over the world, even in India there are some projects which has been completed
with very short time with the precast material.
So, in days to come we really all of us as a majority we should go for this kind of precast
construction, so which will save the time and at the same way like the search of
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alternative material. So, these alternative materials will save and then basically the last
but not the least what we need to, so that that is basically the innovation. So, we have to
rely on the innovation, then you have to test it, and then adopt. So, this adoptability of
new techniques, new materials will take time, but in due course of time definitely one
can go.
So, starting from your building designs, starting from selection of the material, the right
technique, the right orientation of the building, different way of maximizing daylight. So,
the whole together like from the planning to the execution and it is the total lifetime of
the building if we can properly plan it, if we properly budget it, then definitely that could
be a good cost-effective structure and architecture as well and without compromising.
So, I am repeating this sentence again and again. We can pick up the cost-effective
things, but without compromising the quality related to the strength of the building,
related to the aesthetics, related to the performance of the building in different load or
maybe different externalities.
With this I conclude here. And this is one of the materials already I have given in earlier
slide.
And I really want to thank you again to take part in this. And the next task for you to
enhance the list I have picked up few materials, I have picked up few technologies, but
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there are n number of techniques available. So, you search and we will discuss over
forum. And with that we will be waiting for the next discussion that is on the Structure
and Light in Architecture, how the structure can help to improve the lighting of
architecture and focus will be on the day lighting.
As I have just mentioned that not only all orientation building, so how you can optimize
the light through your structural design or architectural form that can save some energy
for artificial lighting and ventilation. So, we will be discussing on light and structure in
the next lecture.
So, we will be meeting then.
Thank you.
821
Lecture – 35
Structure and Light in Architecture
Hello everyone. Welcome back again to the online NPTEL course on Structure, Form,
and Architecture: The Synergy. Today, we are at Lecture Number-35 and this is
something interesting that we will discuss in this lecture. So far whatever we have
understood about different structural form, different requirement, even recently we have
covered the structural form and structural arrangement for like seismic prone area, windy
area and their different consideration.
Now, in this lecture, we will be focusing on the structure and light in architecture. So,
there are some structural arrangement, structural form, which will help to allow daylight
and the natural light alternatively we can say to create some beautiful form and
architecture. So, in this lecture we will be discussing on those kinds of structural element
and also we will go through some of the examples.
So, let’s get started.
822
So, at the beginning if we just try to again recap what is the architecture and then the
many definitions will come into picture, like it is a articulation of space, sometimes it can
be represented by the texture, different component of design, the color, and then the
shape, space. So, like that here what is written in this slide, the aspect of architecture are
such as space, material, color depends on the lighting situation and it is obviously true
and we all accept that.
In absence of light, we cannot actually see any objects and even we can change the color
of the object with some lighting because of different filtration, nowadays even we know
these things. This is available in our smartphone devices, different photograph that we
take and then we apply different filter different toning, so by which are the changing the
color of the light and the intensity we can really make a change in the outcome. So, as
true for this case where the light, then the object, and observer, these three parameters
will determine how we can perceive one structure.
Next like different visual experience and moods being provoked by the application of
dynamic daylight and artificial lighting and definitely it has a relation with your visual
experience. Say if it is too much glary, if too much light is coming in a summer day
along with all this light and other thing our perception, we feel it little bit warm whereas,
a very dim light, very shallow opening will give us sense of something very close and
dense and this is related to the daylight.
But when you consider the artificial lighting then also if we go to a restaurant; we
definitely do not expect a very high exposure maybe which is very much required in
operation theater, maybe a dim light maybe a different tint of yellowish, reddish or
whatever the color that we prefer, these kind of ambiance in the restaurant and the party
area will change the ambience. The same form same infrastructure will look in a
different manner. So, light and architecture have very close relation. So, that is already
been experienced by all of us. So, in absence of light we cannot see anything, in presence
of light depending on the intensity, depending on the direction, depending on the color
tint of the light, we visualize the object in a different manner.
Now, if that is true that they have the relation so, so as too with the structural form, so
different structural form that may facilitate to welcome the light inside a structure. So,
here you can see in this image. This is a wooden structure, a very simple structure where
823
you can see these columns and then beams and then at the rooftop, there is some kind of
percolation, there is some perforation. So, these perforations, through this perforation the
day lights are coming inside and that is creating shade and light ambience which indeed
giving a different experience than if we just cover it up with some opaque material.
Now, let us experience a few more with some images. So, this is somewhere very simple
structures where you can identify this column and beam and this whole opening been just
covered with some frame and the glass and then basically it is maximizing the light. So,
the whole floor being in the daytime and this is looking at this, so this outside this is
basically the courtyard. So, from courtyard, so this with the reflectance with the indirect
light; so this whole area is under light so, this will give some different feeling of like the
vastness and all. Along with that it will also help to do some kind of saving in energy
point of view.
824
Coming to the next one again this is a structure where different shade being created with
a jaali, where this being created with some kind of you know square and rectangle and
the interior you can see that a nice texture being created whether it is on a circular
column or even on the floor. So, this dark and light, dark and light; so, this create a
different ambience. It is very simple with the structure where some perforation being
made some kind of jaali form being created and with the daylight this is creating
definitely a very nice ambience inside the structure.
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Then, moving forward to this one where this is a swimming pool and where the roof
been covered with some kind of structural arrangement where with the inclination, with
the sun. So, there is a indirect light penetration not the direct one not the direct layer here
also the application of jaali by which the light can easily penetrate and this whole area is
given a dramatic feeling, which is also one of the point of appreciation; in this case
where this whole area in the daytime is being illuminated.
Now, the question is if it is so, then what will be that case in case of the heavy rainfall or
maybe like there is heavy dust? So, definitely for that this will not be really a good
option, but wherever the option is there, we can still maximize the daylight. In terms of
making things beautiful, if we place in order, we will get a better result along with that
some saving on energy consumption as well.
Now, this is another one this is very beautiful example, I liked it much. So, with this
small opening you can see that how this light being reflected from the ceiling and create
some nice ambience in this particular corridor. So, with direct light to this surface and
then the reflected light which create a different gradient at the rooftop. So, in this image
this gradient is giving some you know different feeling and this light and shade is giving
adequate lighting to work in the daytime and this is creating nice environment.
826
Coming to this example where the truss, the member, like this line that angular member
being repeatedly used and that is been covered with a glass in order to stop the rain water
penetration to the building, but this is giving enough indirect light, which is refracted
from this ceiling and then it is creating nice environment. So, this is another application
where the structural form that the system, the arrangement that been picked up which
maximize the penetration of daylight.
827
Coming to this, this is another example where building, this particular dining area and
this is the kitchen area being illuminated by the daylight. So, what exactly it has been in
this example? what the architect has done here? That put some glass in this particular
cover. So, which will allow this building to take the light inside, at the same time it will
protect the building from the rain or such dust from the outside. So, this is another
application and again with this white color and this with reflectance, so this is giving a
sense of you know gradient. So, it is giving nice experience.
Now, this is the example from the Louvre museum. So, here also the interior storey, the
in interior space of this building is really getting the maximum of the daylight with this
you know steel members, steel frames and along with this glass covering. So, which will
protect from the external rain or maybe the wind, but at the same time it will have a
direct connection with the outside environment. So, this is creating a nice sense where
the structure being used to welcome the light.
828
Now, coming to the light source and structure; this is very important and so far whatever
I just told about, it is all related to the daylight or the natural light and the source is sun
basically. But in this context of the source, the structure as a source of light refers to the
type of structure which will allow direct light penetration, the maximum light it can
penetrate. In many cases it may happen that the structural material that we use of
translucent type where a diffuse light can enter.
Say for example, if we consider the membrane, in membrane structure depending on the
translucency of the membrane we can get some diffuse light, but in the system wherever
a system being aligned, they join together or creating with the truss kind of material it
will be more effective. So, here in this what is mentioned, the sun is the clearly source of
the natural light, open structural forms like trusses, space frame, mega structural
openings and even the areas where the structural members are normally connected those
areas can admit light if we can do it in a nice manner.
In this context, definitely in order to get the light inside you have to have some opening.
So, that is why let the skeletal quality of moment or rigid frame. So, where you just make
your structure with beam and column, and the rest of the things you can either fill with
the masonry wall, but that will reduce the opening percentage of the facade or else you
go for the structural glazing with the glass like this building the way we can see, so
which will allow more light to pass on. So, that is why the skeletal quality of this rigid
829
frame is more conducive to allow or passage of conducive to the passage of light than
opaque structural walls.
So, in a high rise structure, what we have seen that in order to make it more resilient to
the lateral load; if we can go with the shear wall, so which is basically a very solid and
opaque screen which will definitely protect in that sense, but that will also block the
view. So, in that case if we can go alternatively with some frame or super frame that may
really help.
So, we will be discussing on high rise structure in some upcoming lectures of this course.
There will see that how alternatively we can even make our high rise building
structurally resilient for this kind of lateral load without compromising the opening to the
outside of the building.
Now, again the structural function as a primary light source basically which will allow
like the passage of the light occurs where the light passes through an opaque skeletal
structure. So, it is better to have a skeletal structure like making of the space frame,
making with some vault truss, something like this arch form where the covering will be
done with some glass material or transparent or translucent materials. So, that will help
to welcome the light.
So, here you can see two images where this particular space is being formed with this
frame where the arch frames being made as a structural component and then this being
connected with again steel and being covered with a glass. So, that will protect from
maybe the direct heat this will have this property of the structural which will not allow
anti glare glasses so, which will minimize the glare as well as it will give the adequate
light.
Down this example is from your Bangkok airport. So, where you can see the waiting area
this is being illuminated with the daylight with this again some kind of structural
arrangement with the steel frame and then the glass combination. And this application is
not only used for this airport, most of the airports that we can take the airports in India,
international airport or maybe there are examples where this kind of waiting area and
where you have some kind of transition. So, those areas being highly illuminated with
the natural light with the truss frame or maybe the space frame and that is basically
giving a nice experience of light and shade along with the energy efficiency.
830
Coming to the structural form and light; so, if we can classify the structural arrangement
which will direct allow the light and all, so we can specify it in 4 different ways.
One is the structure as a source of the light, then the structure used for maximizing the
light where the whole structure probably we are making to get the light inside, maybe a
glass house concept where we need to have this kind of structural composition where the
inside will get the maximum light from the natural sources.
Then the modifier of the light; sometimes we may use some structural form or structural
material which will modify the light. Modify the light in the sense, like it may be due to
the reflectance of the light or maybe it is due to some filtration. So, whatever the light
form, so that will be little bit filtered through that structural system and creates some
different ambience. So, we will see the example in this category as well. And then the
modified light, modified light is basically modified by light. So, if we now look into this
structural form that will allow light or that is welcoming the natural light to the inside of
any architecture.
So, we can broadly classify them into 4 categories, the first category that you can see in
this slide that the structure as a source of light. So, some structural arrangement like truss
or space frame which will allow direct light to come inside or that will help to create
environment like the airport I have shown and there will be more example to come then
there is another structural arrangement which can maximize the light. So, the objective of
831
those structure is basically to maximize the daylight penetration. So, like in a glass house
where you create a dome like structure or vault like structure where this is basically some
kind of steel frame and that being actually repeated and then finally, what we get this
particular form which is full transparent, so where the light can easily penetrate. So, we
use the maximum daylight.
Now, when we call this the penetration of the light, so many a times we will avoid the
glare, we only get the diffused light or maybe sometimes the direct light if we can allow
that. Then the modifier of light; sometime the structure being used to modify the light it
will help to create some light and shade combination which enhance the quality, the
visual quality of architecture that we have discussed the different visual quality at the
beginning of this lecture. Maybe the first week, lectures that we covered based on that
the visual quality.
Now, the last but not the least is the modified by light. So, sometimes the structure in
case like whatever the form, the texture, the position this kind of visual appearance will
be modified by the light. So, with the direction of light, with the amount of light and
intensity, so that can be also one of the component that structure getting modified with
the light. So, now, we will focus on each of them and try to understand that with some
example.
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Now, in this category where the source of light, so this is one example from sport center
where now this time you can easily identify this structure, and yes, I guess all of you got
it. So, this is your tensile fabric structure. So, these are nothing but the compressive mast
and this is the membrane which will be giving tension.
Now, the point is with this translucency of the material it will allow light inside is one
portion, but if you see that particular joints where these floated members is getting
attached or maybe with the mast. So, this portion is allowing the direct light penetration.
So, this is very useful. So, this portion is basically a conical shape and this being attached
with this. So, this portion will allow light to go inside. So, this portion is allowing light
directly inside. So, day light enters the junction between your flying strut, so this portion
and also the fabric membrane. So, this is one of such structure where this can be done.
Even the application of this membrane structure is mostly used in your stadium and in
the stadium, we also get some kind of diffused light for the spectators.
This is another wonderful example from San Francisco International Airport where the
whole structure is being made with the truss frame and in this you can get a very nice
combination. So, this kind of folded, this boat like structure is also giving a sense of a
petal and this is giving a nice view of the roof as well as essential functionally it is giving
some light inside.
833
So, all these opening, if you see these details, so this form allow the light to enter and
then the area being illuminated. So, light passes through a three-dimensional truss that
we have discussed in the truss section and this is how this being done.
Coming to the same category now here it is a Sports Hall in Barcelona, where at the
corners you can see that the arrangement of the truss in such a manner that will allow
daylight to come. Along with the artificial light definitely whenever at nighttime we will
not really get light, but in the daylight system we can easily see that how this can be used
very effectively.
834
Coming to the, you know Burrell Collection museum. Here also this pitched roof where
the different wooden members is being repeatedly used and then it is covered with a
glass material and that is creating a very nice environment at the atrium. So, this is
another example where the structure being used as a source of light. So, if this could be
alternatively done with an opaque or the flat roof or maybe the opaque pitched roof, so
this kind of interesting environment will not be created. So, this application of your using
structure in the manner where the light can penetrate and create this kind of beautiful
environment is always appreciable job.
Coming to another example this is the railway station in France, the Satolas Airport.
835
So, in this case you can see that the structure is nothing but a frame again, but this time it
is made of concrete or the steel and this is designed in such a manner that the place, the
gap between these two portal is being covered with glass and that is giving enough light
to luminate this concourse level.
This is another view of the same where these being taken from this direction. So, the
glazing centered over the main concourse allows daylight and this is really that
836
arrangement is similar to the petal arrangement that we have seen in the San Francisco
International Airport, here also in this railway station we get this ambience.
Coming to the next category that maximizing the light. So, this is the Trade Fair Glass
Hall in Germany. So, in this case also this vault being created with your steel members
and then that being supported outside, by some kind of space frame that you can see that
how the structure being supported externally with these members.
837
But here you can see that the whole structure is visually very light and also it will
maximize the daylight penetration. This is similar to the example that we have seen in
case of your Louvre Museum.
So, in this it is a same concept of maximizing daylight.
Now, coming to the modifier of the light. So, here it is basically allowing the light, but
creating those kind of rib pattern and these lines is generating some kind of shade in a
continuous spectrum of light and then that is creating some shade then shadow on the
838
surface in the interior which is basically nothing, but a filter. Now, this filtration is
through the members; sometimes this filtration may also be done with the change in
material, with a colored glass, but in structural point of view we just obstruct it with
different pattern of your structural arrangement.
So, mostly what we have seen is related to the skeletal structure and the space frame. So,
these are being very much useful material to do this. Mostly in the station area if you see
many of the Indian railway stations or maybe in abroad the stations where this kind of
platform, we get the use of the truss and portal frame where the light being created. In
the same context even if you see some of the factory, there the north skylight that is the
terminology used. So, they have made this kind of truss system.
So, where the light can penetrate through this surface and then it will allow this kind of
north light truss is allowing the sunlight to enter in the functional area and then the
adequate illumination is being achieved. So, illumination is the lighting whatever the
level of the light that is referred to that.
Now, coming to the last category of that and I have picked up only one example but
there are many where we can have this kind of devices. So, this is the example from city
of arts and science in Valencia Spain.
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Now, coming to the last example in this category, like the modified by the light; so what
an interesting thing that you can see that because of the heavy glare and light, so if you
see this picture and if you see the predominance, so this particular frame like this portion
is almost ended or almost visually being omitted at this lintel level. So, the glare
dematerializes the base of the portal legs. So, looking at this you hardly can see this
portion. So, whatever the highlighted part of this image this is the Timber Showroom
again from the Germany, so they appear to be terminated at the top of the display
window. So, this is the display window and this is being omitted. So, again here the
amount of light, the intensity of the light they are changing the structural arrangement.
So, with that I conclude this particular discussion and what we have learned from this?
So, in this specially some of the buildings where there is a public gathering or maybe it is
your residential building and you want to maximize the daylight penetration in order to
get some natural feeling which we can connect with the environment during the daytime
and as well as to some extent to reduce the load on the energy consumption. So, you can
always make your structure in such a manner, make prohibition to get the light inside
without compromising the exposure to your rain and dust.
With that like it is basically I have talked about the natural light and based on the light
how the structure is interacting and all, which is being classified in 4 categories. The first
is your like structure as source of light. So, here it is basically where the structure is
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allowing the light. The second category that we have seen that the structure is
maximizing light, then the other third category is your structure which make the
modification, modifying the light and then structure modified by light.
So, in this we have seen the examples of different Airport where like the top portion
maybe this being exposed to the light and then with the reflectance and also this will get
illuminated. In the second category, maximizing light is example of greenhouses, so
where like all these vegetations are getting the maximum of the light through the
structure, where like the steel frame being used and then the glass covering being used to
cover it.
Now, structure which is modifying the light is basically to create the shading devices
where instead of single frame we can use some kind of pattern or jaali, jaali type of
things which will allow light to penetrate, but that will also create a pattern. So, that is
being modified. Then the structure modified in the light it depends on the intensity of the
light, the tint of the light by which a structure is looking in a different manner that we
have seen in the last example where with a huge glare outside and with this glass from
the inside what we initially in a quick glance what we see that this particular frame is
being terminated here. Though it is having a presence, but again like with the glare it is
not that much prominent.
So, with this we can create some interesting structural form, architectural ambience that
we create playing with the light and the material selection. And in this what we have
seen most of the time that this can be created with the skeletal, skeletal structure rather
than an opaque structural wall or the masonry wall. So, wherever we go for the frame,
beam, column structure and structural glazing so, that will help to maximize it. And for
the roof covering, for the open public area like airport or the stadium or maybe
somewhere is a convention hall in that case we can use the light structure of like space
frame or truss to do this kind of arrangement where that will help to welcome light in a
larger quantity without compromising the other adverse effect for the opening. So, with
this we can really create. So, this is all about your structure and light interaction in
architecture.
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So, with this I stop here. And these are the study material, you can go through. Already I
have given this book references earlier, but then also you can go through it if you can get
access to this.
So, with that we will be looking for something that I have talked about so many times in
recent times that we will be discussing on the high-rise structure, how this will be
designed. So, we will be talking on your Evaluation of Highrise Structural System in my
next lecture and we will be discussing on different structural composition. And then we
will slowly go with each of the component where for this high-rise building phenomena
against the wind and earthquake and how different system can resist it.
So, with that I again thank you all to take part in this course. And we will be meeting in
my next discussion in the next lecture.
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Lecture – 36
Evolution of Highrise Structural Systems
Architecture: The Synergy. So, far we have discussed various types of structures, their
advantages, their applications, even the materials that we used for that. But, now
onwards we will be focusing on something that we always love to see that the high-rise
or tall building structures.
At the beginning of this course, I mentioned that nowadays we are looking for the
vertical expansion of the city; that means, making skyscraper and definitely the
engineering, the application, the different kinds of structures that we required to make
those skyscrapers is definitely something of our interest. Many a times we just admire,
we just appreciate the buildings, but at the same time it is always better to know some
fundamentals, different types of functions, different types of services that are required.
But, in this course as because it is focused on the structural form and architecture, we
will focus on the structural system only, but along with that for high rise buildings
services is one of the major options. So, in upcoming a few lectures we will be focusing
on high rise building.
This is Lecture Number-36, in this lecture preliminary we will discuss the fundamentals
of tall buildings and the evolution of structures, different restrictions of a structural
system, their limitations up to certain height. And, then how we can improve the
structure and some live examples as well. After learning this particular lecture, we will
move forward different components of the high-rise structure and we will again do some
case studies for mega structures. So, let get start this lecture on: Evolution of High Rise
Structural System.
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At the beginning of this presentation, if you a look this particular slide and if I ask you
the name of the building; I think all of you can give me the right answer. Yes, it is a Burj
Khalifa in Saudi Arabia and you can see that picture in this how beautiful it is, even it is
like above the cloud. So, it is always a try for the human to make something really great,
really very tall. And, that is the reason day by day whenever we say the tallest structure
in the world and each year maybe, each day that record is broken by someone or other.
So, this is considered to be the tallest, but now also we get another Kingdom Tower
which is even taller than this building. And, there are many in the pipeline, if you go
through the website you will get the list that some buildings are under construction
especially in the Dubai, Saudi Arabia, in China, in Japan the tall structure.
And, as if you consider in India, we are also nowadays going for these high-rise building
and we have some high-rise building in Mumbai and even now The 42 in Kolkata and
there are many in pipeline even in Gurgaon and Noida. So, these are the area like there
are project in the pipeline. So, anyway we just go through the presentation and we will
try to understand the basis and different structural evolution over the period of high-rise
building.
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Now, high rise is a multistory building and to be honest there is no particular definition
of high-rise building or skyscraper in that sense and it varies place to place. Sometimes
even a building more than 4 storey is considered to be multistory building and even 10
storey we can say this is high rise, even sometimes 50 storey even we do not consider as
high rise buildings.
So, depending on the location, depending on the context and the proportion of the
surrounding buildings that will vary. Now, as I said that definition varies, but for high
rise structure which is a common phenomenon that tall enough to require the use of
system of mechanical elevator. So that means, when you can reach a building height by
like stair or something is maybe not the high rise category. But, when it is high rise, we
have to have very efficient elevator or what we call lift; a mechanical lift for the easy
evacuation.
But the moment you increase the height of the building remember one thing we have to
take care of the evacuation of the inhabits. So, for that we need some mechanical system
as well and also this is a broadly known as tall buildings and also skyscraper. Here the
example is the same and the previous one, now this is the height; so, you can see the
proportion of this building compared to the surrounding buildings.
So, definitely it is much much taller than the other buildings around it. So, this is one of
the skyscraper. Now, all of sudden why we want to build this skyscraper or high-rise
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building? As I mentioned that now we should go for vertical expansion, as because the
habitable land, there is some scarcity due to rapid urbanization, growth in population, we
need to expand vertically. So, scarcity of land that intensifies the need of high rise
building.
Then again when we have the technology and day to day, we update it and we have the
technology to go vertically so, why not to apply that. So, advancement of technology
also contributes to decide upon to upcoming structure, the high rise structure. Then
increasing demand for business and residential space, this is again very important and it
is related to the first point that scarcity of land. Now, in planning process we go for
mixed-land use development where, like both residential it’s not a no more horizontal
expansion is basically the residential tower. And, the same tower we will have the
facility partially of the business or commercial activity as because the demand increases
day by day, there is also a need to go vertically. Coming to the next point this is the
economic growth and if you see the pattern that the countries, who are actually having
good economy, they are making this building. Because, the making this building starting
from is planning to the execution and the system that is required to maintain it really
having some relation with the economy of the region.
And so, as true like for the case of Dubai or even in China, they are making these kind of
high-rise building in recent times. Even we all can recall the World Trade Center
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previously and even now the new one the One World Trade Center in USA. So, this is
another example of high rise, I will come to that as well in some of the you know I will
show you some examples. Now, innovation in structural system, yes, this innovation is
must require; the technology was helped us to go with the process, construction process.
But, the same time the innovation in structural system how we improve it. As we started
with the lecture earlier like we just started with the load bearing structure, only limited to
one or two floors. And, then is a simple your wall and a slab structure. And, then in
recent times later in the later stage of this lecture series we have also seen that the folded
plate structure, membrane structure or you can say shells structure which actually
removed the boundary of having so closely placed column one after another. So, we can
have column less space, if we adequately use it.
And now this is nothing, but the advancement of that structural system with new
innovation. And, it is upgrading day by day with the input of the engineers, architects
and who are working in this field. And, that also has a relation with the improvement of
the materials because, in order to go high, in order to resist again the loads definitely we
need the material which can capable to resist and make the structure safe and stable.
Now, desire for aesthetics in urban settings, why this is something where we think of a
urban designer point of view where we will have a skyline of a city. So, if you see the
skyline of New York so, all high-rise structure is making some image of the city. So, this
is another important thing that the prosperity of the city or the whatever the advancement
in the city that we can depict through that.
Then the concept of city skyline as I already mentioned, cultural significance and
prestige; definitely city will have such building which will be iconic, worldly recognized
definitely one should really proud of. So, this is one of the reasons we can if the
economy support, if the technology support and every other criterion that being fulfilled.
Then human aspiration to build higher, this is always in people minds that we should go
high and it’s something the sky is the limit.
So, this is something where people they always look for building high-rise. Now, these
are some from the history like it is not the new concept that we think of. Nowadays, we
are looking for this option as a need because of vertical expansion, we have scarcity of
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land, but earlier what like the supremacy or the prestige of the king they also made
monumental structure.
But, when we call it high rise building; that means, that should be habitable, like it not a
very high sculpture or any monumental structure in that sense. But, anyway in this regard
if we consider the height of the structure; so, definitely we have examples here.
So, this is one summary where you can see different churches, then we have the Pisa, we
have Colosseum, even the pyramid the huge structure.
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So, coming to that quickly just go through these images, where the high rise in history.
So, this is the pyramid, you can gaze the height of the structure that was made that time
with the technology available to them, even this is another example from Egypt. So,
normally if you go through the Egyptian architecture and all you find such a monumental
structure with the stone and all.
So, in this case this is temple Edfu. So, here also you can get the scale, this is also
considered to be high rise.
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And then also it is the Lincoln Cathedral in United Kingdom so, here also you can see
the height of the building. So, we at that time itself like, they made it so, that this can be
viewed from a long distance. And, this will be iconic building of the city to make the
image of the city.
Now, this is very common example the miner or the tower. So, this is Qutub Miner in
India. So, here you can get this high-rise concept as well.
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Coming to a temple, this is Sun Temple in India again from Orissa. So, here you can get
the height of the building, this is again a high-rise structure and that are plenty if you see
that all the South Indian temples and all. So, they have a gigantic scale compared to the
human scale and this structure was made long back.
Continuing to that history now if we just to the little past; so, we can get these Home
Insurance Building at Chicago where it was considered to be one of the first high rise
building made for habitation. So, all the floors being used. So, as too for Woolworth
Building at New York; so, here also you can see the building this is considered to be
high rise.
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Now, coming to the history of the high rise, here you can see like the Home Insurance
Building as I mentioned that is considered to be your first high rise building. And, now
we move to the recent time where the completed building we have Burj Khalifa as a the
tallest and very soon that Kingdom Tower in Jeddah will be breaking the record of this in
terms of height.
And, just to be mentioned that this kind of decision to take whether to take that example
of take that building or mark that building has tall structure and all; so, there is a council
that is Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. So, they keep on updating the
information about all the completed or ongoing project or the proposed project of the
building based on their category. So, compared to the height of the other buildings
definitely the Home Insurance Building was not that great, but that also included in this.
And, that is in 1885 and now we are in each of already 2019-2020. So, here the many
changes you have seen; so, it includes the Petronas Tower, it also includes the Taipei in
Taiwan. And, then there are One World Trade Center that is also being there where the
Twin Tower was there. But, unfortunately that was now rebuilt and then even the new
structure is in the picture in the list of a world tallest building.
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So, were considering that that the tallest twenty in 2020 that is the overall picture if you
see that as I mentioned the Kingdom Tower is ranked first and then the Burj Khalifa.
And, accordingly if you go through also it includes the Makkah Royal Clock Tower, also
it includes your One World Trade Center in New York City and then you have Taipei.
So, like that you have many, here you can get the example of your Shanghai Tower, also
you can go for your Signature Tower. So, if you browse through this particular link
rather building listed in Council of on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitats, you will get
more such information about the tallest building.
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Now, with that the modern few buildings here you can get the Shanghai Tower in China,
then One World Trade Center in US.
Then you can get these Burj Khalifa and also the Kingdom Tower. So, these are very y
recent development and high-rise structures, the skyscrapers in the picture.
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Now, this is a similar thing where another pictorial example, where the Kingdom Tower
and how like we can compare the other structure as well. So, like day by day it is
breaking the record like each say within a 5 years interval, we get a new list each time or
someone is breaking someone’s record or not. So, this is ongoing and keep on upgrading
about the height.
Now, coming to the challenges for the high rise which is very important for us; the first
challenge is about the mobility. Mobility in terms of vertical movement and for that
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when the Otis invented the mechanical lift, till that particular point like it was a really a
challenge to go really vertical. And, that required some energy to bring all the lift of the
material as well, it is not only the movement of the people, but when you built it so, it
also requires some kind of systems.
So, for high rise this is very important and also, we should think of the evacuation like
for that you have to think of high-level services in terms high speed lift. So, that within a
given time of evacuation whatever the standard time within that the people from inside
they can come outside. Then the materials are very important like definitely steel,
concrete; so, they are being used for the high-rise structure. And, now it is also
composite material and new research on different building materials is going on.
So, maybe in future we will get some even better material for the high-rise structures.
Then the construction method is again challenging the speed of the construction, the
tools and techniques to be used for the construction for the high rise, that need to be very
much up to date. Because, the time of construction at the upper level the problem that
you can face due to wind in a area and as we discussed earlier that with the increase in
height; so, wind speed also affecting more.
So, with that how you make your construction, how you create all this structure in a
proper manner is definitely a challenge, how that to be dealt with. So, this is another
challenge for high rise, then the heating and ventilation at that height we cannot think of
a natural ventilation or maybe the cross flow. So, we have to think of the heating and
ventilation with the coated glass or maybe double glass, then how we can protect from
the protect the building from the lateral wind load; so, that need to be thought of.
Then the lateral load, the aerodynamics and as well as the load of arthquake that is your
seismic load. So, that are two major concepts for the high-rise building because, when
the building height is low then come like your effect on wind are reduced. And, we only
consider the axial load, the dead load, live load acting on a building and that can be
tackled with typical frame structure or maybe RCC structure.
But, when the we increase the height, the shape and size, orientation that will matter a lot
and definitely when the building is too high that lateral sway will be even more. So, this
is very important to know and these are the challenges and the engineers, they always
take care of these challenges, they simulate, virtually they simulate the building. And,
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they perform under different tunnel test, different seismic plate test and then finally, they
conform the structural design. So, that your start will be in intact in real scenario as well.
Coming to the loads acting on this these are similar loads that we have discussed earlier,
but here also with the context two important parameters which will be very much critical
for high rise building. One is your seismic load and other is your wind load. So, normally
if we again classify the load distribution so, one load will be your vertical load which is
axial load, can be taken care of the column and other things and connecting beam.
And, other is your lateral load either with the wind or maybe the ground motion for like
earthquake. So, the different wave being created during the earthquake, certain
earthquake and then that will create a challenge.
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Now, with that in this picture if you can see that how these buildings, two buildings are
actually sway it to each other, you can see that I have fixed that line and then how it is
moving and from each other. So, whenever there is an earthquake occurs at the
hypocenter and then gradually to come up at the epicenter and then how would wave are
being spread out depending on the intensity. Then there will be motion, different plate
motion and for that the building can fall due to the liquidation, liquefaction or maybe it is
just uplift or it may have a serious damage and damping. So, we have seen that well
while we discussed about the structure like for earthquake prone area in that lecture, we
have seen that how things happen in that category.
So, for high rise it will be more vulnerable because of the height. So, definitely the
movement at the ground and movement at the top, this even a fraction of second these
are different and that will create some kind of instability to the structure. And, if it is not
properly maintained or it is not properly tackled with a different structural system so, it
will collapse. So, this is very vital and there are different ways of doing earthquake
resistance that we have already discussed.
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Now, coming to the wind as I mentioned that when you increase the height more wind
pressure will act on the building and you will have the sway. So, here you can see that
building that the deflection from its a neutral axis, that how it deflects. And, also it
depends on the form, the moment you have a very much circular form or maybe some
aerodynamic form so, a wind can easily pass through. So, the wind pressure that the
negative pressure of the drag effect not being created that much in this case. But, in case
of a square building it is more than even if your building is having re irregular shape so,
it will be more vulnerable. And, that is why if you see that overall like all the high rise
building will take a very basic shape, very regular shape either in terms of your
chamfered triangular shape or circular or maybe a at that edge they just make a round
shape so, that this can be easily taken care of.
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So, like that if I just considered this is my building high rise building. So, in order to
depict; so, I just to fix it like this. So, for the wind when this particular end is basically
acting like a cantilever to the base; so, it will move much and where your base to the
high ratio is too much. So, it will consider to with a tall building and the effect on the top
portion of the building is high. So, for that we definitely need to make some structure
which will resist again this kind of lateral load.
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Coming to the components; is a same thing like you have column then beam, column is a
responsible for taking the axial load acting vertically that we have seen. And, the beam is
basically taking the load; it is having dual purpose, this beam first which transfer for the
load of the floor to the column and also it will take the load off the lateral wind load or
something so, that will taken care of. And, this junction is very critical for the seismic
activity, it properly not done then there will be disaster.
The shear wall is basically the wall simulate to a cantilever to the base. So, if you have
this plane and then you just vertically make this particular wall, shear wall; so, this will
act as an extended column or something of similar which will resist the lateral load. So,
for high rise building we use these shear walls to have more shear resistance for the
lateral force. So, then we will discuss that when we discuss the different components in
next lecture.
Then bracing we have discussed many a times when you have a frame in order to give
more stiffness or rigidity, we just connect it with a diagonal strut or member which is
called bracing. So, that can be regular that can be symmetrical that can be both way and
the core is another important component of that. So, when your building will have
service, all the service are probably we can make my structure like main structural
element, the main structural columns.
Heavy columns are put together very close to each other and we make the service core
like this. So, it can be made of your shear wall as well which will essentially anchor this
particular floor. This is a typical plan of a high-rise building, where the outer portion
may have some column. But, the main load being carried out by this particular core,
vertically if you see that your building is having multiple floor and they are connected
with the core.
So, again we will discuss this core in next lecture, what are different kinds of cores and
their material. And, again the steel reinforced concrete, the material we can also combine
them to go for a different competition with steel truss and the concrete frame or
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Coming to the evolution of the structure so, broadly it has been classified as per the
Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. It’s being divided in four types;
One is the shear frames, next is your interacting system where your truss steel truss is
interacting with the concrete frame. So, both are having different advantages where the
we know that truss will have because of this triangular so these will have better stiffness
and can distribute the load. And, then the frame will have some rigidity where can take a
your axial loads that can be combined. Then for more height, if you increase height then
we should go for Type III that is partial tubular system where basically you use this
external portion, external perimeter and place your columns close to each other so, that
will form a tube. So, that will give a basically a thickness to outer periphery and we
make it. So, sometimes we may have this tube inside that partial tubular and then we can
go for fully tubular, where you can make tube inside tube. So, with these 4 categories
also we have a different way of classifying it.
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So, here you can see that how things will look like pictorially, in this pictorial
representation you can see that rigid frame is basically column beam layout. And, then
when it will be having shear truss; so, in with the frames you just partially make those
frame with the truss and we include the truss; so, that will become your interacting
system in Type II. So, with your frame you just include the shear truss into that. So, here
also framing with the shear band and outriggers; so, this we will discuss in detail. Then
we can go with partial tube, where you can see that this with a shear wall that this portion
is being made as a tubular section. And, then we can go for the perfect tubular system
and also, we can go with the bracing and then we can actually make some combination.
And, if you see that with the structure complexity, also you can able to increase the
height of the building, for high-rise building we should can go and here it is a typical
floor that had been taken.
So, with a normal frame structure you can go up to 8 to 10 storey whereas, we if we

apply this tube structure we can go up to 110 and even more. So, all the storey that now
you see the Burj Khalifa and all that is made up with bundled tube, we will discuss in
detail as well.
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Now, again the classification is there the interior structure and exterior structure. So,
based on that if you cluster then so, that system where the major part of the lateral load
resisting is actually located within the interior of the building; means if we have the
building and it is located at the interior so, this is called interior structure. Where, like
this is basically the interior structure.
Where exterior structure that like lateral load resisting component are placed at the
periphery; so, that will become your exterior structure.
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So, here briefly like if you see that these are different types of interior structures.
And, then these are your exterior structure; we will not go into detail in this part because
we will have like discussions separately for interior structure and exterior structure; then
we will discuss one of these categories. So, again if we go for exterior structure, we will
able to increase the height of the building. Whenever we think of a very tall building 150
storey or 250, we should go for exterior structure and then whenever it is within the limit
we can go with the interior structure.
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So, the summary is basically already I have discussed in details that from past to present
that how the people’s aspiration to build high is being successful and it is continuing.
And, then there are different examples, broadly here we summarize with two type of
structures. One is your interior structure and then we have your exterior structures and
we will be focusing on that. So, next lecture will be on this. So, this is lecture number r
36, so this will lecture number 37 and it will be discussed on lecture number 38.
So, we that I conclude here and this is the source that you can get many examples, this is
especially a book on Designing Tall Building and it has a relation with the architecture.
So, please go through this book, if it is available to your library or I will try to give some
kind of more notes as attachments in the forum.
And, thank you all for taking part in this course, we will be meeting in the next lecture
that is your Highrise Structural Components Part I. And, we will be discussing on the
interior structures of high-rise structural system.
Thank you.
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Lecture - 37
Highrise Structural Components - Part I
Architecture: The Synergy. In the previous lecture, we have discussed about different
structural system, the evaluation of structural systems for high rise buildings and also, we
have seen some nice examples from the history as well as from the modern world.
And then we summarized that lecture with the note that whatever the structure available
it has four different types as as per the council on tall buildings and urban habitat, but if
we clustered them into based on the location of the structural member then we have
discussed that, that can be divided into two categories one is your interior structure, the
other one is exterior structure.
So, in this lecture we will be discussing on Highrise Structural Component Part I. And
preliminarily we will focus on that interior structure, what are the structural type and we
will try to see some examples, already built buildings where this kind of structural
system being used. So, let us start Lecture Number-37 that is the structural component
for high rise building part I.
And at the beginning of this presentation if you can identify the city skyline this is from
the New York.
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So, you can see that how beautiful the structure looks like, so all vertical members and
there is little bit alternation to the form and then finally, it is making a skyline for the city
just in front of the water body and how beautiful it is. But, not only aspiring the beauty,
we should also know the structural components, so that we can also think of to develop
such and at least to know the mechanism, the structural mechanism the way these
buildings are built at least the typology of the structure.
At the introduction, definitely we discussed in just in the previous lecture that mainly
two kinds of loads are acting on building. So, in that type one is your vertical load or the
gravity load, here you can see.
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So, here you can see that all the date load of the building and all they are acting axially
and they are transferring to the foundation and foundation will have a reaction. So, this is
very common for all the buildings and even for once for the building as well. But, at the
same time when you think of increasing height as because with the increase the lateral
movement of a building, will be more due to the wind pressure.
Because already we have discussed that with the increase that how the wind pressure will
increase. So, if you just say this is the height and this is the wind pressure, so you can get
this exponential curve and it will be at critical situation. Along with that whenever you
increase the building and where the height to the base ratio is also very high and that
time due to any seismic activity during earthquake, so it will be vulnerable.
So, these two major lateral loads to be well taken care of by different structural system
and how to minimize that with the rigid or flexibility or with the hinge, that we will
discuss in two lectures. So, in this case like definitely we will think of these lateral load
and gravity load how that can be managed. Now, considering the material the steel, the
reinforced concrete or maybe the composite material or maybe some materials which are
now in research stage can be applied to make the structure more strong and also having
good resistance against the lateral thrust.
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Now, coming to the components, already we have discussed, so we will not go into
detail. In this part column will be the part where it will be responsible to transfer the
axial load to the footing, so this is mainly responsible. So, whatever the size of the
column that will be decided based on the gravity load or the vertical load of the building.
It accounts all dead load the self-weight of the material structure and as well as the live
load. Then where is the beam the second component it has two purpose; one to transfer
the load of the slab to the column and then also it will prevent the building initially from
the lateral against the lateral force; that means, due to the wind or the movement.
When shear wall is again maybe an extended column look like, in place of the column if
we extend it, so, that will become a cantilever to the base and that can be a good
instrument for resisting against the lateral load.
The bracing is basically to be placed to connect to the frame or giving more stiffness, to
more rigidity and the stiffness to your structure like this.
And the core that we discussed, the core for the high-rise building, the services that can
be group together and make core, and normally it can be the main structural element of
the building or it be just as service core. So, we can place the columns very close to the
area the central area or the core area that we decide. It need not to be core means always
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at the center and that can be made like a tubular structure or maybe it is just the shear
walls.
So, here based on the position of the core we have four categories, one is the central core
where you can see that this color, yellow color that being placed this is the core. The split
core that can be like separated that entire core being distributed and they are put on
different locations. It can be an end core that it is being placed somewhere like it may be
something like the staircase or some important services that kept, that separate. Or it may
be something like you make an atrium like you have these void. So, basically this
particular white portion is the void part and then we have the core in one side or two side
or maybe in four side depending on the complexity of the structure, depending on the
span of the structure we may have multiple core as well.
But, in order to make the structure very simple and interior planning very simple, mostly
we can go with this central core or sometimes in some buildings we also have seen this
atrium core. The application of the core is very important for the high rise building and
the decision on the core material like whether it will be the shear wall, the concrete shear
wall or it may be the shear truss made up steel, or it may be just very closely placed
column to make a tubular structure that we will be discussing not here, in the next lecture
where we will be discussing on the exterior structures.
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So, as we have discussed earlier where we concluded the last lecture that when you
categorize the four types of structure whether shear frames and then the partial tube or
maybe tubular structure those can be clubbed or clustered into two category, interior and
exterior, so what exactly they do mean? Here is the answer. So, in this case, interior
structure, a system where the major part of the lateral load resisting system is located
within interior of the building. So, whatever the structure which will be responsible for
resisting the lateral load that is located at the interior side.
So, here you can see just representation of this where the main structural elements at
given at the center at the interior of this particular floor and this is something where it is
a 3D presentation where this rate columns they are placed in inside the interior. Whereas
in contradicted the exterior structure where the like major load resisting structure are
located at the periphery. So, you here instead of making it at the center, this is placed at
the periphery.
But, again we have to remember this is mentioned that the major part of, the major part
of; that means, when you make this it will not say that you can have this as a cantilever
there is no requirement of any column. But definitely when you make your structure and
depending on the height, on depending on the lateral pressure that it will encounter we
can decide upon the number and spacing the distance between these exterior columns. It
may be not non structural column or maybe not taking much load. So, that can be
something very thin or maybe when we think that building is too high that we have to
give both your interior, exterior together or you have to have a central core as well, so
then we can also go for that.
But, in this lecture as I mentioned earlier we will be only discussing on the interior
structure and their different parts. We have seen pictorial illustration where different
kinds of interior structures been shown. So, we will be discussing the same in this lecture
and here is that particular image I was talking about there I skipped because I will
discuss here it in detail.
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So, if you see that here in the y axis it is given as a number of storey, the number of
floors you may say, standard floor, and here is basically the improvement of structural
element. So, when you go with the braced hinge frame you cannot really go much
because of the hinge condition where it will again have some flexibility it will allow
some rotation and bending and all.
So, for some multilevel parking and all we can have this kind of structure. Now,
compared to that when you make a rigid structure, so, it can be made of concrete, it can
be made of steel. So, basically when you go for steel structure as because steel will be
very good for taking the tensile load and all so we can build little bit higher than the
concrete. And here also you can when you use the rigid concrete frame you can even go
a little higher, so 20 storey, 30 storey. So, these are some representation where we can
really go very safely. Now, compared to that when you move towards a little bit more
height, then it is very important to solidify or make your interior structure very strong
and then basically the concrete shear wall comes into picture and then along with that
when we have this if we give bracing added to that. That means, it will again give more
protection against the lateral sway of the building due to the wind pressure and all. And
then when you move forward, the concrete shear wall and steel rigid frame they
combined. So, this is basically where your steel truss or concrete truss they are
interacting with the frame, it can even give you a better result, I will show how? And
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then when you move further with the concrete shear wall plus concrete frame, so that can
be combined.
So, we have the core structure at the center at the same time if you see the plan, so, again
you have your concrete frame in the outside. In this case, concrete shear wall is there, but
still frame are placed in exterior like in the outer periphery. And then basically when you
go and move to your outrigger, so, where in alternative or maybe with a certain interval
we just provide the truss which will nothing but the cantilever to the core that will
actually allow building to go high. And because of this the bending of this building will
be restricted, so I will show one by one.
So, if I move forward, so basically for any structures, structural system, two important
parameters are there.
One is your moment resisting frames which will resist the moment due to the lateral load
and the other one is your shear truss and shear wall. So, these two components these two
components they are playing the crucial role in any structural system. When you
combine both of them together it will give you better result and we will see that how that
can be combined.
But, if we go for the classification of this interior structure, there are five components.
Component number one is your braced hinge frames, second is your rigid frames, third is
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your shear wall hinge frames. And then shear wall frame interaction system where the
concrete and steel frame and then the shear truss both they are actually combined and
they perform in a better way, and the outrigger system that just I explained in this
particular phenomena, where at different interval we provide some what we call that
horizontal structure maybe op truss. It may be made up concrete maybe, made of steel
but that will give you a thickness compared to the normal beam and all some depth to
that beam or maybe we can use the belt truss, this is I will explain this when we take the
example.
Now, coming to the braced hinge frame that I mentioned that it will actually connect
those particular joints with the beam and column and can resist, but as because these are
hinged. So, that will not give that particular advantage that the rigid frame can give. So,
efficiently resist the lateral load by axial forces or shear truss member that being given
here. Allow shallower beams compared to the rigid frames as because the height is also
very low and this bracing is taking care of the movement.
But the problem is whenever you place this diagonal at the exterior surface, so it will be
little bit difficult to make the interior or the outer facade. And expensive diagonal
connections, so sometimes it may be like fixed end or sometimes we can use the
dampers. So, dampers being used for the earthquake resistance structure that we have
discussed earlier in that particular lecture. But, this will have limitation and we can build
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up to say a few storey; up to 10 storey or something like that. Moving forward, coming
to the rigid frames.
So, here it basically a moment resisting frame that consists of the horizontal girder and
vertical column, so they are actually linked fixed rigidly and they are co-planar. So, it is
basically a linking then this very typical grid structure. The size of the column is mainly
controlled by the gravity load that already I explained to you. That whatever the axial
vertical load is being implied based on the column size will be decided, it may be a send
throughout or it may change when you go because the when you calculate the load based
on the accumulation. So, load being added then if you like your cumulative load at the
bottom will be too much, so we can have a larger section compared to the section the top.
But, it depends on the structure other concentration as well where the uniform cross
section is taken up. Now, coming to the size of the girders or the connection. So, it is
basically the stiffness of the frame and it is ensured by the what should be the acceptable
sway lateral sway of the building. Like there will be sway because if you go for say some
high-rise building there will be the sway. And definitely there is an acceptable limit and
based on that this the stiffness and other thing will be controlled for your horizontal
members.
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Now, coming to the rigid frame structure, here are two examples and here it is a typical
plan where you can see typical plan and elevation where the beam, the girders and the
columns being actually compiled. So, in this case if you see that this is your Ingalls
Building in US there is 16 storey’s buildings. So, here it is a very simple structure. If you
just see from the exterior, so their vertical members like this and then it is been
connected. So, this is floor wise very uniformly designed and so as true for this case as
well, you can see that each floor with the connection this frame in both the case is the
buildings, it is very straight forward. Like, if we just want to represent very simple
manner, so it is something like that where the rigid frame being used.
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Now, coming to the shear wall hinged frame where it is not the connection, all the
connection being made with only the column and the girders. So, here in state of that at
the core as interior structure, that we are discussing now, we use the shear wall. So, shear
wall is maybe the RCC wall which will act as basically as a cantilever to the base, so it
can sway. So, other structure is holding it, is giving the support, so main lateral force the
this being resist by this core.
So, reinforced concrete planer solid or coupled shear walls, so, this is basically what I
mentioned, helped to resist lateral force caused by the wind or earthquake, so this will
anchor the building. So, during the movement, this core will control the acceptable sway
either due to wind or even during earthquake.
In the case of two or more coplanar shear walls, so which maybe something where it is
not the core maybe in some of the buildings you will find that maybe at the corner you
have some portion the shear wall. So, then each of the shear wall will have some
stiffness, but when you add together the cumulative stiffness is even more than the sum
of individuals.
So, suppose if individual it is giving 1, it is giving 1, it is giving 2, but when you

combined it, if the equivalent stiffness is more than 1 plus 1 plus 2 that 4, so, it should be
more it will be more than 4.
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The hinged frame is used for the interconnection, so the other connection to the exterior
column is basically to this. Then connecting beam force to the wall, so all whenever
wind struck to this particular thing. So, this beam will actually transfer the load to the
shear wall and shear will act about like then transfer the load to the ground.
Now, coming to the example here we have two examples one from Australia and other
from US where you can see that this is basically the core and how the others are placed
or that they are linked very symmetrically with the various symmetrical structure it is.
So, it is making this shear wall hinge frame which is basically the shear wall at the center
and then, this is the case. This is so true for this and we can go reasonably a good storey
40 to 50 storey building for that and if you search for this building you will get more
details.
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So, I would suggest that you go through you will get more information about that how it
works.
Now, coming to the interaction, yes. So, here it is basically where you just use your
frame moment resistance frame, so it will have a movement and then this is basically the
shear truss or shear wall and then when you combine, so, the combination of shear truss
and shear walls with moment resistance frame. In that case the upper part of the truss is
restrained by the frame; the upper part is restrained by the frame because of the behavior.
And the lower part of the frame is restrained by the shear wall, so the lower part being
restrained by this, so this will act in a better manner. And in this case two types are or
sub categories we can have; one is your braced rigid frames and other is your shear wall
rigid frame, so let us see.
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So, in this case if you see, this is the braced rigid frames where it effectively resists the
lateral load by producing shear truss frame interacting system, it is common for both.
And this is example for Empire State Building in New York. And here also, it is the
Seagram Building both are very commonly used building examples in architecture there
this system being used;
Moving forward the shear wall rigid frames. So, in that case, in state of your braced
frame at different interval, so, here we use the shear wall and then the same example that
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I have given. So, this is basically up to 17 floors, we will see these phenomena of the
braced rigid frame. But whereas, from 17 to 29th floor we will get this shear wall frame
interaction system, so, where the portion is being made of the shear wall of this building.
Now, coming to the last category of this is basically the outriggers. In this case
outriggers serve to reduce the overturning moment of the core. So, here if you see that
this is the core, this is in a tilted position, but the original position is something like that.
And if you have only the slab in that case it will bend a more, but as because if you
provide some thickness, so instead of that you would just increase the thickness of this
slab and just check that the movement during your the lateral sway, so it will be
minimized. So, in this curve it has been shown that the moment in core with outrigger
bracing and then moment in the core without out trigger mission based on the height this
is the same building if you see that how this can take place.
Transfer the reduced moment to the outer columns through the outriggers is the property
here. The outriggers are generally in form of trusses in steel structures or walls in
concrete structure. So, it may be steel or it may be wall, but it to be placed at certain
intervals. That in the beginning we have seen that building where this is being placed
along with the core, so, it is been placed at some, maybe a 5 floors interval or 10 floors
interval.
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Coming to the example, this is the example of Taipei, so here you can see that in
different levels, in the section though it is not much clear, but you can see some of the
places where this being used at different interval. So, along with the core truss that we
have, also we have this kind of truss system this is also called belt truss.
So, this will help this structure to go and if you see that now this is something with the
interior structure and we can go up to 100 storey building. If you go beyond that, so
along with the interior structure we should go for some exterior structure where the outer
periphery, at the periphery. We have to provide some structural members as well to resist
again the lateral load.
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Now, this is another example for this is Jin Mao Building in China, here you can easily
see this is the finished product, but here you can see that how this floor being managed.
So, here also you can get some bracing, structural bracing that being made and also in
this floor it is basically giving this truss which is made of concrete and then it is giving
this particular belt truss.
So, here also you can see that how this being made, so in different floors it is being
maintained. And finally, it is similar to this if you compare these two examples, it is the
outrigger structure which will help us to go even for the larger height.
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So, this is all about the interior structure where we have seen this. So, if we just try to
summarize, we have the braced hinged structure and then we have the shear wall, then
also we have seen the shear wall or shear truss is the same. And we can use a concrete or
steel to make this, then you have your shear wall, and then your frame interaction. Then
also you have seen the outriggers, and then what I mentioned, I forgot to mention that is
the rigid frame. So, when you just move from this to this, you can increase the height of
the building. And the complexity the cost definitely it will increase, but at the same time,
like in order to make your structure safe and to design as you desire, so you should go for
that.
But it is all about the interior structure and why it is interior structure, we have to
remember that major part of the lateral load resisting system is actually placed in the
interior of the building. So, in terms of core and then in order to improve it sometimes
you have seen that in the outriggers that along with the core, so, we also go for these
outriggers which will help to resist the sway to certain control. And that can be made
with something with the truss that we have seen in Taipei.
I have shown this example also Jin Mao Building we have seen this. So, with this I will
conclude this lecture here and we will be looking forward to the discussion on the
exterior structure. Then we can see the difference between these two and what are the
other applications and some examples. And then we will move to the case studies of
different mega structure in from the different parts of the world.
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So, again for the study material you can actually go through this book this is very useful.
If you have access to this book through the library or some subscription, so you can get
enough information or else you can go through the links provided to the slides in relevant
slides, so that you can get more information about that.
So, here whatever we have discussed mostly these are being controlled the information
many other information’s available in the website of your council on tall buildings and
urban habitat. So, please browse through their website and get more information about
that evaluation and different category of the buildings, the types and then you just add on
more examples.
So, these are very few that I have shown you with the stipulated time, but there are good
number of buildings that is coming into the category. So, you just try to figure it out
based on the structural components, based on the composition of different members that
which category of interior structure that building fall under.
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So, with that again I thank you all to take part and we will be discussing the next on the
Lecture Number-38 that is your Highrise Structural Component Part II. And we will be
discussing on the exterior structure and their application, so till then bye.
Thank you.
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Structure, From, and Architecture: The Synergy
Lecture - 38
Highrise Structural Components- Part II
Hello everyone, welcome back again to the online NPTEL course on Structure, Form,
and Architecture: The Synergy. In the last lecture we have discussed about various
structural components pertaining to the high-rise structure and we discussed on the
interior structure. In that part what we understand that, mostly the load bearing members,
major structural members are placed at interior of the building.
Now, we move forward and we will see the different kind of structural element and their
mechanism, their property, their association related to the exterior structure. That means,
in short in this category, all the structural members; like majority of the structural
members are placed at the perimeter of the building of high-rise structure and that refer
to the exterior structures. So, without further delay, let us start this particular discussion.
Here also this is a beautiful skyline and always like the reason to start the lecture with
this nice photograph, so just get a sense how beautiful it look like; but with this beauty,
with this beautiful form, aesthetically pleasant, we should also know the structural
systems, so that we can actually know the mechanism. Even with our further exploration,
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we can also try this for our design. Now this is again a repetitive slide to start with, I
repeat this slide again.
So, mostly the high-rise structure, two different component, load component majorly to
be taken into consideration; first one is basically the axial load or the vertical load which
is also referred to the gravity load. And then it is acting like vertically towards the center
of the earth and this is called vertical load. Now compared to that as because the heights
increases, there will be high speed and due to that wind speed, there will be much more
lateral load. So, we should also take that into consideration.
So, this is something where wind will play a crucial role for the high rise. And even we
have discussed many a times with the increase of the height, the pressure the wind
pressure is also increasing exponentially, so that we need to take care of. Not only the
wind, but at the same time, if your building is somewhere in the earthquake prone area;
then definitely there will be a threat from the earthquake or seismic activity. Then there
will be some oscillation and that will have a direct implication, impact on the high rise.
So, this lateral load and as well as the gravity load to be taken into consideration for the
high-rise structure.
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Now, coming to the components in general terms, we have columns which will be
basically responsible in most of the cases to take care of the gravity load. Beam is
basically taking care of the lateral load and also it will transfer the load of the floor to the
column and also it will protect against the lateral load. Then the shear wall is basically
again extended column we may say that, which will act as a cantilever to the base; which
will helpful to take care of the lateral load as well as the gravity load.
The bracings give better stability and also resist against the lateral load for the structure.
And in this case the bracing can be done in many ways, it may be one side diagonal
bracing, it may be of cross diagonal bracing, it may be sometimes of K diagonal bracing.
So, we have seen in our previous discussions; how the bracing can help. Basically this
will act as a triangulation or triangulated member association. So, in that relationship, it
will act as a thrust and then it will make it easy to transfer the load. Now also we
discussed about the core, and core depending on the position we have already discussed
the central core; it may be split core in different parts, it may be one ended core, or
maybe we can have an atrium and the core. So, core will give internals stability; the core
can be made of shear wall, it can be a frame structure that we have discussed in the part-I
of this discussion, like where we discussed about the interior structure.
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Now, for the interior structure and exterior structure; interior structures were major part
or major portion of the structural members responsible for the axial and lateral load is
placed interior of the building is interior structure and whereas, when it is to be placed at
the perimeter, then it will become exterior structure.
So, in this slide if you look carefully, the placing of the main columns; if we see this as a
plan and this is a view, so in this case all the structural members; remember major part of
the load is carrying by this. So, that is why I core refer it to the majority of the structural
members; because the structure which will take the lateral load resistant, so they will be
placed at the center or maybe interior, not centered all the time, we have seen in the core
that different kind of thing, but interior.
So, here it is placed in this; on contrast we can see in this plan that those columns are
placed at the perimeter. And if you see the view, it will look something like that this is a
schematic view, but this is basically the exterior. So, in upcoming slide we will not
discuss with the interior, we will only discuss the part of the exterior structure. And how
we can reach to a different height and how we can make things, make systems more
stable, more strong to that it can go even the higher reach and then can make tall story.
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Now, here it is again a schematic pictorial where it shows the storey, number of storey
that bridge story we can achieved with this kind of structure, if we use for high rise and
then these are different system. So, basically in this case, there are framed structure and
this framed structure can be made of concrete, it can be of your steel; then we can move
to the tube structure. So, frame structure, normal frame structure that we have seen in the
interior structure; but here is the first category that we can see here, is basically tube
structure. So, what is tube structure we will come to that.
Then we have diagrid and in some of the lectures we have seen that diagrid means where
the grid itself is not perpendicular to the edge, it is making a diagonal. So, if a structural
system is designed according to this, we will have a diagrid structure; then we have this
is number 1, diagrid number 2, 3rd is the exoskeleton structure. So, skeleton structure
means, if I say that I am here; so, my skeleton if I just remove everything and if I just
make a make an X ray, so whatever the skeleton will look. So, this is basically hidden.
So, this is inside my body, but sometimes I just try to make something where the whole
structure is outside of the building and giving the support to the building and also resist
the lateral load and that can be exoskeleton. So, which is actually outside of the building
or maybe it is we can call at the exterior. So, we will see that how that system is working
and also some relevant examples on that particular note.
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Now on that when we have this tube structure, diagrid, and the exoskeleton sometimes
even to go high, we can have bundled tube. So, if you have one tube and then we make
one after another, they are connected, so that will make bundled tube structure. Now
sometimes we can also have tube in tube structure, so we will discuss in that. Now
beyond that there is another system where we use the diagonal bracing to create some
space truss. So, this is another category to that. And then moving forward, we can have
super frame, ok.
This is another concept, where we can even go beyond that. Even now also in the recent
times we also improve this super frame concept and we can have super frame conjoint
models. So, then we can even go higher with this structure and again we can use a steel
for this kind of a material or maybe the main portion of the structure will be in steel and
then the concrete or the composite material.
So, now we slowly move forward and we will try to see what are the types and then each
types of them at least we can get one example and then I suggest you; use such similar,
more examples, so that you can understand that this building basically the fundamental
structure is being adopted with this concept.
Now, coming to the slide, exterior structure, mainly we can see five types into this
category. So, one is tube system, then diagrid system, exoskeleton system, space truss
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structure system and super frames structural system. And now we move to the tube
system.
Now, what is tube? I am saying or I am uttering this tube so many times till now, but
what exactly the tube. So, I will just make it very simple. So, instead of tube in structure,
if I ask you the tube that we use for the water supply or maybe the tube you used to spray
water to the garden. So, it is basically something like this, will have a thickness. So, you
have outer circle and we have inner circle and the thickness is basically your outer circle
radius and the inner circle radius. So, that will give you the tube form. Now how it is
different, from the structural point of view? That is not much different, ok. So, this is
something which we are much familiar with the tube; but at the same time if I make
something like this having a thickness, we have an inner square and the outer square and
this particular portion either it is solid like this, so this is tube.
Sometimes we do not even fill the entire cross section, but instead of that we just placed
the structural element so close to each other. So, close to each other that it will look like,
it will act like a tube and that is the main fundamental of this tube structure. So,
whenever you place your columns very close to each other, so that will help to make
your structure stable and also it will make your structure resistant enough from the lateral
sway, due to the wind pressure at higher level, at higher height.
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Now, what exactly it is let us understand this; a hollow cantilever structure perpendicular
to the ground to resist the lateral load, so what is perpendicular then? Then if you have
this ground and then you just make this box. So, this is a plan and now you just erect this
building. So, it will act as a cantilever. So, you just make a rotation to this surface. Now
if I just consider this as a ground and this is your column and then you just rotate it like
this. So, this is basically act as a cantilever.
Then closely placed columns around the perimeter and this is very obvious to have the
under perimeter; because we are now talking about the exterior structure. But we will see
that sometimes even we can place these columns even interior in tube in tube structure;
means, one tube outside one tube inside at the core and then we connect it with the floor
or sometimes with the we also call it diaphragm and then maybe with the beam, we will
come to that. Now, in this case the perimeter as I mentioned and they are tied together
with deep spandrel beam, ok. So, it is getting connected, all the columns to be connected
at different levels with a moment connection. The combined structure of columns and
beams resulting a rigid frame provided a dense and strong structural wall along the
exterior high rise.
Now what exactly it is? If we take this example where it is very solid, you can still make
your building; but where from we will get the light, you will not have any view, it will
act as a chimney ok, chimney like or tower like structure. But we have to create the
opening as well, we also have to get the view; for that reason, we just create some
punctures ok, and when you place column close to each other; that means, the opening
percentage will be less. So, still it will act like a solid wall structure and that will protect
your building, that will make your structure stable.
So, here these are different schematics where you can see the frame tube, where these are
all small small column ok; not small exactly like here in the picture representative, but
they are placed very closely each other, it may vary from 1.5 meter, 2 meter to even 3
meter and then it is getting connected with the spandrel beam. Whereas, it is a solid core
like this, but there are some punctures to get the view.
Here it is the spandrel beam, here you can get that your tube, the column spacing is little
bit away not usual like this, but additional in the elevation you can see that we can use
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some structural bracing. So, this is advantage of getting this diagonal braced tube, where
you can create a good opening ok, to view outside.
Now bundle tube where you can see that, even interior, different individual structure
being made together. Now, this is where it is single tube structure and this is the bundled
tube structure. So, you can either go with a solid one with little perforation or maybe you
can think of this structural bracing here. Now coming to the tube in tube structure, as I
mentioned that, where there will be an interior tube and exterior tube. So, this is one
form where your frame tube in tube. So, you can get this, where perforated will have
another core like this and then in the bundled tube is basically the same thing. But here
the build process means, at the height you can get something; like already we have seen
in the previous that, we had different floor levels ok, maybe each 15 floor or 20 floor will
have a truss to just make the truss belt.
Now, coming to the tube system, again it is subdivided into four categories; framed tube,
braced tube, bundled tube, and tube in tube.
896
So, the first one is basically the frame tube. So, in this case the material can be steel,
material can be concrete. So, again you can see that all these black squares, small square
are nothing, but the columns and you can see that how close they are placed, ok. And
they are connected with a red line, which is basically a spandrel beam and that will give
you a structure something like this. And you can still use it up to certain level and after
that it will not really act, because of this is when you use concrete; but with the still you
can even go up.
In this frame structure exterior building, columns are closely placed and rigidly
connected with deep spandrel beams and it is basically a brace tube structure, a very
basic tube structure that is similar. So, only differentiate instead of a solid tube, we have
now the columns closely placed and they are connected.
897
Coming to the example; in this case this is Aon Center in Chicago. So, in this case these
are, this black portion these triangles are nothing, but the columns; these are visible here
you can see and the profile ok, how closely they are placed. And this structure is looking
very simple, but then also it is giving a beautiful facade with your this triangle position
of the column. And here you can see that, they are connected and then the limitation that
I have told you that, you cannot have large openings; because you have to place the
columns very close to each other.
898
Coming to the concrete again it will be similar to that and you can see that in some
portion you can have a deep beam and all to just give better rigidity. So, again it is
something very simple of a rectangular plan, where the columns are very closely placed
and then it is just connected with this beam.
Coming to the braced tube, in order to remove those restriction related to the close
spacing between two columns; if we want to increase it, then in that case this bracing,
structural bracing system will help us. Widely spaced columns are stiffened with
diagonal bracing and this will perform as a tube like this. So, here you can see that,
compared to this diagram is very closely placed, now it is placed little bit away and if
you see that, it is being braced with the diagonal members. So, that will help. So, braces
are nothing, but the inclined column, yes. If you see the detail, so basically floor to floor
or maybe sometimes it make combined of say few floors and then they connect this all
the floors and it is inclined common. So, it will solve the dual purpose; first it will help
to place those columns little bit away, at the same time it will also help to transfer the
load from the floor to the column. So, this way it will help, ok.
The spacing between exterior columns can be widen and the size of the spandrel and as
well as the columns can be reduced; as because of this structural bracing, at the same
time you can go the higher.
899
So, coming to the example, this is one of the beautiful examples in this category that
John Hancock center again in Chicago; Chicago, USA like in this place you will get very
beautiful high-rise structures and they are really good examples of the mega structures
and high-rise structure systems. So, in this case here, again you can easily see that how
this bracing is done, you have earlier; if you remove it, it is nothing but your column,
closely placed column.
Now you can get some width, you can get some opening; so, in that case this bracing will
help us to have a wider opening. So, here you can see the structure and this is from the
interior. So, in this case, you can still get this inclined bracing into interior; but
considerably you can get a better view. And if you place this in a symmetry or also it will
give a different experience. So, this is made of steel.
900
But with concrete also you can go with this. So, this is example of Onterie center, again
in Chicago. So, here you can see how this being done. So, again with this normal,
column frame tube structure; so diagonal being used and there is no horizontal beam. So,
this will actually help it to resist again the lateral load.
Moving forward, now we are having the bundled tube system. So, where you have
multiple tube having a close proximity, we can tie up. So, this is true for your square
tube or something like that, ok. So, in this a cluster of individual tubes connected
901
together and act as a single unit that is the beauty in this. And here you can see that this
is considered to be a single tube, this is another tube, and they are connected to have a
form of this.
Spacing of the columns may be wider and we can use bracing as well in this; and that
will help to place interior frames in lines with better use. Addition of diagonal bracing
further increases the height; with this we can still go better than a single tube, but again if
you add bracing, it will help to go further.
So, this is again a very good example of the same category, Sears Towers, again from the
same place. And here you can see if you see the plan, so section is given. So, this is a
section cut. So, you can get 1, 2, 3, 4; 3 by 3 grid and then how these being changed over
certain height and this is example of this particular bundled tube. Now in the recent time
there is another example, you just go and search about this; this is basically the Burj
Khalifa.
902
Now, coming to the concrete, earlier it was made of steel; now in this bundle tube this is
made of concrete and then in this example which is your Carnegie Hall Tower. So, in
this case you can also see similar kind of arrangements, where this small block, the large
block they have been clubbed together to create this.
Coming to the last category of your tube systems, that is tube in tube, where you have
interior tube, the exterior tube; interior tube maybe up solid, maybe braced tube or the
frame tube. As we can see in the slide, the core and outer tube connected by the floor
903
diaphragm, which transfer the lateral load to both the systems. So, in this case along with
the exterior members; the interior core will also take some portion of the lateral load. So,
that is the reason we can even go higher with this.
This is the example of Tabung Haji. So, where you can see this is a circular form. So, we
have column placed outside, ok. So, this is basically your one tube and then you have a
code system at the centre and they are connected. So, this is one example of tube in tube
system.
904
Moving from the tube structure to the next that is the diagrid system. In this diagrid
system is basically the vertical columns will be eliminated, and conventional vertical
columns are eliminated and it is forming a grid which is diagonal like this. Diagonal
members, diagrid; like it is something like bracing, but here it is all the columns are
making this particular grid as a diagonal.
So, this system can carry gravity load as well as the lateral force. So, this is the beauty of
this structure, and this is only possible because of their triangulated configuration; like
the way that truss is distributing the load, is the same manner. Efficiently resist the lateral
shear by axial force in the diagonal member. So, this is actually helping to resist against
lateral shear; but the main issue is the design and the complicated joints. So, if we make
this structure during the construction, proper care to be taken; because it is not very
simple, even the shuttering will be something different. Coming to this example, so here
you can see the building 30 St Mary Axe in London.
So, again you can see here, it will be better understood from this where it is under
construction building; where the members are basically making this grid and in a
diagonal manner and these are the joints. So, these joints to be taken up special care of.
And here you can see the opening, so this is one example and diagrid system here it is
very simple; where the steel being used to make the entire frame and the glass used as a
glazing.
905
Now, coming to concrete, little bit solid perforated one, this is O-14 Building in Dubai.
Now, you see the way I told you that how to make the reinforcement and the overall grid.
So, this is basically a solid wall and where main beams are running and making a grid
and this perforation. So, this is a beautiful example of diagrid, but in a different form; it
is not exactly the column is visible, making diagonal with some angle, but here it is some
perforation.
906
Coming to the exoskeleton system, in this type the lateral load resisting system are
placed outside the building lines. Sometimes like if this is your floor; basically, in order
to take the load, there is a connection from the building and you have the system outside
and which will carry the load. It acts as a primary building identifier, because we will
first see those structure that your skeleton and then whatever inside. Interior floor is
never obstructed by perimeter column. So, this is basically having no such columns or
something. So, you can get a different view altogether.
Coming to the example, we have two examples; one is Morpheus Hotel in Maccau
design by Zaha Hadid Group. So, here you can see that how this is being done. So, these
members they are actually taking care of the lateral load, which is actually protecting
this. And the other example is from the Burj Al Arab in Dubai, where again and the main
structure whatever the hotels you can get, the inside is being supported by the external
exoskeleton. So, here you can see that this whole structure being made, and then all these
beams and then the truss space truss or space frame being attached to this building and it
is holding the whole load of this particular structure. So, this is another example of
exoskeleton system. You can definitely find more and I think it will be better if you can
search more and then share with me in the forum.
907
Coming to the next category of that, we have space truss system. So, in this space truss
system, the space truss structure are modified brace tube with diagonally connecting
exterior and interior. So, in the earlier case, in the bracing we just connect those exterior
beams, this beam to beam at the junction of the column. So, this is the bracing. So, here
also with the frame we connect interior. In space trusses, diagonals penetrate the interior
of the building; whereas, in a typical brace tube structure, diagonal only placed a parallel
to the exterior plane. So, what I explained, this is in case of brace tube structure; but in
this case they are actually connecting the interior. These also efficiently resist the lateral
shear by the axial force present in the truss member. And again it is acting with the
triangulated manner; but with this truss and all in the building wherever it being placed,
will have some obstruction to the exterior view.
908
So, here the example of Bank of China. So, here you can see that the truss being used at
different level and also we have this diagonal bracing as normal. And overall, the
structure you get is something like this. So, this is the example of space trussed system.
And you can get more on that.
Now last, but not the least into this category, and as I said that now there are more
advanced improvement; whether advancement and improvement to this super frame we
can go for the conjoint super frame structure and all, these are the proposals can go even
909
better, but this concept is something developed. And then in this case, the super frame is
composed of mega columns, ok; comprising braced frame of large dimension ok, at the
building corner. So, these are very important things. So, first of all we have mega
columns, the size will be huge, and they are placed at the corner of the building. So, if
you see the plan, so these portions if you see that main columns are placed at the corner.
So, this particular portion if you see, we can use that kind of mega columns and linked
by multi story trusses in each if each like for 15 to 20 floors. So, here also you can get
that ok, you just make those columns ok, mega columns and then you give a connection;
at not in each floor, but in different floors. These links are designed to reduce the lateral
displacement and the story dripped due to the wind ok; enhancing the total stability as
well, because of this super column and the super beam combination.
Coming to the category example; so, this Parque Central Tower this is made of concrete
here also it being applied, partially where the core being designed with this solid heavy
mass. And then the rest of the things is getting connection and alternatively it is being
tied up with those cores in this building. So, this is the example of the super frame.
But as I mentioned that the mile-high tower project in Chicago, so here is being
designed. So, you can see that multiple story being made, and this is really going to a
larger height. And in this case, it is basically the conjoint. So, four different structure,
they are conjoint to each other. So, if I want one structure to be built, so those corners to
910
be made very strong with the super column of mega scale and then is getting connection
at different 15 floors or 20 floors each to give better stability helping in resisting the
load, especially the lateral load.
So, with this like now if we want to summarize. So, this is all exterior structures and
when we call exterior structure, when major part or what we call major lateral load
shearing to be done by the structural members placed at perimeter or maybe this is
basically the exterior structure, that is the fundamental. And based on that what we have
seen, we have categories of tubes, we have also discussed tube structure. We have
discussed about the diagrid, we discussed about the exoskeleton, we also discussed about
space truss system, and also we discussed about the super frame.
Now in tube what we have seen that, there are framed tubes, and definitely when you go
with framed tube, you have certain limitation. And then when you add bracing, so it will
become the braced tube that will give a better stability. So, brace tube structure will look
like that; when you have this and you have connection at different floor level. This will
actually relax the restriction of the close spacing between the columns in case of the
framed tube. And then also we have seen in this category your tube in tube, where you
both like the interior as well as exterior both will take the load and also the bundled tube
that we have seen in case of your Burj Khalifa, ok. So, what I ask you to just search and
then get the detail of the same bundled tube.
911
Now coming to the diagrid, we have seen the example, where basically all the columns
are inclined and they are making the grid that will carry both lateral loads as well as the
axial as well. The exoskeleton that we have discussed about your example of your Burj
Al Arab, where basically the main structure being placed outside of the building, so that
the floor will not have restriction of the column; and this is something where this
structure itself is giving the first look of the building. So, this is your Burj Al Arab about
the exoskeleton structure.
Then the space truss, we have seen that were not only the outside of the building, but
also in this, the truss the bracing is connected to the interior. And we have seen some
examples of the category. And super frame is the concept where you have to use some
like super column of high dimension at the corner and then you erect the building and
then at different interval you have to connect it with your super beam, and by this you
can go up.
So, this is all about these exterior structures; but this is something based on some
category, where interior and exterior structure are separated. Also, I have shown some of
the examples using concrete and still; but there are n number of lists, we can always add
on and I just leave that task upon you, so you just add more example into this category.
Even in a recent developments, so people are also thinking of going beyond the super
frame, so they go for the super beam conjoint; where different super frame structures
being attached together with different structural components, may be a different levels of
your space truss or something, and we can go even mile high tower. And one of such
projects which is there in Chicago I have shown that.
So, just go into detail and I have given the few of the links as sources of those pictures
where from I have taken. So, if you browse to that, you can get more information and
that will definitely help you to understand this, maybe you can get more insightful idea
that we can use as a student, you can use it for your design; if you are designing
something of high-rise hotel or something. And even you do not design, then it is always
better to know the system; only we appreciate the beauty and overall form of the skyline,
but also know how it works.
912
So, with that I conclude this and these are the study material I have mentioned earlier.
So, this book is very useful; if you get access to this, please go through this book, you
will get more information, more case studies as well. And as I mentioned case study, so
the next lecture will be on that.
So, we have learned about the evolution of structural systems and then we also came to
know about the interior structures and the exterior structures; but now it is better to have
not all few very important buildings, which are really put the footprint for in the list of
the tallest structures in the recent times, we will touch up on a few of them and try to
know the detail of that. Like the material use, the spacing and some more insight; not
with only one diagram or something, we will try to understand that, ok.
And also, after that what I suggest that, you will, I will give you some example, you just
go through that case studies, and then just discuss it in the forum. And I will be happy to
discuss that thing; if something to be clarified, I will be more than happy to do that. So,
with that I conclude this lecture and we will be meeting in the next lecture, which is your
mega structure and architecture-case studies. And before conclude it; finally, I would
like to thank you to take part in this course. So, we will be meeting in the next lecture.
Thank you.
913
Lecture – 39
Mega Structures and Architecture – Case Studies
Hi everyone. Welcome back again to the online NPTEL course on Structure, Form, and
Architecture: The Synergy. Today, we are at Lecture Number-39, and we will be
discussing on some of the mega structures, high rise buildings, and we will try to see
their architectural form and structural arrangements. In last two lectures, we have
discussed on different structural systems, specially classified under the category of
exterior structures and interior structures for high rise building. And we have seen their
applications how different height can be achieved; how different resistant structure can
be formed with those that we have discussed in detail.
Now, in this lecture, we will basically focus on some examples, we will take very few
examples and then we will try to understand that structural systems used in these
structures, these examples. And with that, what will be your task after this to find more
such information such more case studies which can have different structural system that
we discussed in our previous discussions like exterior structures or interior structures.
So, let us start today’s discussion on mega structure- case studies.
914
So, in this slide I have picked up four examples and we will be discussing on these four
examples about their structural arrangement architectural forms and different systems.
And I guess that these all four examples are known to you and take few moments and
just check whether these buildings or not; it’s great, but if not then also after this
discussion I think these four examples will be what do you mean by all of you, because
we will discuss in detail.
So, let us start one by one. So, the first building I think all of you got this on the left hand
side this particular thing, it is your Shanghai tower, the second one is Burj Khalifa, third
one is One World Trade Center in New York and the last one is your Marina Bay Sands
in Singapore, so we will be discussing one after another.
Let us start with a Shanghai tower in China.
915
This is basically a different concept by which this building was made; its tower if you
look into this slide and that here it says, it is a city within city concept. So, when we
started discussing the need of high-rise structures, one particular point I told that with
rapid urbanization, with the high demand of accommodation, and housing. It is very
difficult to go for horizontal expansion with a constraints situation that is why like high
rise will accommodate and can meet the demand to extent, but at the same time not only
residing in a building, but we all also need to do some activities.
We need to move from one place to another place for shopping activity or maybe some
official activities. So, for that it would be something great if we can get those facilities
and, what is a daily a day a day-to-day basis activity within close proximity. So, with this
concept this has been done here like this is basically a city within a city comprising of
nine vertical zones.
So, if you see the building, this building is having a height of 632 meter and then if you
can consider the floors above ground it is 124, this is a really tall structure. And if you
see that the whole height is being divided in several zones, and each will have say 12 to
15 storey and different functions being assigned. Some of them are maybe the hotels,
maybe restaurants, shops and some of them are the hotel rooms for the residential
purpose.
916
So, public space and so its restaurant and other urban amenities strategically located at
the floors with public atriums, and normally that to be open for all. Again, this is a new
way of inhabiting super tall towers. The concept the upper floors will have hotels, then
you have cultural venues, and observation deck from which you can actually see the
entire city.
Coming to the structural system, in this as we have discussed earlier in the example of
exterior structure and interior structures; in this case it is the structural form that being
used is the core tube structure. So, tube structure if you recall recently what we have
discussed that where you can phase up columns with very close interval, and then they
are being connected with the spandrel beam so that will form as a tube.
Along with that what they have used in different height, is the belt truss. And then also as
external column they have given some mega columns. And then at different height if you
can see those portions, they have used the outriggers trusses which will actually help to
resist again the wind loads, wherever they have changing the sections of that.
917
Now, coming to the plan it is very simplistic plan as we have discussed here in this core
tube, so this is basically the core I was talking about and how it is been connected. So,
this tube is there at the core and then you have some mega columns which is running
through. And then at different height, maybe at a with say 15, 20 floors height; so they
have use the belt truss at the system which is making it strong. So, here you can see the
under construction building where you can easily identify those areas, where those belt
truss being used.
918
Now, coming to the next example before coming to this example let also discuss the
profile that building it started with a larger cross section and then at a certain height, the
cross section also gets reduced and this is basically to tackle the lateral load. So,
basically when we discussed the shape like a pyramid shape or conical shape which will
have a better performance against the wind load, heavy wind load at the top. And then
reduction in mass at the upper storey, definitely help to make the structure more stable.
So, in this the combination of the tube, core tube, the shear wall tube and then the
outrigger truss, some mega columns at different portion is really making the structure
stable.
Now, if I ask you a question that considering the plan, the structural arrangement where
we can feed this building; whether it is your interior structure or exterior structure? So, in
judgment you have this majority of the lateral load sharing portion is inside that core
tube core. So, we may classify into interior structure, but at the same time like we have
some mega columns at the exterior at the periphery, so what would be the answer? So,
what I want you to just give the logic or what do you think that how we can classify or it
is something new kind of type both can be given equal weightage. So, I am expecting
that kind of feedback, comment from your side.
Coming to this example and definitely with the shad like all other buildings in this, so
this is really giving a dominance and it is giving a feeling of standing alone or very
strong appearance with this silhouette.
919
So, Burj Khalifa it is in Dubai. Now, in this case earlier also I have mentioned the
concept has been taken a little bit from the bundle tube structure, where we have
discussed some other examples where like a you have multiple tube bound together and
then you just change the cross section at the top but, it is not exactly the bundle tube ah.
Here it is some modified structure being used and Y-shape a building plan is being
formed with a hexagonal core at the middle, so this is also referred as the buttressed core.
920
And this is having one major implication that is this Y form of the plan that we will
discuss, we can see this plan. So, this Y form having a core, hexagonal core, it is not only
giving a good stability with three legs kind of arrangement, but also it is maximizing the
amount of perimeter. So, this is one of the good aerodynamic profile that we can have.
These also allows when you set your rooms at upper storey in both the wings we can
refer these wings, so we can place the rooms on the corner. So, all can get some external
view without really disturbing or without having any disturbance to the privacy to the
neighbor.
So, this is one form that where we can maximize the view, whereas in a close form
structure if we take something like this, so if it is a double loaded corridor, so then
definitely we cannot get a proper view for hotels.
Now, in this case again the exterior cladding and aluminum textured stainless glass being
used to make this building, the outer surface which are found very efficient and
considering the extreme weather condition, especially in summer in Dubai context.
And here, if you see that the floors above ground it is 163 floors have been made and the
total height is 829 m. So, almost 830 meters wherever the architectural height is a little
bit low if you just have considered the habitable space, but in this the height occupied is
only up to 585 meters. Now this is the plan, I was talking about and if you see that the
plan how it is going to change where it is a similar core is being continued. So, if you
find that this core hexagonal core is there, so this is very predominant this core it is
continuing, but the wings they become very shorter and it is happening with very
systematically; so we get the form of again a conical shape in this category.
921
Now, this is a detail view. So, what I was talking about this shear walls and this core is
facilitating to get a better view for all the hotels, residential areas very much attractive to
get this view. So, this is Y-shaped structure is called buttressed core with this; This is
under construction building where you can see that the core is been made here and the
wing they are actually under construction.
922
Now, coming to the next example this is from One World Trade Center in New York.
So, in this case again this structure is having a height like storey of 94 and a height of
546m up to the top, but the occupied height is only up to 386m.
In this case, it is a massive structure where the main structure being made with a concrete
core and where the moment frame consisting of beam and columns is used, they are
welded and bolted and that being used in this structure. Now, massive concrete core
shear wall, and the moment frame, they altogether is giving the better resistance against
the lateral load also the axial gravity load.
So, they in a combined manner giving the rigidity and adding the steepness to the
building. But applying the core is basically what is related to your interior structure, so
the major structural element which will take the major portion of the lateral load and
axial load placed inside as a concrete core in this building is definitely to be categorized
as the interior structure.
Now, if this is so, then my question is the example we have taken for the Burj Khalifa;
what would be the exterior or interior? Again I leave it to you and you give your
comment and justification why you think that that is there, and we will get back to those
answer and we will discuss on whenever we may have some forum discussion, then we
will share it with you.
923
Now, in this case this flexibility is always a problem for the structure where we use the
exterior one, whenever you use a heavy column or very closely placed column like tube
structure, so that will hinder the external view that is one problem. And also, if you have
a very regular frame structure column with regular interval, so the interior space will
have some constraint we cannot get a column less space. But whereas in this case a huge
massive core being used, so that like the other requirement of columns can be reduced
and the interior space can be used in a better way that is point of this kind of frame and
core structure.
Coming to the form again, that we have discussed earlier, during like the building shapes
and their requirement in earthquake prone or seismic prone areas and there I have a made
a comment like simpler the plan is better the performance and this is so true in this case
also. In this building, it has taken a very basic shape and then just is playing with the
basic shape not really very curved shape or something.
Where the core is being a constant element, and then there is some rotation at some
upper floors. So, the ground floor if you see the core is something like there and then,
this will continue with a very straight form not exactly the square form, but with a
chamfer with the 45 degree angle and then this shape again evolved to some kind of and
what we can get here is the octagonal form. So, this is transforming to the octagonal
924
form after a certain time and then at the top again it changes, so that will give the profile
of the building.
Now, one thing is also important for high rise structure. Along with the structural
stability and all the services are very important issues, like how people can evacuate in
case of emergency; in case of fire, in case of your earthquake, this is one or even to day-
to-day activity. If this I am staying in a 100 floor, so and I just want to get down, so
using stair I cannot think of this kind of situation, like definitely we need some kind of
vertical movement, vertical mobility, so that can be served with either escalator or maybe
sometimes most of the cases it is with the lift or the elevator.
But for a high rise building definitely if you have a single lift that is from ground to the
top level, it is not really solving our issues. Then the unnecessary waiting time will be
there, people will not really liking that, so we have to separate the zones. Like this if you
see in this slide, that zone has been divided, and then different elevator like some express
elevator, they will have some restriction this may be something which will stop at
different alternate levels or else depending on the initial few levels you have one, then
from there you get another one. So, like that this zoning is very much important for this.
So, as to for the services of the pipes system, the service floor is also required for this
kinds of high rise structures; like how you can supply the water? how we can take the
waste out of the toilet or kitchen? because with that height if you just normally allow the
water to come to the first floor. So, you cannot take that pressure and how to really
control the pressure. So, there are some system, the mechanical systems, these are very
important.
So, if you are interested to know the services of the high-rise structure, definitely look in
to those resources which is available in a book form. And even I have mentioned about a
book here, The Tall Buildings Reference Book; so, if you can get access to this book
through library or maybe if it is available in some forum. So, you can go through this
book and you can definitely get much more ideas on this kind of services and the
systems.
925
Now, coming to the construction again, the structure is very simple, straight forward, but
along with that the frame and also you can see that in this section that in different
segment we have these outriggers trusses or belt trusses a different level. Now, here you
can see that how the thickness of concrete core is running through and through and
different services being clubbed together. Definitely, when you go up then the number of
lifts and quantity people to be served like that also varies and accordingly that plan has to
be made. This is the under-construction photograph that I have picked up, in this case
this external staircase, the egress staircase is also having strong impact on that that is
attached to this. So, in case of emergency it can is easily helping this. So, basic form is
giving this kind of advantage to club some kind of stair through fire staircase or egress
staircase and helping the structure to perform in a better manner.
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With that moving to the last example in this discussion that is your Marina Bay Sands
hotels in Singapore. So, this is very nice a photograph that like I have picked up, at least
I liked it much. So, where you can see that three structures, multistoried buildings, are
holding another horizontal slap at some higher altitudes. So, this is something where it is
not like others where only one building has made with high rise and then a core is
designed. So, here it is something where at this height means the challenges are very
much more than compared to the single building, where the system to be designed for
only single tower.
927
Now, looking into the height, so this height is not that much compared to the other
buildings that we have discussed today. So, the height is around 200 meter that you can
see and the floors again it is considered to be low. And three towers, they are looking
identical and they are holding a particular slab at the top. Now, in this case a two-
converging slab of east and west facing rooms make up each tower what exactly this is?
So, for that we require this particular section. So, this is one this is another one and this
can be fixed or this can stand separately, but in this case these two slabs they are making
some arrangement like this to give the stability. So, this is like when we have discussed
the raking shore. So, this kind of arrangement is giving the stability to the tower.
Now, two converging slabs of east west facing room make up each tower. Each tower’s
slab form is also twisted slightly in relation to its pair, so that it will give a dance-like
relationship that is the visual aesthetic being done with this kind of arrangement. Though
in order to stability we just make the arrangement like this, where the building is getting
this shape.
And then also it will help to accentuating the slenderness of the building, so that in both
the cases like it will give the stability as well as the beauty. Linking three towers, as I
already mentioned that was the challenge, because this is not at the ground floor
normally many buildings, we get the heavy base at the bottom and then you have the
tower, but in this case, it is at the top. So, this particular portion to rest it and there is a
928
portion of the cantilever, so that is definitely a good engineering that being made to
create it.
So, coming to the section, already what we have discussed that, again it is having the
frame structure and then, this is the cross section that something like this if you want to
see from this side. So, this is the profile, where the structural arrangement is something
like that it is not very straight, so this is giving some stability to the structure.
Coming to the plan, again the plan is a simple. Yes, but it is not exactly in a linear form
rather it is giving some kind of radial access. And here, you can see this is actually the
top floor where different water, swimming pool type, water body being created and then
there are some a roof gardening has been done. But if you see just the this towers, so you
will get a very symmetrical tower that being placed one after another, is a very basic
form that has been taken here and then this upper slab is being placed on top of it.
So, like that, in this case the building height is not that much comparable to the other
examples I have taken, and these are very few. Again, I am saying, so if you search of
the tallest like tallest at 20 that I have also shown in the previous presentation, when you
discuss the evolution of structural system. Then you can find n number of list there
which are having like more than 100 storey and like say for example, the Taipei 101, you
can search or else you can go for the Petronas Tower even some cases you can get even
higher and some of the buildings are under construction. But the last example, I have
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included a purposefully to show the complexities not about the tower also to hold this
and that can be formed.
So, here the basic idea to create this tower where this lake kind of from being created, so
this angle is giving some kind of extra stability to the structure. Now, coming to the
summary, in this case this is something where we have seen different structural system
and for a particular building, so again if we just quickly look into this. So, when we
discussed about the first example of the Shanghai Tower, then where we have found that
again the basic form has been taken and then the structural system has been designed
with a core and that core is a tube core.
So, we are talking about the Shanghai Tower and along with that there are some mega
columns at the periphery, and then along with that we have some outriggers, belt truss at
different heights. And the whole tower is being like divided in different zones, where
different purposes different activity like shopping, then you have some restaurant, then
you have hotels, so this has been classified and that is with the concept of city within city
towers.
Coming to the next example of the Burj Khalifa; this is also similar to the bundle tube,
but here are the structural system that is been used as a Y-form. And then a hexagonal
core at this and it is referred to the, buttressed core structure. And now the form is being
taken with some advantage; in this case, like if you have this kind of Y-shape form and
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then the prevailing wind direction is from this, so it will direct the wind in a systematic
manner. So, this aerodynamic form is giving a better result compared to a square one or
maybe something of the other kinds. So, this Y is giving a better resistance against the
lateral loads, especially the wind.And then again like at the top with this basic form this
flows being reduced, so that the mass is being reduced at the top, so that we can get a
structure like this, like a conical shape.
Now, then what we have discussed on the One World Trade Center. There we have
found again a basic form being taken where almost squarish form with the chamfer at the
corner had been taken, and then gradually it evolved with the octagonal shape and again
it will come to a very basic shape at the top and then the form being created.
So, in that case what been used? So, again a core system; the concrete core being used at
the middle along with the frame and then at different heights the outriggers been also
placed. And along with that in the building what we have seen that egress staircase,
which is very strong and protective staircase being placed, which is also adding some
kind of stiffness to the building.
The last one that we have discussed with this hotel the Marina Bay Sands in Singapore,
there is basically these towers; three towers they are holding a heavy mass at the top and
giving a different viewer with the angle. In order to get the better stability and improve
the slenderness of this particular tower, so what has been done here?
So, the two slabs like, they are one is very straight and the other one having some kind of
bending. So, this is giving a support increasing the base so that this will have the better
stability and the again the basic form being repeated with little bit twist to get aesthetic
beauty of our dance like form in this building. So, these are four mega structure example
that have picked up for demonstration.
And again if I want to classify so, the first one again that is open to you also like here it
maybe interior structure, as because we have that tube core or also we have some heavy
column at the periphery, so that may also lead to the exterior structure where in this case
predominantly it will be of the interior structure because this core is being made at the
center.
931
And for again if we go for the World Trade Center, One World Trade Center, again it is
predominantly the concrete core and that is also helping to reduce the number of
columns unnecessary to have flexibility in the interior planning of the building. Whereas,
in this case, again this having the core system for each tower. It is not the centre core
system in this case. So, in this example what you get that the core is not at the middle.
So, the core at the side so when we discussed about different core, positions so the it can
be split-end, it can be a one end like this. So, this is a very simple and as because the
storey is not that much compared to the other building, so, the system is again the core
and along with the frame structure, but the main challenge was to take the load that been
calculated and that is resting on top of it. So, this kind of form and this kind of base, this
particular tiltation is creating the stability, adding the stability to the building.
So, with that I conclude here and we are almost at the verge of completing this particular
course. And we will be discussing the next lecture on the architecture and the structure
the past, the present and the future, futuristic architecture, so we will be discussing on
that. Before that like these are the study material, and this is very a useful document and
this is a one edited book that you can always refer to get more idea about the tall
building.
And just search about that book in your library and already if it is there or if it is
subscribed by your institutions, then you can easily get some more information from that.
932
And we will be discussing, we will be merging whatever the discussion that we had over
the last few weeks, we will be summarizing this and we will try to compare that what we
actually have progressed from the primitive edge with a stone hinge to the modern
architecture and again the futuristic architecture of, applying very high end engineering.
So, we will be discussing that in the next lecture. And again, before concluding this, I
would like to thank you all to take part in this course very actively, and we will be
meeting in the next lecture.
Thank you.
933
Lecture – 40
Architecture and Structure: Past, Present, & Future
Hello everyone. Welcome back again to my online NPTEL course on Structure, Form,
and Architecture: The Synergy. So, we have gone through several lectures, several
sessions over last few weeks and we have discussed many issues and today we are at the
last lecture of this series and this is Lecture Number-40. And here we will basically
discuss nothing new to it, but what the journey that we have made so far. What like we
have discussed various issues we have discussed on material we have discussed on
different techniques, different structural form. Then we have also seen the change the
architectural evolution from the primitive age to the present age. So, with this the name
of this session, name of this lecture is basically structure and architecture the past the
present and the future. So, we will be discussing on that.
Now, as at the beginning of the lecture probably the first lecture we have discussed
various definitions of architecture, form, and structure. Here again just get to know about
the definition, so there are multiple definitions of architecture given by different
architectss famous architects with different personalities. But at the same time if I take
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something in very short like architecture is basically articulation of spaces with proper
application of science technology and sociology as well.
So, all other aspects will govern the type of outcome that we are expecting as
architecture. Now if we just see in this slide, architecture is articulation of spaces. There
are different purposes. So, let us discuss this one by one. So, protect form externalities
both nature and predators and this was the main root cause of making buildings. If you
recall, I am sure that all of us will read in history maybe when we started reading history
that time itself like earlier our primitive men. So, they used to live in the cave, why
because that they found is safe to protect themselves from other animals or maybe other
natural calamities with a heavy wind, flood, something like that. But that keep is not
considered to be the man-made architecture it was not made by that person or the people
of that time. Now, gradually over the time because of some changes required in the
system, the men they started developing their own houses.
Whether it is pre house or then later on maybe your stone structure, stone henge or
maybe in the modern age where we are almost virtually touching the sky with the
skyscraper. This whole journey there is one single point that actually influenced that is
the need. Whenever there is a problem, whenever there is a challenge to the human
being, they just realized that they need something to do, they need something to improve
and then gradually all the innovations that came into picture.
Not in the building sector, all the innovations you take, if there is no need there is no
invention, and then gradually like based on the search, based on the experiment, based on
the failure, based on different success. So, now we are in this present age and gradually
now the process has not been stopped. Thousand and thousand years that we know from
the history of whatever something is documented, that how human, their building
technology that improved today presenting.
But yes to protect from those externalities both natural and from the other predators, that
was the threat at that time definitely from other animals and all and that wherever the
gigantic size is not like that, then men commend over other animals when during that
time that was a challenge and then they created that. Now it is also to ensure safety and
security of resources and this is very important, if you have some resources with you
definitely want some place where you can keep it.
935
If you open in like if you stay in an open to sky area so the security level will be less,
there will be different threat of losing the resources; Facilitate family living; So, when
they used to make the family then living like in a community. So, they need some kind of
settlements that also very much required, like it is not that I roam around here and there.
So, definitely with that social community bonding, so that also facilitate by a building
provide privacy that is also very important which can be created.
Achieve desired aesthetic; So, not only making your simple structure, but in order to
make it visually pleasing people also they have done with the basic structure it is safe,
but definitely people they prefer to make it more beautiful. So, that is something where
definitely it is not directly related to the safety or other thing, but yes that the visual
pleasure. Say for example, when you make a building, so we all know we test it that if
you make your building with this particular reinforced concrete structure and then we
just make frame structure than the brick wall that is good enough. But then if we add
plaster is ok, then if you make it just plastering it is ok. But why we go for painting it and
different kind of sheet painting putting some kind of artifacts, there who is basically not
improving the strength of the building it is basically a visual pleasure that one always
tries to make their building so beautiful that will be appreciated by others. So, this is
another reason that also people they try to innovate something which can add some
value.
Explore opportunities and this is something where we all can agree like whenever we
are doing something and we are repeatedly getting the same thing the same food. Say for
example, if we are taking same food each day thrice a day then probably we will get
bored, we always try to get something different even the ingredients are same we will try
something different or else we just try something totally different from what is available
to us and we taste it, if we don’t like if we can take a move.
Say you have practice suppose you are taking a food form a canteen and you like that
canteen very much and there is a new canteen come up and then definitely we are going
to try that canteen and then when you get that food is even better then you will get a
shift. So, it is true for any innovation where we keep on investigating how we can
improve the situation and there is no end to it and if there is a end virtually, that means
there will be no progress after that. So, that meet is always be there to have the
innovation.
936
Optimality is another thing where like how you can optimal the resources the
construction in other lectures, we have also discussed something on the effectiveness. So,
this optimality in design parameters in structural arrangements that is always a challenge,
and then if you can achieve it that will be good nothing can be better than that. Then the
last was is very vital word and now it is like it is being applied everywhere as the
sustainability.
So, sustainability concept is something we are definitely, it says that you use the
resources in such a manner that it will not disturb the future. The future generation can
also get something out of that because, whatever we are using to build our environment,
we are using natural resources directly indirectly and we are also damaging the
environment, but that will be a threat for the future generation to come.
So, better if we go for at least this concept of your built environment or the building, if
we can pick up some of the things which will be environmentally safe, also economically
viable and also socially accepted. So, your economical, social, and then environmental,
these three will give sustainable environment and the building can be one of the major
factor to that.
This sustainability can be applied in other area as well, but we stick to the architecture.
And we are not going to discuss detail of the sustainable architecture in this lecture
because, that is again a full-fledged subject that has different part. But in the context of
the need of a better articulation better architecture I just mentioned this particular term.
Now, we will just go through some of the images.
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(Refer Slide Time: 11:01).
So, this lecture purposefully I have not put many words many takes to define anything.
So, through these pictures we will try to understand the journey from like the first house
to even it is continuing. We do not have any perfect idea that after 50 years or after 100
years what will be the building typology, how building will look like? and what would
be the material? how that will be constructed? But at least with the trained we can guess
something that what could be a like what will be the scenario.
So, this is some representative photographs of a cave and that was a natural resource that
was a gift we can consider to the human being at that time to get the shelter inside that
which helped them to protect themselves from the externalities. Now after that when
they started making at their own.
938
So, they used this tepee and then the tree houses like they started making their houses
with the branch of trees and then also the material the agriculture based material or
maybe even earlier like in some presentation we have seen that they use the skin of the
animal they hunt and then they make the structure at their own. So, these are some of the
primitive structures they made and like they used the available material which was easily
available they just try to made it.
939
Now, this is the structure which is very important and then it has very much importance
to the evolution where the structure is being made with the stone and then this is the first
your post not the post is basically rather the wall slab construction.
So, where the stone is being placed, in such a situation which is your as a cantilever to
the base and then on top of this support at the another slab and that is created some
enclosure and there are many examples where this has been used even in the temple even
in for small structure. So, this is something very much primitive and that progress has
been started, where the wall slab construction is in the picture.
Next to that this is again a representative picture we cannot have a real one. But during
the time of Neolithic age; that time like they were in a position to just move from this
hunting to they started growing crops and then they started making the buildings next to
the riverbank, because a portion they were also engaged in the fishing activity. And they
use very simple structure they use the mud and then they use the the timber or the
bamboo like material branches and then they use the crops like those straw to make the
roof and the plan is very simple that time. So, this is basically the circular plan easy to
construct the conical roof at the top, so this is at that time.
940
Now, later on then there is a shift from that to the ancient civilizations and then Egyptian
civilization is one of the wonders, still we are amazed that how this kind of great
pyramid being created that time with stones one after another. So, perfect arrangement,
so that still this is something really, we can appreciate. So, they have started making
these buildings, but this is something is not the building to really live it has another
value. So, that there was a belief of life after death and then on that purpose this has been
designed and the mummy is kept and then all the belongings were also kept with him
after death.
Now after that if you see the Greek civilization and all then also like believe in gods and
the hierarchy of like to be placed.
941
So, this is the part tenant which is remains of the part tenant that has been placed in front
of you. So, again here is the change again. So, earlier in that stone age when we have
discussed the wall slab combination, so here it is basically your post beam. Post beam
construction, where it was realized that you do not need to make very solid wall, instead
of that you can use the post or later on it is being used as a column. Column beam
structure and that is really giving the satisfactory result. And that has been practice in
Greek as well as in Roman when we have seen some structure like pantheon and all.
942
Now, this is something in from the room where this multi-storey structure being made
with this kind of masonry work and use of arches. Now, slowly if you see when this is
not very simple architecture or just to have a very rough finish each of the columns look
very identical. So that means, the scenes it is basically not the supporting the structure it
is now beyond that, in order to make it beautiful, attractive, in order to present it to other
so called like the believe in god and all. So, all these small and minor details to that all
this curvature all these design in the capital whether it is Doric, Corinthian or Gothic
kind of capital that is really something beautiful. So, many thousand years back this kind
of arrangement is really appreciable. So, there is a move form a simple structure to now
ornamenting structure and that journey is started from this Greek and Roman and
gradually and then we will follow up it in the byzantine gothic age. So, this is again a
multi storey structure the masonry came into picture and then what I was talking about
during the gothic.
So, this structure like looking into this image. So, definitely the basic requirement to get
shelter and all that deviate little bit. Now, its the buildings for the community buildings
for the religions and all these worship came into picture, like it is not the own house to
just protect myself is basically the belief in some kind of superpower and then the
community building. Like whether it is making the charge whether it is making some
kind of temple and whatever the form they just were looking for.
943
A then if you see the ornamentation like the arches, their carvings and then the details
there is selection of the material like the stone different kind of stone.
So, ornamentation of structure was really practiced that time and still they are existing in
the world and then definitely those creations is really appreciable. And along with that
what I just forgot to mention then this is basically the scale. So, we need to talk about the
scale of architecture; this the scale in architecture is basically with respect to the human
being. So, then in earlier cases is all like if you see this pyramid the height of the
pyramid and what should be the size of a mummy that is a human height and compared
to that this height is something really very big and gigantic. So, gigantic scale and then
even here also those columns, beams they are also making in gigantic scale.
But gradually then the ornamentation and then when the minimalistic form has come
afterwards, that we have discussed in some of the lectures of the evolution, evolution of
the architectural system.
Then this is something known to us I guess all of as we know this building, again this
building is not for just to have a regular type building. So, again you can see the scale,
the composition, the beauty, ornamentation, so beautiful. So, this is some type of
architecture that has been created, maybe the purpose differs sometimes it is just to leave
sometimes it showcase some kind of power even the victory tower in India.
944
So, that sometimes in those kinds of structure is made for show case the prosperity of the
kingdom, king or show the power of the king or the who in the top level of the social
hierarchy. So, they are showcasing this kind of elements again the scale is very much
gigantic to that. Now, there is a move so I am not here giving work chronological order
or giving the time series.
But again, the move like this is something in the Sydney opera house; the technology
being change. Now coming from the traditional, your machinery work, load bearing
work, now it is transformed to the shell structure. And then we have discussed in detail
in the in some in form of some lectures like I guess almost three to five lectures on
different kind of structural form which is nontraditional to the load bearing or very
regular structure, the shell structure, dome structure then you have the space frame
structure like that this is something another improvement.
945
Now, this is another wonder where the space frame being used as reinforcement and like
this structure amazed with the space frame. So, this is a design by architect Zaha Hadid,
again this form like it is not regular. Now, it is breaking that particular conventional
straightforward orthogonal architecture to this kind of form. Where there is not much
ornamentation itself it is showing as ornament it is no additional ornamentation is
required this kind of building itself is representing as ornament.
Now coming to that this is another scale and now coming to the residential scale, where
it is in human scale. You need some space to live with your family or just live your what
we can you can just protect yourself form the other openness.
946
So, in that case this is a Habitat 67 that was made and where this different cuboid, these
very rectilinear shape, that has been arranged in such a manner that all will get the
facility to get some kind of view and exposure. So, this is another arrangement where
like it is not horizontal is a combination of horizontal and vertical combination that is of
the scale. So, far the whatever the pictures we have seen starting from the cave to this.
So, this the journey changes it is various time like the scale change the ornamentation the
structural arrangement of the materials, all the components they keep on changing to
coming to the present day and it is all because of the need when there was need to make
such gigantic structure that was on the commend of a king. So, that was made then
suddenly this demand for the individual’s larger community then this kind of structure
being made.
947
And then that has something the composition being established and then suddenly like
these some requirement is there to go high rise. The reason is the space availability for
the metro cities and like where almost like if you consider New York and others cities
like in Shanghai.
So, already they have done it before, but now this is in practice in India as well, this is a
picture from Kolkata and is the proposed already it is come almost in verge of
completion every it will be used very soon. So, this is basically The 42 and now as per
the record this is the tallest building in India which is constructed. Like before that there
were some buildings imperial one and two and Mumbai that was considered to be the
tallest, but now this will be the tallest in Kolkata.
And you can see that earlier tallest that how it is suppressing and then days to come it
will be something like that which will solve that need of the living space. And then this
is basically the high-rise structure high rise residential or mixed-use towers which will
have. So, in some presentation you have discussed the some buildings like the Shanghai
tower, whether it is considered to be city within city all the facilities shopping that are
already being planned in the same building.
948
So, similar to that this is again that was from India and this is the world like still before
the kingdom tower. So, this is basically the considered to be the tallest tower like
building in the world. So, this is basically the Burj Khalifa and again if you consider the
structural system, so, definitely changes with the height we have seen in the recent
lectures that how the evolution of the high-rise building that developed.
Like starting form a small to three storey building to the hundred storey, two hundred
storey building how it is being made and different structural form, how the tube
structure, how like your different shear wall different advanced structure tube in tube
structure, then the outrigger exterior structure interior structures those are, the system are
developed to just get this kind of result, which will actually be safe from all these lateral
load due to the heavy wind pressure at different height or maybe to save to be safe from
the seismic activity.
949
Now, this is something again you can see the composition where it is being taken from
the Dubai and the construction is now going on. All high-rise development. So, where
you can see that scale here it is not basically gigantic because this may consist of
different flows, but the overall skyline has changed. And this is this has happened not
just for like to make something very much high to just get some kind of appreciation or
to get declared that tallest building, to solve the purpose within a limited area with the
compact area how you can serve maximum population. So, that is something that is
engineering that innovation that helped to make this kind of building high rise.
950
This is another example and this is from New York. So, you can see that overall
urbanization, if you see that all buildings, they are almost multi story buildings and that
was the need within the stipulated area it is all compacted and definitely we should even
go in future like this is already being developed. Now, there will be increase in
population and there is no such land. So, either we have to go for some alternative to
make some structure, using the underwater structures; some part of the world we do have
this or maybe some engineering by which we can solve the purpose of the people. This is
from again Shanghai.
So, this is a Shanghai tower I just mentioned earlier and then if you see that skyline and
you see that human scale. So, the skyline itself is basically showing some wonders and
this all architecture. Again, if you consider the height of the pyramid and all they will
some match with this right, but now the purpose it can cater huge number of population.
951
So, the purpose has changed for going high rise. But at the same time when you talk
about the high rise building very much advanced structure. But there are other factors as
will were like a particular building to be made for showing the culture the typology of
the building, like some this is some example I have picked up from Japan. So, Japanese
temple is something like this where you think for take any temples from the southern part
of India. So, you will get a different kind of form.
So, then probably your orthogonal or that kind of tube structure will not work. So, this
ornamentation still has some value where this form itself giving the typology. So,
looking at this we can see that this is basically a Japanese architecture or this is Mughal
architecture. So, this building typology is also to be carried out. Now so far whatever we
have seen and also this is something definitely aspiring, inspiring and very high class.
Now this is something where also it is a slum development and this is from the Dharavi
in Mumbai. So, here also the space is essential constraint, but then also the affordability
plays a crucial role.
952
So, this entire area where it is horizontally spread and the life is really very much
suffering. So, if you search about that there are many documentaries there are different
videos as well, so where you can see the conditions of the life. So, what exactly have the
progress we have made to give the built environment, now we have to think on it, so how
to do it how to improve it?
Now, in this case this is something where again is something futuristic, where the city
like all this parks that are moved up. So, these are some hypothetical, so that can be
953
developed where this can be made at some upper level and then this is something where
like your Habitat 67. So, this kind of development of houses can be made.
Now, this is very catchy part in this slide and this is one of the important slides that we
need to understand that change is the only constant. The statement is very much famous
and exactly, this is something we need to if we do not change then probably, we will be
losing something, we cannot really sustain with that. So, for that what change we require
the purpose, the purpose has changed and that we have seen from those examples, earlier
the sometimes the purpose may be only to showcase the power of the king, that is why so
gigantic structure is made invested so much of capital to that, whereas the common
people they need was not that much highlighted.
But now the purpose is to serve if we consider this slum and all though this is something
where the affordability is concerned. But definitely we should go for some low-cost
effective solutions for them, so that they can also enjoy the built environment the
requirements have changed. Earlier the requirement was different nowadays with the
different gadgets and all. So, we need some buildings where it will be very smart
building where based on your instruction that building will perform accordingly. So, this
application of IT information technology has come into this and there are other
requirements.
954
The loads this is something was there is present also and it will be, but then to tackle
these loads different technology different construction technology different arrangement
of structure had been developed and then this is taking into consideration.
The architectural design has changed whether like whether it was of the minimalistic
form or maybe it is of making something very broad that has changed.
Culture this culture plays crucial role to make the form and structure and that we have
seen in case of the temple or in case of your pyramid and then maybe the Taj Mahal and
then so on.
The geological and geographical condition of the site, again it has changed a lot like
from the primitive ways there was some age of dinosaurs and then there is a sudden
change, multiple major earthquakes, tsunami, the asteroid attack.
So, the world has changed and then geographical condition and keep on changing, the
temperature of the art is changing day by day the global warming has started affecting.
So, with that geological geographer condition of the site changes accordingly, the
selection of the building typology that have also changed.
Now, the climate this is another impact that already I have talked about the climate has
changed. So, for that accordingly how you make your building climate responsive, how
you really tackle that issues, the high tornado or maybe the high heat in case of in
summer situation in Dubai that we have discussed in some other lectures. Then where
like the facade should be designed in such a manner that which will protect from this.
The material improvement is like each minute there is some improvement in that with
earlier there was no availability of concrete. So, people they started making it with the
mud and then gradually they started with the lime and then the machinery work and then
the concrete and then the steel and then the composite and then nano carbon. So, keep on
increasing the number of options and then there is a particular requirement to select the
material.
The machinery has changed different crane different robots now being used as already I
have mentioned earlier in this like the 3D painters and then automated mode, automation
955
to the construction. So, that the building can have the minimal error and then that will
have also the quality control and also it can be a speedy construction.
The manpower; again there also it is automation like the portion that people can’t really
do that robot can help that. But at the same time the manpower also includes it is not
about the labor, as I mentioned earlier that it is also includes the intellectuals who are
making this innovation and all. And also, this is very vital for like we are very much
helpful to those scientists to those engineers who develop alternative materials and just
improve that scenario which will actually tackle all these issues.
Then the method is the similar thing how you construct.
Then the money is again a very much critical issue, where the affordability can make
wherever there is some developed situation develop economy. So, we can have that
impact on the overall urban settlement and the building as well.
The time and the technology they that also like this is basically the 6 Ms that we talked
about that also change. That time like earlier a building requires a 6 month of time for
one or two storey building and now with a prefabrication with the modern techniques
within a week or within a month, a multi storey building is formed and is ready for the
use. So, this is the improvement that already you have made and we are in a process to
even go beyond that. Taking the application of IT , different artificial intelligence
minimizing the risk of any other issue and then it is can all come through the innovation.
So, we need innovation we first require a need. So, need is the seed and then that will
actually instigate the innovation.
So, I started the lecture with the need and then I am almost in the end of this
presentation, where I said innovation and this is basically it is continuing. So, this is
continuing still we get innovation we always make betterment in our building structure
and form selection.
956
So, this is very useful and then definitely I just simply mentioned this slide, this is the
sustainability where like whatever we make, whatever the technology we use, with the
material we use, we should think for making the yield environment sustainable, that is
also referred to the green architecture or green development. So, it has some component
where the construction material should be eco friendly, will have very minimal effect or
no effect to the environment. The indoor quality where basically you can make it with
the health and other thing with the day lighting and ventilation. Then the water is very
much precious resource for us and for that proper use the building, water independent
building and that can actually optimize the use of water is desired. Then the site
wherever you make your site. Then basically it should evolve with the side and then the
proper maintenance, it should not disturb the ecology of this.
And then the beauty and freshness that is again another view that with all these you
should not really make something very boring people will not add up. So, there will be
no compromise on the structural point of view, even you can do excellence on the
aesthetic and then the renewable energy. Because not only the energy that we are talking
about to like switching on the AC on all.
Even during the procurement of the building materials there is energy involved, the
transportation also energy involved, then the during construction energy involved. When
there is some energy which also lead to the embedded energy of the material and the
957
research is also going on to just minimize, to have some materials will have this kind of
minimization in the energy sector. So, with all these parameters if we can make
something really a green architecture or sustainable architecture that will be really
helpful for the future.
So, the practice is already been done there are different agencies like GRIHA, even the
LEEDS the international scale. So, who are making some rating and there are more, even
this subject is very interesting and definitely either you have gone through this subject or
maybe in future in your curriculum you will get it there are materials available on
sustainability?
But this is a full-fledged subject, I cannot really cover all of them into this I just
highlighted this part, where the importance of sustainable architecture for the future
generation is very vital and we can contribute in many ways of taking the parameters as
well where this particular roof gardening is being concerned where the ventilation
cooling heating the passive solar applications. So, this all can help to make a building
sustainable.
So, here you can see that along with this greenery and all this is vertical, but again it is
giving some good result.
958
Now, this is basically the concluding slide for this particular lecture, as well as for the
entire course. As I mentioned that this is the last lecture of this particular course and this
picture is self explanatory, so where we started earlier with the stone hinge and then now
that this is the Marina Bay Sand hotel.
So, it is almost look like, maybe the structural system structural arrangement material use
the scale that differs. But basically, again in this case we have discussed earlier that this
is also constructing of the slab like structure, where your building is having some
inclined. So, if you see from this section, so you have this kind of two slab and then these
three buildings are holding another slab on top of it. So, this is the evolution and it is
continued.
So, this is very important to understand for us, whatever we know, whatever the
information we know today it will be obsolete or it will be back dated tomorrow. So,
always our target should know to get updated with the new technology, new materials,
new examples which is being practice which has been researched and tasted to adopt it.
It will take time, but definitely it will be the future, where we can talk about the materials
the prefabrication whether we talk about the technology energy optimization, application
of IT to your building design, everything will play around and also like even going for
the alternative materials, how to reuse or minimize the waste making material out of the
waste material. So, there are plenty of area where we can contribute to make a better
959
sustainable built environment and that actually will be the true follow up for the
architecture and structure, their relation from the past the present and the future. And if
we can practice that will be justice to this particular learning and then at the end what I
just want to give you all a very huge thank for your patience to attend this particular to
join these particular course and to get different idea with the discussion and all. And for
that I give you a big thank to all of you who have gone through this who joined this.
And here also the key point that I just repeat that is your again the change is the only
constant. So, this is the line that here like in other lectures I summarized something that
what we have learned, but here is the key point that we should take the change is the only
constant and that is the reason that from the cave architecture to now Burj Khalifa.So,
this is the journey and how the multi dimensional improvement that happened over the
period and it is continuing. Taking the concept of sustainability adopting new
technologies materials and definitely whatever is good for the society for the human
being, with that I complete this particular course.
960
These are very few reading materials and then already that is being there in for all the
slide. So, thank you very much for attending this course.
Thank you.
961
THIS BOOK IS NOT FOR SALE
NOR COMMERCIAL USE
(044) 2257 5905/08 nptel.ac.in swayam.gov.in

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INDEX

2 Relationship of Structure to Architectural Buildings Part I 21

3 Relationship of Structure to Architectural Buildings Part II 48

5 Synthesis of Architectural and Structural Form 98

6 Connecting Structure and Architecture Part I 128

7 Connecting Structure and Architecture Part II 147

8 Structural Transformation in Architectural History 169

9 Factors affecting the Structural Forms 194

11 Basic Structural Properties 250

12 Structural Requirements 277

13 Structural Arrangement 302

14 Structural Forms and Shapes 320

16 Structural Typology 366

17 Compressive Structures 384

18 Tensile Structures 406

20 Temporary Structures 447

21 Framed Structure 479

22 Arch Structures 500

25 Grid Structures 572

26 Shell Structures 592

27 Trusses and Space Frames 615

28 Folded Plate Structures 649

30 Pneumatic Structures 696

31 Structure and Architectural Forms in Windy Areas 718

32 Structure and Architectural Forms in Seismic Prone Areas 745

34 Cost Effective Structure and Architecture 799

35 Structure and Light in Architecture 822

36 Evolution of Highrise Structural System 843

38 Highrise Structural Components Part II 888

39 Mega Structure and Architecture-Case Studies 914

40 Architecture and Structure - Past, Present, and Future 934

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The technology definitely day-to-day the technology there is a huge improvement, so

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Again, I would like to thank you.

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So, let us just understand through different case study.

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So, this is one example from the history.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:02)

Now, let us move to the chaos.

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