Modulation Techniques

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Airport Ground Navigation

Systems
Dr. Arjun Singh 
(/content/book/9780070704459)
ISBN: 9780070704459
Publication Date & Copyright: 2012 McGraw-Hill Education Private Lim-
ited
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Table of Contents Figures (69) Tables (1)
1. MODULATION TECHNIQUES
Introduction
It is well known that most of the signals, which come from transducers i.e.,
sound, pressure, electrical etc., cannot be sent directly over the channel signals
sent in space. For this reason, a carrier wave, whose properties are suitable for
the transmission medium, will be required to represent the true message.
Though for the electrical communication the terms message, modulation etc.,
may inspire the reader to interpret as electrical signals and modulation of elec-
trical waveform, but many non-electrical forms of communication also involve
modulation process e.g., 'speech'. When we talk, the movements of the mouth
do not take place faster than a rate like 10 Hz only. The acoustic wave of such
a low frequency cannot effectively propagate through air. For this only God has
gifted us with vocal cords, which generate carrier tones of higher (adequate)
frequency, which we modulate with muscular actions of our oral cavity. These
modulated tones propagate through air and our ears hear as speech.
1.1. THE NEED

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Modulation serves very useful purpose in communication systems. It mixes
signals and transmits them by radiation into space. It can be demonstrated
from the theory of electromagnetic waves, that a signal can be radiated effect-
ively only if the radiating antenna is the order of one-tenth or more of the
wavelength corresponding to the frequencies of the signals to be radiated. For
human speech, the frequency is about 10 kHz, which corresponds to minimum
wavelength of 30,000 meters. Thus huge antenna is needed to radiate electro-
magnetic waves corresponding to the frequency range of the human voice.
This is rather impracticable to install. The process of modulation shifts the fre-
quency spectrum to any desired higher frequency range, making it easier to ra-
diate by having appropriate antenna, which can be installed easily. In practice
the entire radio and television signal are modulated, thus shifting the frequency
spectrum of the desired signal to a very high frequency range. Modulation,
therefore, not only allows the simultaneous transmission of several signals
without interfering with each other, but also makes it possible to transmit these
signals effectively with appropriate design of the system. The salient points
pertaining to modulation concept are as follows.
i. Modulation for Ease of Radiation
Radiating elements (antenna) should not be very small, say less than
or so, to be an efficient one. But for many signals like audio, an ex-
orbitant size of antenna of several hundred kilometers long will be re-

quired for making it send over audio signal to space effectively. Therefore,
these signals can be impressed upon a high frequency carrier, thereby
substantially reducing the antenna size.
ii. Reduces Noise and Interference
It is impossible to eliminate noise from the system, and also it is not prac-
ticable to eliminate interference. Certain types of modulation can reduce
the effect rather than suppress both noise and interference. This may re-
quire higher bandwidth justifying the name 'wideband noise reduction'.
This bandwidth trade-off is sometimes interesting and sometimes frus-
trating for communication system design engineer.
iii. Frequency Assignment
The selection of any one station is possible in radio or TV because each

station has a different assigned carrier frequency. Had there been no mod-
ulation, only one station could operate in a region at a time. If it was not
forbidden due to the size of antennas required (as in video frequency), two
or more broadcasting stations transmitting directly in the same medium,
without modulation, would produce a hopeless jumble of interfering
signals.
iv. Multiplexing
It is required to send a number of signals simultaneously between the

same pair of medium.Multiplexing technique, a special form of modula-
tion, permits multiple signals to be transmitted on one channel such that
each one can be separated at the receiving end.
v. Overcome Equipment Limitations
All the communication system design is usually constrained by the limita-

tion of available equipment. The performance of equipment is always
more or less frequency dependent. Modulation can be used to place a sig-
nal in the frequency spectrum where equipment limitations are minimal,
and design became easier. For this purpose, modulation may be found as
an easy solution in receiver also.

Signals like speech and music, can be transmitted satisfactorily if the trans-
mission system can transmit a frequency range of only up to few kHz. However
many problems arise if radio broadcasting and TV stations were to broadcast
at audio or video frequencies. Two of the major difficulties would be- (a) effi-
cient antenna is not practicable at these low frequencies, and (b) signal from
different stations will interfere with one another when received in a radio or TV
receiver. In order to avoid this difficulty, each transmitting station associates a
high frequency sine-wave called 'Carrier', and speech and music low frequency
signals called 'Modulating Signal'. The carrier frequency usually lies in MHz.
More efficient and reduced size antenna is readily possible at MHz frequency
range. Thus it becomes practicable to install the antenna at any location. Each
transmitting station uses a different carrier frequency. A receiver has a filtering
arrangement in it, which can allow pickup and receiving signals from only a de-
sired station and discard signals from all other stations.
In brief, a modulation is the systematic alteration of one waveform called the

'Carrier', according to the characteristics of another waveform, i.e., the 'Modu-
lating Signal' or 'Message'. The fundamental goal is producing information
bearing modulated waveform whose properties are best suited to the given
communication engineering task.
1.1.1. Categorization of Modulation

According to the type of carrier, it is possible to identify two basic types of
modulation, i.e., Continuous Wave (CW) modulation' where the carrier is sinus-
oidal, and 'pulse modulation' where the carrier is a periodic train of pulses. The
CW modulation, being a continuous process, is obviously suitable for signals,
which vary continuously with time. Pulse modulation is a discontinuous pro-
cess, in the sense that pulses are present at certain distinct intervals of time
only making this process more suitable to messages that are discrete in
nature. Continuously varying signals can also be transmitted on pulsed carrier
by the method of sampling.
An alternative way is to classify modulation as 'analog' or 'digital' (coded) mod-

ulation. This way of classification becomes more relevant and meaningful for
the complex systems using CW and Pulsed techniques, where the distinction
on the basis of the type of carrier loses its sanctity. In analog modulation the
modulated parameter varies in direct proportion to the modulating signal (in-
stantaneous value). In digital modulation, a digital transformation takes place
whereby the message is converted from one symbolic language to another. If
the message is originally a continuous time function, it must be sampled and
digitized prior to encoding.
Let us now consider linear and non-linear processes in brief:
Figure 1.1 Linear circuit.
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Let X1, X2, X3, … Xn be the number of input signals given to a linear circuit as
shown in Fig. 1.1. Accordingly the output obtained separately for each input
may be Y1, Y2, Y3, … Yn, respectively. If the system is provided with all the inputs
simultaneously i.e., the input becomes ΣXn = X1 + X2 … + Xn, the output may or 
may not be equal to ΣYn = Y1 + Y2 … + Yn. Putting it more generic way, if the in-
put is a linear combination of all the separate inputs as X = a1X1 + a2X2 + … +
anXn = ΣanXn, the output, depending on some property of the system may or
may not be equal to Y = a1Y1 + a2Y2 + … + anYn = ΣanYn. If the property of the
system allows this equality to hold, it is called linear, and if not, then non-linear.
In brief, principle of superposition is applicable in linear systems, but is not ap-

plicable in non-linear system. In other words, the effect of the sum of the
weighted causes is equal to the sum of the identically weighted effects due to
individual causes in linear system and it does not hold good in the non-linear
system. To understand it clearly, further consider that,
(1.1)
i.e., these (addition and multiplication) are linear operations
Similarly, if the above principle is applied to a modulation circuit with number

of modulating signals, such as
(1.2)
and with the carrier as sin ωct, then the amplitude modulation process gives
(to produce two sidebands)
(1.3)
Therefore, the amplitude modulation is a process of linear modulation where

principle of superposition is applicable. In reference to frequency (rather, all an-
gular) modulation, we can easily see that
(1.4)
Therefore, it is one type of non-linear operation where the principle of super-

position is not applicable.
1.1.2. Types of CW Modulation

Three types of CW modulation are used for effective transmission of the de-
sired signal. These are
a. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
b. Frequency Modulation (FM)
c. Phase Modulation (PM)
We however find that the latter two methods are closely related to each other.
In general, change in frequency results in change of phase, and vice versa.
Therefore a more appropriate general term is used i.e., 'Angle Modulation' that
includes both FM and PM. We accordingly divide CW modulation system into
two classes, i.e.,
Amplitude Modulation
Angle Modulation
The basics of the above modulations and their detailed discussion will be
presented in the next section. 
1.2. AMPLITUDE MODULATION

1.2.1. Basic Theory of AM
(i) Message and information
We can define communication as the process of transferring information (or

message) from one point in space and time, called the 'source', to another
point, the 'destination' or user. A communication system is the totality of mech-
anism that provides the information link between source and destination. An
electrical communication system is one that achieves this function primarily,
but not exclusively, through the use of electric (and/or electronic which is a
part of electric only) devices and phenomena.
However, what is 'information'? This term is commonly used to mean know-

ledge or meaning, and these subjective aspects may be almost irrelevant in the
field of electrical communication. The following example will help us realize
what an information is, As an example, let us think that one gentleman is to go
to Kolkata from some place far away from there. To know about the weather at
Kolkata, he telephones the met office, Kolkata, to get the following forecasts:
When will the sun rise?
Where will it rain?
Where will the cyclone hit?
The first one does not contain almost any information because we are sure
that the sun will rise. The second one contains very useful information about
weather, and the third one contains the most important information. Clearly we
understand that less likely is the message, more it conveys the information. In
other words, the less the probability, more is the information. The amount of
information depends only on the message uncertainty, rather than its actual
content or possible interpretation. Had the message from Kolkata met office
been 'the sun will rain cyclones' it would convey information, because of being
quite unlikely, but not much meaning.
Quantitatively, the self-information contained in a message A where PA is the

probability that the message selected for transmission is
(1.5)
The function IA has been chosen on the basis of the following required proper-
ties of the function:
a. IA should be zero if PA tends to 1, i.e., for certain events
b. IA ≥ 0 for 0 ≤ PA ≤ 1
c. IA > IB if PA < PB, A and B are two different messages
d. IAB = IA + IB if PAB = PA PB if A and B are statistically independent.
Within the limited scope of discussion, we restrict ourselves within the physical
manifestation of the 'information' as produced by the source, i.e., 'message'.
Normally the message produced by a source is not electrical. Hence an input
transducer is required to convert the message to a 'signal', and an electrical
quantity varying with time such as voltage or current. Similarly, another trans-
ducer at the destination converts the output signal to the appropriate message
form. In many books 'signal' and 'message' are used interchangeably since the
signal, like the message, is also a physical embodiment of information.
(ii) Amplitude modulation and carrier


Remembering that modulation is the systematic alteration of one waveform
according to the characteristics of the message waveform, we move on to
some quantitative discussion and analysis of modulation system, i.e., the 'how'
and 'why'.
Let us start the discussion by taking an electrical signal x(t) representing time-
varying voltage or current. If this signal is used to alter the amplitude of a si-
nusoidal cos {ωct +ϕc(t)}, and cos {ωmt +ϕm(t)} waveform as shown in Fig. 1.2
(a) the composite waveform will be as shown in Fig. 1.2 (b).
Figure 1.2 (a) Carrier waveform, (b) Amplitude modulation waveform.
Formally we write
(1.6)
where, R(t) is the envelope of amplitude and ϕc(t) is the carrier phase, both be-
ing function of time. By definition, the envelope is non-negative i.e., negative
amplitudes are absorbed in the phase by adding ± 180°, so that the dashed line
in Fig. 1.2 (b) is R(t) and it represents a time function different from x(t). v(t)
undergoes 'phase reversal' at zero crossing point P of x(t).
Figure 1.3 (a) is a phasor representation of v(t) as a vector in the complex

plane whose length equals to R(t) and whose angle is (ωct + ϕc(t)). Note that
even the length is not a constant; rather it is time-varying according to R(t). As
ωct represents a steady counter-clockwise (CCW) rotation at revolu-
tion per second, it can just be suppressed, leading to Fig. 1.3 (b) in the follow-
ing manner. If the origin of Fig. 1.3 (b) is pinned and the entire figure is rotated
CCW at the rate of 'fc' revolution per second, and it becomes Fig. 1.3 (a).
Figure 1.3 Phasor presentation of Fig. 1.2.

Rewriting Equation (1.6) as follows
(1.7)
Further inspection of Fig. 1.3 (b) suggests another useful way of writing v(t) as
shown below:
(1.8)
This description is called quadrature carrier description of the above signal as

distinguished from the envelope and phase description in Equation (1.6). vi(t)
and vq(t) are the in-phase and quadrature components, respectively. In quadrat-
ure carrier description, two terms in Equation (1.8) may be represented by
phasors with the second term at an angle shift of ' ' radians or 90° compared
to the first.
For example: cos ωct is chosen, so that phase angles can be measured directly
with respect to the positive real axis of the phasor diagram. The message or
signal may be of different types, and in spite of being continuous it may have
adequate complexity. For example, the voice signal, which appears as simple
one, cannot be described with an explicit analytic mathematical expression.
So, how to deal with the waveform to predict its characteristics and improvise
the required circuits or system which will help achieve communication system
where the signal x(t) itself is different for every case? There are ways to tackle
this problem and it will be dealt in brief. At present it will be sufficient to as-
sume any signal, which can be considered as made up of addition of finite or
infinite number of sinusoids with different amplitudes. If it is so, by analyzing
v(t) taking x(t) = cos ωmt will help us to derive the features of v(t), which can be
extended in the case of x(t) being the linear combination of many sinusoids.
Therefore to start with, let us simplify the problem by taking special case
where ϕc(t) = 0 in the Equation (1.2.2), x(t) = cos ωmt and a tone of frequency
, keeping the carrier cos ωct. This is referred as tone modulation. At
present the initial phase of the tone has also been taken as zero with a purpose
to start the analysis with simplicity.
1.2.2. Carrier and Modulating Signal

In the previous analysis we have taken the carrier as cos ωct, and the modulat-
ing tone as cos ωmt. The product of cos ωmt and cos ωct is the modulated
waveform (without adding the carrier). If two sinusoids with frequency ω1 and
ω2 are multiplied like cos ω1t cos ω2t, it is obvious there is no way to tell
whether cos ω1t is multiplied by cos ω2t or cos ω2t is multiplied by cos ω1t,
and therefore there will be no way to decide which one is the modulating signal
or carrier. That means it is required to be predetermined. If our signal is cos
ω1t, then it will be multiplied with the sinusoidal carrier whose frequency is to
be chosen based on many factors. Let us assume that angular frequency ω2 is
higher and then only we can designate ω1 = ωm and ω2 = ωc for the ease of un-
derstanding. There may be some presumption that in the product cos ω1t cos
ω2t, the lower frequency is modulating signal and the higher frequency is the

carrier. But theoretically there is no such restriction at all, though matching the
signal to the transmission medium may require in almost all the cases, the car-
rier frequency to be higher.
To recover the tone, say ω1, at the receiving end, one can simply multiply the
product with cos ω2t, irrespective of whether ω1 <ω2 or ω1 > ω2. This is
presented as Equation (1.9).
(1.9)
Note that cos (2ω2 – ω1) t = cos (ω1 – 2ω2)t and for sine function also the
negative frequency is absorbed by introduction of opposite phase thereby put-
ting no restrictions regarding which ω is higher one.
After filtering at the receiver end, the tone can be recovered provided the fre-
quencies are adequately apart. This establishes that for receiving it is neces-
sary to know the carrier frequency definitely and not to derive by logic. The
higher or lower one will be the carrier frequency. The signal can be recovered
by adding the carrier at the receiving end also and using the envelope detector
as the carrier frequency is known. The crux of the above receiving method is
that even by knowing the frequency, if there is no 'pilot' or synchronous signal
available at receiving end, the carrier frequency generated from a different
source will have to have some difference in terms of frequency and phase,
however small it may be, with that used at transmitting end. Improvising the
method of sending pilot carrier has solved this unavoidable problem due to in-
coherent sources or some synchronization pulses at regular intervals to be
used to lock the carrier frequency generator at receiving end.
1.2.3. A.M. Spectra and Power Relations

The process of amplitude modulation is more or less a process of frequency
translation. In order to understand how the modulated wave is generated, it is
prerequisite to know the process of frequency translation. A signal may be
translated to a new spectral range by multiplying the signal with an auxiliary si-
nusoidal signal. To illustrate the process, consider a signal is sinusoidal in
waveform and given by
(1.10)
or
(1.11)
De-moiver's representation of Equation (1.10) into Equation (1.11)
where,Am is constant amplitude and is modulating frequency. The

two-side spectral amplitude pattern of this signal is shown in Fig. 1.4. The pat-
tern consists of two lines, each of amplitude located at modulating fre-
quency f = ±fm. Consider next the result of the multiplication of vm(t) with an
auxiliary sinusoidal signal 
(1.12)
or
(1.13)
De-moiver's representation of Equation (1.12) into Equation (1.13)
Now,
(1.14)
(1.15)
In Fig. 1.4 (b), observe that the two original spectrum lines have been trans-
lated, both in the positive frequency direction and in the negative frequency dir-
ection by the same amount. There are four spectral components resulting in
two sinusoidal waveforms, one of frequency (fc + fm) and the other of fre-
quency (fc – fm). The product has four spectral components each of amplitude
; there are only two frequencies and amplitude of each sinusoidal com-
ponent is . In the translated signal, the part of the signal which consists
of spectral components above the auxiliary signal, in the range of fc to (fc + fm)
is called Upper Side Band (USB) signal. The part of the signal that consists of
spectral components below the auxiliary signal, in the range of (fc – fm) to fc is
called Lower Side Band (LSB) signal. The two-sideband signals are also re-
ferred to as the sum and the difference frequencies respectively. Amplitude
modulation is one of the modified methods of the frequency translation.
Figure 1.4 (a) Spectral pattern of the waveform Am cos ωmt, (b) Spectral
pattern of the product waveform AmAc cos ωmt cos ωct.
A frequency-translated signal, is generated by summing the product of base-

band or modulating signal and carrier signal itself and the base-band signal is
easily recoverable by the reverse process. If em(t) is the modulating signal and
ec = Eccos (2πfct) is the carrier then the modulated signal will be given by

(1.16)
(1.17)
We observe from Equation (1.17) and Fig. 1.5 (c) that the resultant waveform
is one in which the carrier Eccos (2πfct) is modulated in amplitude. The process
of generating such a waveform is called AM. It is apparent that the envelope
has the shape of the modulating signal. The modulating signal is sinusoidal
hence, em(t) = Amcos (2πfmt) =mAccos (2πfmt), where 'm' is a constant such
that then Equation (1.17) becomes
(1.18)
Figure 1.5 (a) Carrier wave, (b) An arbitrary modulating signal, (c) Resulting
AM wave.
Figure 1.5 (a) a carrier wave, (b) an arbitrary modulating signal, and (c) the res-
ulting AM wave, where the envelope is seen to follow the modulating signal
waveform. This also shows graphically why the term carrier is used.
1.2.3.1. Amplitude Modulation Index

The appearance of the amplitude-modulated wave is of great interest. It is
shown in Fig. 1.6 for one cycle of the modulated wave. It is derived from Fig.
1.6, that the amplitude, or top envelope of AM wave can be given by the rela-
tion A = Vc + Vmsin ωmt. Similarly, the negative amplitude or bottom envelope 
can be given by A = – (Vc + Vmsin ωmt). The modulated wave extends between
these two limiting envelopes and has a repetition rate equal to the un-modu-
lated carrier frequency.
Figure 1.6 Amplitude modulated wave.
(1.19)
where, m is a number lying between 0 and 1. It is very often expressed as a per-

centage and called percentage of modulation.
(1.20)
From the waveform
(1.21)
and
(1.22)
Divide Equation (1.21) by Equation (1.22).
(1.23)
Figure 1.7 (a) Amplitude spectrum for a sinusoidally amplitude modulated

wave, (b) The amplitude spectrum for a 10 MHz carrier of amplitude 10 V,
sinusoidally modulated by a 5 kHz sine wave of amplitude 6 V (modulation
index = 6 V/10 V = 0.6). 
1.2.3.2. Frequency Spectrum

Although the modulated waveform contains two frequencies fc and fm, the
modulation process generates new frequencies that are the sum and the differ-
ence of two frequencies. The spectrum is found by expanding Equation 1.18
for the sinusoidally modulated AM as follows.
(1.24)
Equation (1.24) shows that the sinusoidally modulated wave consists of three
components: a carrier wave of amplitude Ec and frequency fc, LSB amplitude
and frequency (fc–fm) and an USB amplitude and frequency (fc–fm).
The generated modulated waveform could be considered by three separate

generators, as shown in Fig. 1.8 (a). Although, such an arrangement would be
difficult to set up in practice (because of the difficulty in maintaining exactly
the right frequencies), it is easily simulated on a computer. This concept is ap-
propriately used in many navigational equipment to achieve the space modula-
tion with consideration of phase relationship.
Figure 1.8 (a) Generator representation of a sinusoidally amplitude

modulated wave, (b) Result of a computer simulation of the three generator
arrangement for Ecmax = 5 V, m = 0.5, fc = 100 kHz and fm = 10 kHz.

1.2.3.3. Average Power for Sinusoidal AM

Figure 1.8 (a) shows that the sinusoidally modulated wave can be represented
by three sinusoidal sources connected in series. A general result of alternating
current (a.c.) circuit theory is the average power delivered to a load R by sinus-
oidal sources of different frequencies connected in series, is the sum of the av-
erage powers from each source. The average power in a sine (or cosine)
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voltage wave of peak value Emax developed across a resistor R is .
Applying these results to the spectrum components of the sinusoidally modu-

lated wave gives, for the average carrier power i.e.,
(1.25)
where, Pc is carrier power; and PSBF is power of sideband frequency.
Hence the total average power (PT) is
(1.26)
At 100% modulation (m = 1), the power in any one-side frequency component
is and the total power is PT = 1.5 PC. The ratio of power in any one
side frequency to the total power transmitted is, therefore, . The significance
of this result is that all the original modulating information is contained in the
one side frequency, and therefore a considerable savings in power can be 
achieved by transmitting just the side frequency rather than the total modu-
lated wave. In practice, the modulating signal generally contains a band of fre-
quencies that results in sidebands rather than single sideband frequencies, but,
again, Single Side Band (SSB) transmission results in more efficient use of
available power and spectrum space.
1.2.3.4. Effective Voltage and Current for Sinusoidal

AM
The effective or r.m.s.voltage E of the modulated wave is defined by the
equation
(1.27)
Likewise, the effective voltage Ec of the carrier component is defined by
Substituting the PT value in Equation (1. 27)
(1.28)
from which
A similar arrangement applies to current yields
where, I is the r.m.s. current of the modulated wave and Ic the r.m.s. current of
the un-modulated carrier. The current equation provides one method of monit-
oring modulation index, by measuring the antenna current with and without
modulation applied.
(1.29)
This method is not as sensitive or useful as the method described earlier, but it
provides a convenient way of monitoring modulation where an ammeter can be
inserted in series with the antenna. A true r.m.s. current reading ammeter must
be used, and care must be taken to avoid current overload because such in-
struments easily get damaged by overload.
1.2.3.5. Non-sinusoidal Modulation

Non-sinusoidal modulation produces upper and lower sidebands, correspond-
ing to the upper and lower sideband frequencies produced with sinusoidal
modulation. Suppose, that the modulating signal has a line spectrum, which is
represented as

(1.30)
As before, the AM wave is
(1.31)
If in general the ith component is denoted by subscript 'i', then individual modu-
lation indexes may be defined as , and the trigonometric expansion
for Equation (1.31) yields a spectrum with sideband frequencies at fc ±fi and
amplitudes . Thus, taken together, the side frequencies form sidebands
either side of the carrier component. Again, the practicalities of AM demand

that the carrier frequency should be much greater than the highest frequency in
the modulating wave, so the sidebands are band-limited about the carrier fre-
quency. The total average power can be obtained by adding the average power
for each component (just as was done for single-tone modulation), which res-
ults in Equation (1.32)
(1.32)
Hence an effective modulation index or modulation depth can be defined in

this case as
(1.33)
It follows that the effective voltage and current in this case is
(1.34)
When the modulating signal is a random power signal such as speech or mu-
sic, then the concept of power spectral density must be used. When it is used
to modulate amplitude of the carrier and double sidebands are generated.
Again it is assumed that the modulating signal is band-limited such that the
highest frequency in its spectrum is much less than the carrier frequency. It will
be seen that standard AM produces upper and lower sidebands about the car-
rier frequency and hence the R.F. bandwidth (BRF) required is double of the
modulating frequency.
(1.35)
where, the fm max is the highest frequency in the modulating frequency

spectrum.
1.2.3.6. Multi Frequencies Modulation

Sideband power requirement to modulate a carrier to a specific level of modu-
lation (mn) using a single modulating frequency can be determined by the
formula
(1.36)

where, Psb is sideband power; mn is modulation factor; and Pc is carrier power
When more than one modulating frequency is being used to modulate the car-
rier, total sideband power required may be obtained by treating one modulating
frequency at a time using Equation (1.36) and then totaling the sideband
powers for all the modulating frequencies.
EXAMPLE 1
Power requirements for simultaneous modulation by three modulating fre-

quencies: A localizer transmitter is modulated by the following audio fre-
quencies by the amounts indicated. (a) 90 Hz, m = 0.2; (b) 150 Hz, m = 0.2
and (c) 1020 Hz, m = 0.08. Compute the power supplied by the modulation
circuit if the carrier output is 20 watts.
Solution
a. Psb90 = 0.4 watt

b. Psb150 = 0.4 watt
c. Psb1020 = 0.064 watt
The same transmitter, when modulated to a depth of 48% by a single audio

tone, would produce 2.304 watts of sideband power. A composite modula-
tion factor could be obtained for the direct use of Equation (1.36), where a
carrier is being modulated simultaneously by more than one frequency.
EXAMPLE 2
Determine modulation power requirements by use of composite modula-

tion factor. Compute the power supplied by the modulation circuit in the
preceding example using a composite modulation factor.
Solution
The composite modulation factor may be found by taking the squares root
of the sum of the squares of each of the individual modulation factors of
composite
Let us see how the above equation is derived.
We know Psb TOTAL = Psb90 + Psb150 + Psb1020
Substitute value of each frequency component in the above equation.
For this example, m90 = 0.2, m150 = 0.2, m1020 = 0.08
This agrees with the solution of Example 1. The composite modulation

factor is useful only in determining the audio power supplied by the
modulator.

1.2.4. Total Sideband (TSB) and Double Side-

band with Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC)
In this section, consider TSB in reference to continuous wave modulation in
general. Once it is clear, we can distinguish in what context the terms TSB or
DSB-SC are more appropriate.
1.2.4.1. Total Sideband

Let us first consider X and Y as a function of time i.e., X (t), Y (t). If these two
different functions are applied to a multiplier circuit as shown in Fig. 1.9. the
output will be Z (t) = X (t) × Y (t). Let us apply it to a modulation application that
we discussed earlier in the following manner:
Figure 1.9 Multiplier circuit.
Let X (t) be the carrier signal with phase ϕc = 0 as A sin ωct, and Y (t) is modu-
lating signal with phase ϕm = 0 as B sin ωmt. Without any loss of generality, A
and B are magnitude terms of Carrier and Modulating signals respectively.
(1.37)
Let products of A and B be equal to C for easy understanding. The relationship

shown in Equation (1.37) is in a time-domain, in which we have fed two sinus-
oidal signals (carrier and modulating) to a multiplier circuit and the result ob-
tained is instantaneous value of TSB, which contains non-sinusoidal waveform.
To get the spectral frequencies, i.e., to know all the frequency components it
contains, we need to expand Equation (1.37) making use of a Fourier trans-
form, which are a bit complicated task and unnecessary here. It can be com-
puted easily by using trigonometric identity.
Applying the above relation in Equation (1.37) yields

(1.38)
In the above explanation we have considered both the carrier and modulating
signals initial phase as zero (0). The spectral or phasor representation of Equa-
tion (1.38) is shown in Fig. 1.11.
Figure 1.11 Presentation reference of carrier Two Side Band (TSB).
In the above explanation, we have considered the initial phase of carrier and
modulating signal as zero. But it is important to understand the terms of RF
and Audio phase. The product is to be formally called the TSB, irrespective of
the way of its generation, where the initial phase (ϕc) of the angular frequency
ωc is either required to be inserted randomly or in uniform steps during
propagation from the carrier and the behavior of those signals should be dealt
with by taking adequate care of the phase difference. Also many uses the ini-
tial phase of the angular frequency ωm takes equally important role when two
TSBs generated from same pair of frequencies, obviously one (carrier) is to be
higher than the other (message tone) by several orders in case of useful amp-
litude modulation, but with different ϕm are to be dealt with concurrently as
their phase relationship plays the major role in the desired purpose. The use of
TSB in respect of tone modulation is very much relevant regarding conven-
tional air navigational system.
1.2.4.2. DSB-SC
In the previous section, we have described a 'multiplier' as a device that yields
an output waveform, which is the product of two input waveforms. Actually, no
simple physical device is available which yields the product alone. On the con-
trary, all such devices yield output, consisting of not only the product but also
the linear combination of the other indices of the input signals. Suppose, such
a device has inputs like a carrier Ac sin ωct and a modulating signal Amsin ωmt.
The device output will then contain the product Ac sin ϕct Amsin ωmt and also
the signals containing sin ωct, sin ωmt, sin2ωct, sin2ωmt, and so on, because of
some non-linear behavior of the circuits as well. Ordinarily, the baseband signal
will be band-limited to a frequency range very much smaller than .
Suppose, e.g., that the base-band signal extends from 100 to 1000 Hz, while
the carrier fc = 1 MHz. In this case, the carrier and its sidebands extend from
999,000 to 1,001,000 Hz, and a filter easily removes the base-band frequen-
cies. Also it is possible to remove the bands due to other indices by filters. The
overall result is that the devices available for multiplications yield outputs con-
taining carrier as well as the USB and LSB. The output is therefore an amp-
litude-modulated signal.
If we require the product signal alone, we must take steps to cancel or sup-
press the carrier. Such suppression may be achieved (by other than filtering out
the carrier within practicable limits) by adding, to the amplitude modulated sig-
nal, a similar signal obtained from another identical device inputted with the
carrier and modulating frequencies each of equal amplitudes but opposite in
phase as shown in Fig. 1.12.

Figure 1.12 Outputs of two amplitude modulators to produce DSB-SC.
As we have discussed above, under these circumstances only the sideband

signals will remain. For this reason, a product signal is very commonly referred
to as a DSB-SC signal. As in Fig. 1.12, two physical multipliers are used which
are labeled in amplitude modulators. The carrier inputs to the two modulators
are of opposite polarity, as are the modulating signals. The modulator outputs
are added with consequent suppression of the carrier. We observe a cancella-
tion of not only the carrier but of the base-band signal as well. This last feature
is not of great importance, since, as noted previously, a filter easily eliminates
the base-band signal. We note that the product terms of the two modulators
reinforce and the arrangement is called a Balanced Modulator. It may be noted
that, the suppression of carrier is nothing but reduction or suppression of amp-
litude and not the frequency and phase. Frequency and phase of the carrier re-
main intact within the products, whether it is in TSB or in DSB-SC.
DSB-SC becomes the relevant designation of the product where the informa-
tion is embodied in the base-band, in such a fashion that just extracting the
base-band (used as source end) from the modulated waveform suffices to
serve the purpose like in voice or telegraphy whereas the product a tone modu-
lation is designated as TSB where the extraction of information includes the
amplitude or phase of the modulating tone depending on the location of the re-
ceiving end. In the preceding section, we will discuss in detail about the gen-
eral modulation formula, phase and amplitude relationships.
1.2.4.2.1. Phase and amplitude relationships
Assume that a constant amplitude component of 100 volt amplitude, ex-

pressed as Ec and a sinusoidal modulating tone of 75 volt amplitude, ex-
pressed by 75 sin ωmt, are combined. It is to be used to modulate amplitude of
a carrier angular frequency ωc obviously to be higher by several orders than ωm
for practical purpose. The envelope of the positive half cycles would appear as
shown in Fig. 1.13.
Figure 1.13 A.M. modulating signal of 75 sin ωt


This drawing represents the upper half of the modulation envelope and does
not represent the individual RF cycles of the composite modulation envelope
since the carrier was assigned a D.C. magnitude of 100 volt. By the addition of
the modulating component to the constant amplitude component, the envel-
ope can be expressed as
For the general case
substituting mEc for Es,
(1.39)
Total amplitude modulated wave represented by term 'e' is shown in Fig. 1.14
(a).
Figure 1.14 Development of an amplitude modulated wave.

Term Ec sin ωct representing carrier as shown in the above Fig. 1.14 (b) and
term mEc sin ωct sin ωmt representing total sideband is shown in Fig. 1.14 (c).
Equation (1.39) describes the envelope. However, the envelope shows only the
effect of the modulating component and does not allow for the RF variations of
the total wave. The RF variations of the resultant wave must be considered
when finding the instantaneous value of the total wave shape. Applying an RF
factor (sin ωct) to Equation (1.40) yields an equation for the instantaneous
variation of the amplitude modulated wave.
Expanding the above equation yields,
(1.40)
The waveforms as shown in Figs 1.14 (b) and (c) represent two distinct parts
of the complete amplitude modulated waveform shown in Fig. 1.14 (a) and
may be radiated in combined form from a single antenna or individually from
separate antennas where the addition will take place in space to form an amp-
litude modulating signal. Here the carrier and sidebands are combined upon
reception to make up the AM wave.
When the carrier Ecsin ωct and the TSB (mEcsin ωmt sin ωct) are radiated from
separated antenna, the addition of these two components at any point in space
may not be, in general, with same phase (i.e., with different ϕc) due to the differ-
ent paths to be traveled by those components to reach at a point (receiving
point). The path difference is resulted due to the antenna orientation and the
direction of traveling of the waves, i.e., in general, the phase difference
between the carrier and the TSB at the receiving end will be different from
those were transmitted and will be dependent on the coordinates of the receiv-
ing point with antenna as reference. In other words the modulation will be
achieved by addition of the carrier and TSB components in 'space' and there-
fore this way of achieving the modulation is called 'space modulation' in con-
trast with 'equipment modulation' where the addition is taking place within the
equipment. The purpose of navigational aids is to provide the information to
the moving receiver about its location, rather its coordinates in cylindrical or x,
y, z coordinate system with respect to the transmitting antenna, the fixed refer-
ence point. Therefore the 'space modulation' where the modulation parameter
intercepted at the receiving end depends on its coordinates or position of the
aircraft and is useful in navigational equipment likes Instrument Landing Sys-
tem (ILS) and VHF Omni-Range (VOR)/Doppler VOR. The Equation (1.40) can
be rewritten as:
(1.41)
Equation (1.41) states that:
The upper sideband (USB) is sinusoidal with a frequency of fc+fm
The lower sideband (LSB) is sinusoidal with a frequency of fc–fm
The USB phase is –cos at time t =0 of the audio modulating cycle.
The LSB phase is + cos at time t =0 of the audio modulating cycle.
The carrier phase is + sin at time t =0 of the audio modulating cycle.
Equation (1.41) shows the presence of a TSB component as drawn in Fig. 1.14
(c). This equation can easily be drawn to show the USB and LSB in time do-
main. A modification of Equation (1.41) substituting the equality Esm = mEc
gives

(1.42)
This provides a coefficient of Esm, which specifically states that one half of the
total sideband voltages is contained in the USB and one half of the total side-
band voltages is contained in the LSB.
It is now possible to apply Equation (1.42) to the actual waveforms shown in

Fig. 1.15, which uses 20 Hz of carrier frequency and 2 Hz of audio for simpli-
city of a graphing though practically it becomes necessarily required in almost
every case to select the carrier frequency higher by several orders than the
highest modulating frequency component.
Figure 1.15 Component of an amplitude modulated wave
Refer Fig. 1.15 presented in various steps of the Equation (1.42) as given
below; 
i. Waveform of Fig. 1.15 (a) is the carrier component (fc)
ii. Waveform of Fig. 1.15 (b) is the upper sideband component (fc +fm)
iii. Waveform of Fig. 1.15 (c) is the lower sideband component (fc – fm)
(1.43)
iv. Waveform of Fig. 1.15 (d) is the total sideband component resulting from
the graphica1 addition of the upper and lower sidebands.
v. Waveform of Fig. 1.15 (e) is the composite amplitude modulated envelope

composed of the carrier and the upper and lower sidebands
vi. Waveform of Fig. 1.15 (f) is the modulating voltage drawn for reference.
This voltage does not appear in Equation (1.42) of modulated wave.
Several important factors are noted from Fig. 1.15:
1. The time period of each RF cycle of the TSB component is the same as
that of the carrier and the composite amplitude modulated wave. In other
words the instantaneous frequency of the TSB as well as of the modulated
wave remains intact and identical to the carrier.
2. As the RF phase of the TSB component abruptly changed 180° each time,
the TSB envelope passes through zero amplitude. This corresponds to a
complete RF phase change twice each cycle of the modulating voltage.
3. The individual cycles of the composite total wave are not sinusoidal even
though it is composed of three individual sinusoidal waves. This non-si-
nusoidal feature of the composite wave indicates the presence of other
frequency components. These are spectral components and not to be con-
fused with instantaneous frequency, which remains intact.
4. There is equal frequency displacement of the USB and LSB (spectral com-
ponents) on each side of the carrier.
The preceding material has shown the development of the amplitude modu-
lated envelope. Equation (1.41) and Fig. 1.15 describe this waveform. It is
noted that even though the frequencies shown in Equation (1.41) are the only
frequencies radiated from a properly adjusted transmitter, harmonics of the
carrier and modulating audio are also generated within the modulation stage.
These harmonic frequencies do not appear in the output of the transmitter due
to filtering action in the output of the modulated stage. A plot of the frequency
spectrum of the frequencies may be constructed by assigning a carrier fre-
quency of 100 kHz and an audio frequency of 1 kHz. This is shown in Fig. 1.16.
Figure 1.16 Plot of frequency spectrum.

It is apparent that all frequencies except the carrier and the sidebands are too
widely separated to fall within the response curve limits of the tuned circuits
and are therefore effectively offer a short circuit.
1.2.4.2.2. Sideband phase
In Fig. 1.17, the sideband phase is shown as merely a designation, which indic-
ates, whether or not the individual cycles of the TSB component are in position
to add to or subtract from the individual cycles of the carrier. Regardless of the
individual polarity of .the cycles, the relative phase merely indicates that both
the carrier and the TSB cycles have the same instantaneous polarity which is
shown with a plus (+), or the opposite instantaneous polarity which is shown
with a minus (–). Since the carrier is used for a reference, it is always assigned
a positive (+) relative phase. A sideband lobe which is given a positive (+) relat-
ive phase indicates that the amplitude of the composite amplitude modulated
wave will increase when the two are added. A sideband lobe which is given a
minus (–) relative phase indicates that the amplitude of the composite amp-
litude modulated wave will decrease when the two are added.
Figure 1.17 Reversal of RF phase of sidebands with respect to carrier.
The RF phase of the TSB component is seen to reverse in a direct relationship

with the modulating frequency i.e., twice per audio cycle, shown in Fig. 1.17. It
is concluded that the rate of reversal of the RF phase of the total sideband
component is dependent on the audio frequency.
1.2.5. Phasor Representation

The previous analysis can be made more vivid and clear by the use of rotating
phasors to represent the relationships between carrier and sideband compon-
ents of the amplitude modulated wave. Phasor presentation is commonly used
to show the relation between two or more sinusoidal voltages or currents. The
phasor is represented as rotating counterclockwise at an angular velocity such
that it makes one revolution for each complete cycle of the sinusoidally varying
quantity and phases through the zero degree reference line at the same time.
The quantity is of zero instantaneous amplitude and increasing in a positive
direction. The position of each component in a Phasor diagram gives informa-
tion as to the relative phase, and the relative length is proportional to the mag-
nitude of the quantity it represents.
1.2.5.1. Phasor Representation of the AM Wave

The phase difference between two sine waves is represented by the angle
between their representative phase, and may be either leading or lagging, de-
pending upon which is chosen as a reference. If a sine wave of voltage, for ex-
ample, leads a sine wave of current by 90°, no matter where their rotating
phasor representations are stopped in time, the voltage phasor will be dis-
placed 90° counterclockwise from, or 90° ahead of the current phase. Angles
of lag are represented by angles measured clockwise from the reference. It is
customary, but not necessary, to draw the phasor to be taken as a reference
along the positive X-axis.
To illustrate, the three voltages
(1.44)
are represented by the phasor E1, E2 and E3 of Fig. 1.18 drawn with the X-axis
as a reference. If E1 is taken as a reference, the three representative phasors
may be drawn as shown in Fig. 1.19.
Figure 1.18 Plotting three phasors
Figure 1.19 Use of e1 as reference

In either case e2 is seen to lead e1 by 30° and e3 lags e1 by 60°. 'sine' and 'co-
sine' waves may also be shown vectorially in proper phase relationship by the
method indicated above. Now consider the four voltages as shown in Fig. 1.20.
(1.45)
Figure 1.20 Phasor plot of four voltages.
Phasors e1 and e2 are first plotted using e1 as a reference. Next the phase rela-
tionship of e3 is determined. Since a cosine wave is simply a sine wave ad-
vanced by 90°, it can be said that e3 = E3m sin (ωt + 90°) and the phasor e3 is
plotted by 90°. By the same reasoning it can be said that e4 = E4m sin (ωt + 90°
+ 30°) or e4 = E4m sin (ωt + 120°) which can be plotted as phasor e4 as shown
in Fig. 1.20.
The 90° sine-cosine relationship may indicate a lagging phase which the
phasor would be rotated 180° from the cosine position and may be written as
sin (ωt – 90°) or as – cos ωt. If the function is of (–) sine, a 180° rotation from
the (+) sine position would also be indicated, i.e., sin (ωt + 180°) = – sin ωt.
These axes provide reference positions for plotting phasors as shown by the
following example.

EXAMPLE 3
Plot the phasors representing the following voltages, when t = 0.
Solution Figure 1.21 shows the phasors plotted in their correct positions
using the sine-cosine axis for reference.
Figure 1.21 Sine-cosine phasor plot.
The following points should be studied carefully as they will be used in repres-
enting the amplitude-modulated wave by phasor.
i. The reference axis for each phasor to be plotted is determined by the tri-
gonometric function and its preceding sign.
ii. An angle preceded by a plus (+) sign indicates a phase lead or counter-
clockwise rotation with respect to the reference.
iii. An angle preceded by a minus (–) sign indicates a phase lag or clockwise
rotation with respect to the reference.
iv. A change in sign preceding the trigonometric function indicates a 180° ro-
tation of the phasor.
1.2.5.2. Carrier and Sideband Phasors

In the previous section, all phasors were assumed to be of the same frequency
and therefore maintained their relative phase angles at all instants of time. In
representing the amplitude-modulated wave by phasors, three sinusoidal
waves of different frequencies are drawn on a single phasor diagram. It is con-

venient to draw these phasor diagrams assuming that the observer rotates in
synchronism with the carrier phasor. Then the carrier phasor would appear
stationary.
The upper sideband phasor, however, would appear to rotate counterclockwise

at a rate of revolutions per second, and the lower sideband would appear
to rotate clockwise at the same rate of revolutions per second. Therefore
the upper sideband and lower sideband phasors make equal angles with re-
spect to the carrier at all instants of time. In accordance with the previous dis-
cussion, it is now possible to plot a general equation for the composite amp-
litude modulated wave to describe it in phasor form of Equation (1.41).
Figure 1.22 is a representation of the carrier, upper sideband, and lower side-
band phasors when t = 0 in the above equation. The concept of sine-cosine co-
ordinate axes is used. All vector rotations are in the conventional counterclock-
wise direction but are rotating with different angular velocities.
Figure 1.22 Phasor representation of carrier, USB and LSB, when t = 0.
The locations for the phasors are obtained from the coefficient and polarity of
each individual term in the general equation. Other important considerations
are concluded that:
a. The carrier phasor is usually shown as having a unit length with respect to
the sideband voltage.
b. Since each sideband contains one half the TSB voltage , each
phasor should be drawn to this proportional scale.
1.2.5.3. Angular Velocity

The angular velocity or angular frequency of the carrier is represented as ωc,
the USB is ωc+ ωm, which signifies a faster rotation than the carrier and the
LSB is ωc– ωm, which is a slower rotation than the carrier. All phasors rotate in
a counterclockwise direction with the apparent result that due to the various
angular velocities the upper sideband phasor will gradually overtake and pass
the carrier phasor, in turn which is overtaking and passing the lower sideband
phasor. In drawing the phasors, if the carrier is stopped for each analysis at 0°

for a reference, it will appear as though the upper sideband phasor is rotating
counterclockwise and the lower sideband phasor is rotating clockwise with re-
spect to the carrier phasor. The vector representation is shown in Fig. 1.23.
Figure 1.23 Vector representation of the carrier, USB and LSB.
Figure 1.24 Carrier reference phasor at 0°.
The USB vector and LSB vectors rotate in opposite direction with the same
speed. Due to this, the resultant vector of LSB and USB is in the line of refer-
ence carrier and they cross each other in the line of carrier.
Instead of showing all phasors rotating at the RF rate, it is convenient to show

phasor diagrams at instants of time when the carrier phasor is at its 0°, or per-
haps at its 90° positions. For the purpose of illustration only, suppose that the
frequency of the carrier is only 8 times the modulating frequency. Then, there
would be eight RF cycles for each audio cycle. In Fig. 1.25, the composite en-
velope has been sketched. The phasor representations of the carrier reference
at 0° and at 90° are shown in Figs. 1.25 (a) and 1.25 (b), respectively. 
Figure 1.25 Waveforms for 8 RF cycles during 1 audio cycle.
Suppose that a 1000 kHz carrier is modulated by a 1 kHz tone. Then, for every
1000 cycles of RF there will occur 1 cycle of audio. The resulting modulated
waveform is sketched in Fig. 1.26. In this instance, 125 RF cycles would occur
for every 45° of audio but are too numerous to show on the audio time base.
Figure 1.26 Waveform for 1000 kHz modulated at 1 kHz.
Phasor representations for the points designated as a, b, c etc. of Fig. 1.27,

which are for each 45° of the audio cycle can be determined by the following
analysis. For each 45° (ωm cycle) of the audio cycle, the carrier phasor will ro-
tate 45,000° (125 cycles) since the carrier is 1000 times that of the audio. Also,
if the carrier phasor is instantaneously stopped at a multiple of 360° which will
be equivalent to an angle of zero degree, the carrier phasor will always be
shown at 0°. 
Figure 1.27 Phasor diagrams for each 45° of an audio cycle at RF instants of
time when the carrier is going through zero in a positive direction.
Figure 1.27 shows the phasor diagrams for each 45° of the audio cycle and
each diagram should be related back to the points designated on previous Fig.
1.26. The following examples illustrate how the various phasor diagrams of
Fig. 1.27 were determined. Equation (1.41) is restated for reference by chan-
ging 2πf with ω.
EXAMPLE 4
Plot of carrier, upper sideband, and lower sideband phasors.
For the waveform of Fig. 1.27 'waveform for 1000 kHz modulated at 1 kHz'
above, plot the carrier, upper sideband, and lower sideband phasors corres-
ponding to the point designated as:
Solution
At point (a):
Now see Fig. 1.27 'Phasor diagrams for each 45° of an audio cycle' (a) for
plotting of the phasors.

EXAMPLE 5
Plot of phasors at 45° of audio cycle
Plot the carrier, upper sideband and lower sideband phasors corresponding
to point (b) on Fig. 1.27 'waveform for 1000 kHz modulated at 1 kHz'.
Solution
At point (b):
Now see Fig. 1.27 'Phasor diagrams for each 45° of an audio cycle' (b) for
plotting of the phasors.
EXAMPLE 6
Plot of phasors at 90° of audio cycle.
Plot the carrier, USB and LSB phasors corresponding to point (c) on Fig.
1.27 'waveform for 1000 kHz modulated at 1 kHz'.
Solution
At point (c):
Now see Fig. 1.27 'Phasor Diagrams for each 45° of an audio cycle' 1.27 (c)
for plotting of the phasors.

EXAMPLE 7
Plot of phasors at 360° of audio cycle.
Plot the carrier, USB and LSB phasors corresponding to point (i) on Fig.
1.27 'waveform for 1000 kHz modulated at 1 kHz'.
Solution
At point (d):
Now see Fig. 1.27 'Phasor Diagrams for each 45° of an audio cycle' (i) for
plotting of the phasors. The phasor diagrams for the points between 90°
and 360° of the audio cycle are shown in Fig. 1.27 'Phasor Diagrams for
each 45° of an audio cycle' and have been left for the reader to verify. Ex-
ample 5 shows a characteristic of sideband frequencies at different phase.
In carrier reference plot in Fig. 1.28, the USB has gained one cycle or 360°
during one audio cycle and the LSB has delayed 360° or one cycle per audio
cycle. This is true for any modulating and carrier frequency combination
and when taken on the basis of one second shows the frequency separa-
tion of the sidebands from the carrier.
Figure 1.28 Carrier reference plot.
1.2.5.4. Total Sideband Envelope

The preceding discussion has shown the USB and LSB as separate waves.
However, in most applications in the VOR and ILS systems, it is advantageous
to treat them in their combined form whether waveform or phasor presentation
is used. When the USB and LSB phasors are added, the resultant is a TSB com-
ponent phasor. A sketch of this phasor notation and the corresponding total
sideband waveform is shown in Fig. 1.29. The resultant of the USB and LSB
phasors is maximum at the peak value of the TSB envelope. When the USB and
LSB phasors are mutually at 180°, the TSB envelope will be zero. Thus, series
of phasor diagrams is used to portray the total sideband envelope in Fig. 1.29.
Hereafter, it will be common practice to use only the phasor resultant of the
total sideband on Es, to indicate the effect of the sidebands on the carrier com-

ponent Ec. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.29, where the resultant of the USB and
LSB either adds or subtracts in line with Ec.
Figure 1.29 TSB envelope for a single modulating frequency with phasors
shown at each 45° of an audio cycle.
It is also to remember that both carrier and TSB component phasors are rotat-
ing at the carrier rate around the reference point. Thus, the phasor diagram in-
dicates conditions at instants of time when the carrier is going through a par-
ticular point in the RF cycle. Important fact is that the instantaneous frequency
i.e., the period of each cycle of the total sideband waveform is identical to the
carrier. It should be noted that the TSB phasor, Es has always been shown as
being in-phase (or 180° out-of-phase) with the carrier phasor Ec, or stating the
same thing in a different way, i.e., the USB and LSB have been considered to be
symmetrically displaced about the carrier. This is normally true for a well-ad-
justed transmitter where conventional methods of amplitude modulation are
employed.
Whenever phasors are drawn, such as in Fig. 1.28 'Carrier Reference Plot', the
carrier phasor, Ec should be visualized as a constant amplitude phasor. How-
ever, the TSB phasor, Es, should be seen as varying in amplitude at a sinusoidal
rate as indicated by the dotted line in Fig. 1.29. After this section, the following
concepts should be,
The period of one cycle of the TSB waveform is the same, as the carrier
i.e., the instantaneous frequency of TSB and modulated wave remains
identical of the carrier.
RF phase of the TSB component indicates the relative phase of the indi-
vidual RF cycles with respect to the carrier and is determined by the modu-
lating signal.
The amplitude-modulated wave is composite because it is composed of at

least three different frequencies (spectral and not instantaneous).
One-half of the TSB voltage is in the USB and one-half is in the LSB
The carrier phasor is used as a reference phasor with proper amplitude

and angular velocity when plotting at various points. The LSB phasor may
appear to rotate clockwise due to its lower angular velocity, while the USB
phasor may appear to rotate counterclockwise due to its higher angular
velocity.
1.2.6. RF/Audio Phase

In the previous section, we have considered for simplicity, the initial phase of
both the carrier and modulating signals to be zero. However, it is important to
understand the concept of RF and Audio Phasing.
Let us consider, due to generation of carrier, the carrier generator circuit itself
may offer some phase difference, or, the path it is following through the length
of a cable, or else, we are intentionally introducing a phase difference to the
carrier as ϕc and the modulating signals ϕm, before being applied to a multiplier
circuit as Fig. 1.30.

Negative of ϕc and ϕm have been taken in this to make the mathematical ex-
pressions look simpler, but it is not at all necessary. The carrier at the input of
multiplier circuit due to phase delay – ϕc is sin (ωct + ϕc) and the modulating
signal at the input of multiplier circuit due to phase delay – ϕm is sin (ϕmt + ϕm).
The magnitude terms of carrier and modulating signals are not shown here for
easy understanding of phases. Then, the output is
where ϕc = ϕc1 and ϕm = ϕm1
Expanding the above equation using trigonometric relationship, we get,
(1.46)
This can be called as TSB1.
At another instant of time, let the carrier phase difference is ϕc2 and that of
modulating signal phase difference is ϕm2, then, applying to a multiplier circuit
as shown in Fig. 1.30, yields
(1.47)
This can be called as TSB2.
In the above example, the result obtained due to multiplier is only TSB i.e., TSB1
and TSB2. Therefore, when we are discussing about phase relationship, it is
between these two sidebands TSB1 and TSB2 not the phase relationship
between ωc and ωm of the same TSB because these are non-coherent as well
as different instantaneous frequencies. There can be phase relationship
between any of the TSBs and the carrier (or between any two of the TSBs gen-
erated from the same carrier) in respect of the carrier frequency which is co-
herent and identical to the instantaneous frequency of any TSB generated from
that carrier. Also there can be phase relationship between any two of the TSBs
in respect of audio (modulating) frequency if those are generated from the
same pair of frequencies (carrier and modulating) but no sense can be there
about the audio phase relationship between TSB and the carrier as there is no
existence of audio phase in the carrier.

When we are considering phase relationship between TSB1 and TSB2, phase
relationship to be considered separately for RF and Audio i.e., between ϕc sep-
arately and ϕm separately. Recall what we have discussed earlier with reference
to TSB as represented in Fig. 1.31 by considering no phase difference between
the TSB and the carrier. To understand, and compare, with the effect of some
phase delay, Reference TSB figure is once again redrawn as Fig. 1.31 in
Audio/RF phase relationships dealt in earlier section.
Figure 1.31 Reference TSB (No RF difference and with ϕm = 0).
1.2.6.1. Audio Phase Relationship

Consider the Audio phase relationship taking ϕc as zero to make the deal
simple but without loss of generality. The phasor diagram for TSB1 and TSB2
are given as Fig. 1.32. Note that if there is no RF phase difference between two
TSBs then the angles between respective sideband phasors are equal to the
difference between the initial audio phases but in opposite sense for USB and
LSB. The TSB is leading in audio phase will have two sidebands phasors com-
ing closer to the mean frequency the directions of which remain unaffected by
change of audio phase.
Figure 1.32 Audio RF phase relationship (ϕc = 0).

Let us now, consider the RF phase relationship taking the modulating signals
initial phases (ϕm = 0) as zero for the same reason as stated for audio phase.
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 1.33 for TSB1 and TSB2.
Figure 1.33 Audio RF phase relationship (ϕm = 0).
It is clear from the phasor diagram that for TSB1 both sideband phases are ro-
tated counter clockwise by ϕc1 resulting the rotation of the mean frequency by
same amount with respect to the direction of the carrier phasor. Similarly for
TSB2, the amount of rotation is ϕc2. This means that the TSB1 is leading by ϕc1
in RF phase with respect to the carrier and that for TSB2 is ϕc2 resulting the mu-
tual RF phase relationship between TSB1 and TSB2 as – TSB2 leads by ϕc2 –
ϕc1 in RF with respect to TSB1 or conversely TSB1 lags behind TSB2 by ϕc2 – ϕc1
in RF where as both of them are in audio phase (ϕm becoming '0' the difference
also becomes '0').
The drawing of the phasor diagram of TSB1 and TSB2 with non-zero ϕc and ϕm
are left as an exercise for the reader.
It may be noted that the phase relationship between the carrier and TSB1 or
TSB2 as well as between TSB1 and TSB2 (RF and audio both) can be easily
visualized from the trigonometric expression itself and drawing of phasor dia-
gram is not necessary. This is required to deal with a bit of complicated type of
signal format where it may make the visualization easier but in almost every
case the purpose can be served by describing the signal with trigonometry (or
exponentials).
1.2.7. Effect of RF Misphase

In the previous section, we have discussed about, RF and audio phase relation-
ship in general. Now consider due to some phase delay in RF may be due to the
path it takes to reach a destination (receiver), or its circuit itself is offering
some phase delay, or due to feeding of antenna currents, the TSB does not re-
main in RF phase with the carrier. To understand the effect of RF misphase

between the carrier and sidebands, consider that TSB is leading in RF phase by
ϕ ahead of the carrier when it is added with the carrier. The combined signal
becomes
(1.48)
where 'ϕ' is a misphase angle
As per the trigonometric relationship, sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
So,
(1.49)
Resolving the above by use of trigonometric formula, we obtain,
(1.50)
where tan α =
or
(1.51)
The interpretation of Equation (1.51) is not all difficult. If ϕ = 0 (or multiple of

180° which means that TSB is either in RF phase or exactly out-of-phase with
carrier), then e = (1 ± m sin ωmt) sin ωct which is the known expression for
amplitude modulation.
If ϕc = 90° or multiples of 90°
(1.52)
It is clear that the amplitude varies with repetition rate two times of that of the
modulating signal sinωmt because sin2 ωmt = (1 – cos 2ωmt) is having 2fm
times repetition rate. This amplitude variation is not sinusoidal and the har-
monics of envelope re-multiples of 2fm i.e., even harmonics of fm. Note that
there is no variation of the amplitude of the rate fm which means there will be
amplitude modulation with even harmonics of modulating signal but the per-
centage of amplitude modulation by the modulating signal, where TSB and car-
rier is in quadrature, will be ideally zero (or minimum within practicable limits).
Regarding the angle
(1.53)
It is easy to visualize that the initial phase of the modulated waveform does
not remain constant rather it becomes the function of time which a phase
modulation by a complicated function like tangent inverse of sine function is
introduced as the other effect.

Looking into the amplitude modulation, though with even harmonics rather
than the modulating frequency (fm) at ϕ = the amplitude will vary from 1 to
and for m = 100% it varies from 1 to which reveals that the span
of variation reduces with misphase is increasing the average envelope mag-
nitude. All this effects of misphasing will be present if ϕ ≠ 0° or multiple of 180°
because for other angles the misphased part of the expression
(1.54)
With modulation index m sin ϕ will introduce misphasing in the TSB. From
Equation (1.54), it is clear that the modulation index is reference with the mod-
ulating frequency is in general m cos ϕ with misphased angle ϕ which turns to
m for ϕ = 0 i.e., in absence of misphase.
It is appropriate to reiterate here that phase relations between two continuous

waveforms can only be established or maintained, if and only the instantan-
eous frequency of those waveforms is equal throughout the time, which is only
possible. If those waveforms are either coherent or the dynamic phase correc-
tion is arranged by circuits like Phase Locked Loop (PLL). This reveals that
single sideband (Upper or Lower) cannot only maintain any phase relationship
with carrier because of its instantaneous frequency being different from the
carrier. If we think, the initial phase does not require to maintain, once it is
settled at t = 0 but if those waveforms are not phase modulated. The differ-
ence of phase (more correctly, angle) between two sinusoids or almost sinus-
oids of different frequencies may be required to be maintained as a linear func-
tion of time where the necessary condition is the coherence of those two
waveforms. This type of phase relationship is required to be maintained
between two tones of ILS.
Sometimes it is mentioned in the VOR system, that each sideband is separately

kept in-phase with the carrier. This means the phase correction between two
waveforms of some instantaneous frequencies is being dynamically made in
such a fashion that the sideband (USB or LSB) will maintain the instantaneous
frequency in accordance with the carrier (considering the unavoidable drifting
due to the crystal itself). This is required only where the sideband is not directly
generated (i.e., inherently coherent) from the carrier because of the natural lim-
itation. Only the TSB can be generated from carrier and modulating signal but
not a single sideband (SSB) and from the perspective of generation of side-
band. SSB is the sum of two TSBs in different phases but the TSB is not the
sum of two SSBs.
In brief, if any RF misphase exists between the TSB's and the carrier then the
following effects will be observed:
The effective % of amplitude modulation will be reduced.
Upon detection of the amplitude-modulated wave, the repetition rate of

modulating signal recovered will be found as twice of the fundamental
modulating signal, which indicates presence of even harmonic contents, in
particular, rich second harmonic contents.
From the composite waveform, it shows the presence of phase

modulation.
The average envelope magnitude (i.e., DC average upon detection) would

increase.
1.2.8. Transmitter (or Equipment) Modulation

In transmitter modulation, the carrier and TSB components are combined in a
fixed phase relationship in the transmitter, and the combined wave follows a
common RF path from the transmitting antenna through space to the receiver,
ensuring no introduction of phase difference between the carrier and the TSB
on its way. It is obvious that the mixing (multiplication) of the carrier and the
modulating signal takes place to produce the TSB within the transmitter only,
before combining (adding) it with carrier within or outside the transmitter.
In an AM transmitter, discussed in previous section, amplitude modulation can

be generated at any point after the radio frequency source. As a matter of fact,
even a crystal oscillator could be amplitude-modulated, except that this would
be an unnecessary interference with its frequency stability. Typical block dia-
gram of an AM transmitter is shown in Fig. 1.34, which can be configured
either low-level or high-level modulation. To exaggerate the difference, an amp-
lifier is shown here following the modulated RF amplifier for low-level modula-
tion, and it is seen that this must be a linear RF amplifier, i.e., class-B, RF linear
power amplifier. This will be called low-level modulator, which will be modu-
lated at collector in a power transistor. If the output stage of RF amplifier is
configured in class-C mode and will be connected to the antenna, which will be
called high level modulator.
Figure 1.34 AM transmitter block diagram.
1.2.9. Space Modulation

Another type of amplitude modulation process may be used in many places of
navigational system where the combination (addition) of sideband only (SBO
comprising one or more TSB (s)) and the carrier with or without the transmitter
modulated sidebands takes place in space. It is noted that both the SBO or car-
rier with sidebands (CSB) are modulated in the transmitter but when all the re-
quired signals out of these three namely SBO, CSB or carrier are not radiated
from the same antenna, the complete modulation process will be realized. The
composite modulated waveform will be formed at the receiving point by the
process of addition of all the carriers and all the sidebands (TSBs). The pro-
cess of achieving the complete modulation process by addition of carriers and
sidebands (TSBs) at the receiving point in space is called the 'Space Modula-
tion', which means only that modulation process is completed in space rather
than in system itself. but the modulation is not achieved into the space.
Space modulation is used in navigational equipment i.e., VOR, DVOR and ILS.
This is like an amplitude modulation. However, the only difference is the signal
mixing carried out into space. Where carrier and sideband mixing takes place
in a nonlinear circuit within the transmitter itself, the AM process is referred to
as 'Transmitter Modulation'. In this process, the carrier and total sideband com- 
ponents are combined in a fixed phase relationship and follow a RF path from
the transmitting antennas, through space, to the receiver. A second type of
modulation process used in the ILS elements localizer and glide slopes utilizes
sideband only, unmixed with the carrier. These sidebands follow an RF path
through the transmitter separate from the transmitter modulation, and may be
radiated either from separate antenna or from antennas common with the
transmitter modulation. Since these sidebands are not modulated with the car-
rier, which VOR equipment transmits two type of signal into the space from two
different sources. The RF carrier frequency amplitude modulated with 30 Hz
reference signal typically power of 100 watts, and RF carrier frequency amp-
litude modulated with 10 kHz sub-carrier signal (variable) typically power of 3
to 10 watts. Former source of energy is transmitted at the rate of 30 Hz (circu-
lar motion). Moreover, the VOR carrier amplitude (reference) varies in space
modulation. In result, VOR finally transmits the unique rotating pattern i.e.,
Limacon pattern from a stationary set of antenna.
1.2.9.1. RF Phase Relationships

In the space modulation process, separate sidebands combine with the carrier
outside the transmitter, and the RF phase relationships between separate side-
bands and carrier can vary widely. The TSB component will combine with the
carrier component in space either exactly in-phase, 180° out-of-phase or at
some phase angle, ϕ. This phase angle may vary from 0 to 360°. The desired
objective is to combine TSB component precisely in-phase or 180° out-of-
phase with the carrier depending on the specific system. Under these condi-
tions, the resultant modulated wave is the same as would be produced as a
result of transmitter modulation. It should be recalled that for transmitter mod-
ulation of the TSB component, is always phase-locked to the carrier. However,
it is obvious that in space modulation two or more components can combine
at some phase angle other than 0°. Thus, the resultant RF modulated wave at
the receiver may differ from a wave modulated in the transmitter.
The question might arise: 'What causes the total sideband component to be
other than in-phase with the carrier component'? The answer can be explained
as the phase difference ϕ may occur simply by the relative phase of currents in
the antennas, a function of transmission line length or the carrier and TSB
components radiated from separate antennas may travel unequal distances in
reaching the receiver. This could be due to proximity effect or due to reflection.
If the two components travel different distances from radiating antennas to the
receiver, one component must take longer to reach the receiver than the other
since both radiation travels with the same propagation velocity. Assuming that
the relative phase of the RF currents being fed to the transmitting antennas are
the same, the relative phase of the radiation which travels the greater distance
in reaching the receiver must be such that it will lag the other component by
the angle, ϕ. This angle ϕ is the phase difference with the total sideband com-
ponent, combines with the carrier and is an important factor in determining the
shape and amplitude of the modulated wave. It should be emphasized at this
time that any misphasing is an undesirable condition but it can be judiciously
used for testing or confirming about the transmission line length etc.
1.2.9.2. Space Modulation Phase

The following phasor diagrams Fig. 1.35 (a) and (b) are used to represent the
combining of separately radiated components. When it is desired to use a
single phasor diagram to represent the complete waveform, it is conventional
to show the TSB phasor as indicated in Fig. 1.35 (a) and (b). This type of rep-
resentation indicates the complete range of positions over which the TSB
phasor may vary during one cycle of the modulating frequency. They are some-
times referred to as string phasors. Enough care should be taken to use the
TSB phasor or USB and LSB phasor as there is enough risk of misunderstand-

ing the amplitude variation representation in the same or opposite direction of
the carrier in the TSB phasor as the phasor representation for separate side-
band (USB or LSB).
Figure 1.35 Phasors of transmitter and space modulations.
In Fig. 1.35 (b) both the TSB components namely radiated with carrier and the
separately radiated one are either being added to or subtracted from the car-
rier, depending upon the position along the audio cycle. In other words, with us-
ing the terms in previous section CSB (Carrier with equipment modulated TSB)
and SBO are transmitted from separate antennas. Here the SBO amplitude vec-
tor is also shown as in phase with the carrier. Therefore, both sets of sideband
components are shown properly phased to the carrier component. The separ-
ately radiated TSB component is designated Ess to differentiate it from Ecs, the
TSB component which is radiated along the carrier component.
While combining separately radiated sidebands with the carrier energy to form
a modulated RF wave, RF phase relationships become important. The desired
condition is for Ess to combine at a phase angle of 0° with Ec as indicated in
Fig. 1.35 (b). The space modulation factor is designated 'ms' to differentiate it
from the transmitter modulation factor, 'ma'. By definition, the modulation
factor is the ratio of the TSB component to the carrier component. Equation
(1.35) is for space modulation.
(1.55)
Equation (1.55) is valid only where the TSB component is combined exactly in
phase, or exactly 180° out-of-phase with the carrier component. When this is
the case, the phase angle ϕ will be 0° or 180° and only the fundamental modu-
lating frequency is recovered upon detection of the combined signal. However,
if ϕ is other than 0° or 180°, i.e., not in phase with Ec, (180° is considered as in-
phase as there will quadrature component) harmonics of the modulating fre-
quency will be produced upon detection. Though these harmonics may not dir-
ectly affect the output indication of ILS receivers since they may be rejected by
suitable filter circuits. Since misphasing attenuates the recovered fundamental
modulating frequencies output and amplitudes of the modulating signal are
weakened. 
1.2.9.3. Space Modulation Misphasing

A more general equation for space modulation factor msf can be obtained by
referring to Fig. 1.36. It is based upon that component of the TSBs which is in-
phase with the carrier. As shown vectorially in Fig. 1.36, it is the cosine projec-
tion of Ess divided by Ec or in Equation (1.56) form
(1.56)
Figure 1.36 Effective space modulation phase.
which was already established earlier from the trigonometric expression as

meffective = m cos ϕ in general. Here the symbol 'msf' represents the space mod-
ulation factor at the fundamental modulating frequency. An examination of
Equation (1.56) indicates that, maximum space modulation is attained, when
the separately radiated sidebands are in-phase with the carrier, and minimum
effective space modulation will be obtained. When the sidebands are in quad-
rature or 90° out-of-phase with the carrier, the later being an abnormal condi-
tion in most of the uses. Since space modulation determines aircraft instru-
ment deflection, it should be clear that any amount of misphasing is
undesirable.
An examination of Equation (1.56) indicates that as far as an ILS receiver is

concerned, maximum space modulation from normal facilities is attained,
when the separately radiated sidebands are in-phase with carrier and minimum
effective space modulation will be obtained when sidebands are in-quadrature
or 90° out-of-phase with carrier, and other than quadrature is considered abnor-
mal conditions. Since space modulation determines aircraft instrument deflec-
tion and it is clear that any amount of misphasing is undesirable.
In the localizer (or glide slope), decreased space modulation causes broaden-
ing of the course (or path) width and reduces the sensitivity of the aircraft in-
strument. This could cause an aircraft flying an ILS approach either too far left
or right or too low, and fly into an area of obstructions (trees, hills, buildings,
etc.). Also in capture effect and sideband reference glide slopes, misphasing
can cause glide angle shifts. Therefore RF phasing in the ILS is critical and
should be taken care while carrying out the phasing of the system.

EXAMPLE 8
Combining of Esb with Ec
A component Ec of 100 volts is radiated from carrier antenna pair of an ILS

localizer facility. A component Ec of 30 volts radiated from a sideband an-
tenna pair space modulates the carrier signal. What percentage of space
modulation of the fundamental modulating frequency would a detector in-
dicate if located in position such that relative phasing is as follows?
Solution In Equation (1.56) for the space modulation factor msf would be
used. In the solution, it is assumed that the harmonics of the fundamental
modulation frequency have been filtered out and only the in-phase compon-
ent (Esb cos ϕ) is present at the output of the filters in the detector.
We will note that as the misphase angle increases, the effective space
modulation factor decreases while the Esb magnitude remains the same.
Space modulation sideband power has not changed but some of the funda-
mental modulating energy has been changed to harmonic energy by the mi-
sphase condition. This is best shown by the phase relationship between
carrier and space sideband voltage phasors.
In Fig. 1.37, the harmonic component of misphasing is drawn as the leg of the
right triangle opposite the misphase angle. The magnitude of the harmonic
voltage phaser resultant of misphasing is thus determined by trigonometric
measurement to be equal to Esb sin ϕ or Esb magnitude times the size of the
misphase angle. At low angles of misphasing, the harmonic magnitude is
small. As the angle of misphase increases harmonics phaser magnitude in-
creases to a maximum at 90° where it is equal to Esb magnitude and there is
zero effective fundamental space modulation. This particular angle of mis-
phasing 90° is known as 'quadrature phase' condition and its signal indication
provides the most sensitive reference point for establishing proper RF phase
between space modulation of sidebands and carrier. The quadrature phasing
procedure is used for localizer and glide path.
Figure 1.37 Harmonic component of misphasing.
1.2.9.4. Multi-frequency Modulation

Sideband power requirement to modulate a carrier to a specific level of modu-
lation (mn) using a single modulating frequency can be determined by the
formula
(1.57)
where, Psb is sideband power; mn is modulation factor; Pc is carrier power

When more than one modulating frequency is being used to modulate the car-
rier, total sideband power required may be obtained by treating one modulating
frequency at a time using Equation (1.57) and then totaling the sideband
powers for all the modulating frequencies.
EXAMPLE 9
Power requirements for simultaneous modulation by three modulating fre-

quencies: A localizer transmitter is modulated by the following audio fre-
quencies by the amounts indicated. (a) 90 Hz, m = 0.2; (b) 150 Hz, m = 0.2
and (c) 1020 Hz, m = 0.08. Compute the power supplied by the modulation
circuit if the carrier output is 20 watts.
Solution
a. Psb90 = 0.4 watt

b. Psb150 = 0.4 watt
c. Psb1020 = 0.064 watt
The same transmitter, when modulated to a depth of 48% by a single audio

tone, would produce 2.304 watts of sideband power. A composite modula-
tion factor could be obtained for the direct use of Equation (1.57), where a
carrier is being modulated simultaneously by more than one frequency.
EXAMPLE 10
Determine the modulation power requirements by use of composite modu-

lation factor. Compute the power supplied by the modulation circuit in the
preceding example using a composite modulation factor.
Solution The composite modulation factor may be found by taking the

squares root of the sum of the squares of each of the individual modulation
factors of composite
(1.58)
Let us see how the above equation is derived.
(1.59)
We know Psb TOTAL = Psb90 + Psb150 + Psb1020 and mn = mcomposite
Substitute value of each frequency component in the above equation.
Therefore mTOTAL or mcomposite =
For this example, m90 = 0.2, m150 = 0.2, m1020 = 0.08

This agrees with the solution in the previous example. The composite modula-
tion factor is useful only in determining the audio power supplied by the
modulator.
Earlier it was mentioned that if the separately radiated sidebands (Ess) are not
properly phased to the carrier (Ec), harmonics of the modulating frequency will
be produced. We analyze this harmonic generation by the amplitude vector rep-
resentation. This analysis has however been done earlier with trigonometric ex-
pression, giving the same conclusion as achieved here.
Analysis of the combination of separately radiated sidebands (Ess) with a car-

rier component (Ec) at some phase angle, ϕ, is discussed in the given example
here. A carrier component (Ec) of 100 volts combines with a separately radi-
ated total sideband component (Ess) of 100 volts whose relative phase angle
differs from the carrier by 45° (i.e., Ess = 100 ∠45°). Phasors for Ec and Ess are
drawn in Fig. 1.38 for the phase relationship as indicated by:
Figure 1.38 Time plot of misphased Ess vs. Ec.
The instantaneous total sideband phasor (ess) represents all possible instant-
aneous magnitudes of the total sideband amplitude phasor as the audio modu-
lating frequency goes through one cycle or 360° of audio. The RF phase of the 
sideband lobes reverse as the audio modulating cycle goes through 180° signi-
fying a reversal in the ess vector in Fig. 1.38. The relative phase angle ϕ of ess
with respect to Ec is 45° for the first 180° of the audio modulating cycle and
225° for 180° to 360° of the audio modulating cycle.
Since the symbol Ess is used to represent the maximum magnitude of the total
sideband envelope, the instantaneous magnitude of the sideband envelope will
be ess = Esssin ωat or in this particular example, ess= 100 sin ωat, where ωa is
the number of electrical degrees measured along the modulating frequency
time axis. Thus, the ess phasor will trace itself along the Ess phasor for all pos-
sible instantaneous magnitudes as ωat goes from 0° through 360°. Some of
the points are indicated on Fig. 1.38 such as: A, A', B, B' etc. For a phasor ana-
lysis of the envelope magnitude, various points along the audio modulating
cycle have been chosen. At 0°, 180° and 360° of the audio modulating cycle ess
= 0 and the envelope would have the value represented by the carrier phasor Ec
or 100 volts in this example. Using ωat to represent the number of electrical de-
grees measured along the modulating frequency time axis, at point A, on Fig.
1.38 ωat = 30°. The tip end of the phasor is indicated at point A (on Fig. 1.38)
and would have a magnitude of 50 V (as sin 30° = ½). The envelope magnitude
at point A would be indicted by the dotted line phasor EtA in Fig. 1.38. The mag-
nitude EtA can be determined as follows:
The phase angle associated with the envelope magnitude indicates that phase
modulation is occurring; however, the receiver second detector does not re-
spond to phase variations, rather responds only to amplitude changes. Other
point along the audio modulating cycle would be determined in the same man-
ner. Table 1.1 given below summarizes the point indicated in Fig. 1.38 and
should be verified by the reader. Note that point C, when ωat = 90°, ess= Ess; and
point F; when ωat = 270°, ess= – Ess.
Table 1.1 Voltages of misphased Ess at 30° increments of the audio cycle
Point on Degrees of E Ess = Value of Mag-

Fig. 1.39 audio cycle (3) sin Fig. 1.39 nitude of
above (1) (ωat) (2) ωat above (5) envelope
(4) (6)
0 0° 100 0 Ec = 100 Ec = 100

∠0° ∠0°
A 30° 100 50 EtA = 140 Eta = 140

∠0° ∠45° ∠14.7°
B 60° 100 86.6 EtB = 172 Etb = 172

∠0° ∠45° ∠20.8°
C 90° 100 100 EtC = 185 Etc = 185

∠0° ∠45° ∠22.5°
B′ 120° 100 86.6 E′tB =172 E′tB = 172

∠0° ∠45° ∠20.8°
A′ 150° 100 50 E′tA = 140 E′ta = 140

∠0° ∠45° ∠14.7°
O′ 180° 100 0 Ec = 100 Ec = 100

∠0° ∠0°

Point on Degrees of E Ess = Value of Mag-

Fig. 1.39 audio cycle (3) sin Fig. 1.39 nitude of
above (1) (ωat) (2) ωat above (5) envelope
(4) (6)
D 210° 100 50 EtD = 73.5 Etd = 73.5

∠0° ∠225° ∠ – 28.75°
E 240° 100 86.6 EtE = 72.8 Ete = 72,8

∠0° ∠225° ∠ – 57.6°
F 270° 100 100 EtF = 76.5 Etf = 76.5

∠0° ∠225° ∠ – 67.5°
E′ 300° 100 86.6 E′tE = 72.8 E′te = 72.8

∠0° ∠225° ∠ – 57.6°
D′ 330° 100 50 E′tD = 73.5 E′td = 73.5

∠0° ∠225° ∠ – 28.75°
O′ 360° 100 0 Ec = 100 Ec = 100

∠0° ∠0°
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1.2.9.5. Apparent Space Modulation Envelope

A plot of the envelope of the space modulated RF wave for this example is
shown in Fig. 1.39. The magnitudes of the dotted line phasor resultants (All the
Ets in Fig. 1.38) recorded in column 5 of Table 1.1 are plotted as magnitudes of
envelope (Eta etc.) in Fig. 1.39. These values are recorded in column 6 of the
Table 1.1. At any particular instant along audio cycle the magnitude of envel-
ope above and below zero reference will be phasor sum of the carrier compon-
ent Ec and the phasor ess phasor at that particular point.
Figure 1.39 Envelope of space modulated RF wave showing apparent

modulation.

From Fig. 1.39, the magnitude of the envelope at point C, which is 90°, along
the time axis of the audio cycle, is the maximum value (Emax), which the envel-
ope can attain. The maximum envelope magnitude is:
An interesting point to note is that the envelope actually reached its minimum
magnitude (Emin) somewhere between points D and E, say at G of Fig. 1.39,
and then increased slightly at point F. Point F is as 270° along the time axis of
the audio cycle. Note also, the envelope has a second Emin between E' and D'.
This effect indicates the presence of even harmonics of the fundamental mod-
ulating frequency.
Let us take a moment to look at Fig. 1.40. It shows envelopes of carrier and
total sideband components and the results of their combination at various
phase angles to form modulated envelopes. The components are of equal
amplitudes (Ec = Ess). Note the uppermost envelope. This shows the same
amount of misphasing (45°) i.e., in the example, we are working with.
Figure 1.40 Oscilloscope presentation of sidebands and carrier combined

out-of-phase.

Note also that as the misphasing increases to 60°, the harmonic content in-
creases, the average envelope magnitude increases
, and the percent of modulation with
modulation frequency decreases. At an angle of misphasing of 90°, mainly the

second in addition to other even harmonics are apparent. If one has to meas-
ure the average frequency (instantaneous) of the audio component of this en-
velope, twice the fundamental audio modulating frequency would be indicated.
The question of average instantaneous frequency comes as the phase modula-
tion resulted from the misphasing inserts variation in the initial phase, thereby
variation in the angle and thereby variation in the rate of change of angle, i.e.,
the instantaneous frequency of the envelope. Also the envelope does not be-
come sinusoid and therefore there are many spectral components with fre-
quencies which are multiple of two times of the modulating frequency, i.e., the
even harmonics of the modulating frequency.
As it has been discussed that this type analysis can be done by dealing with tri-
gonometric equations as well as with phasor (or vector) diagrams- be it side-
band phasor (or vector) or amplitude phasor (or vector). It is up to the reader,
which type of analysis he will prefer. But if one way of analysis appears to be
difficult to the reader, then that establishes other way of analysis. Now let's re-
turn to our example of a carrier component (Ec) of 100 ∠0° volts combined
with a separately radiated sideband component (Ess) of 100 ∠45° volts. The in-
phase component of TSB component Ess is used to determine the modulation
effective at the fundamental modulating frequency. Restating Equation (1.59)
for space modulation factor,
(1.60)
If Esb were to be combined properly in phase with Ec the modulation factor

would be:
Since the total sideband component is combined at a 45° RF phase relation-

ship to the carrier, the effective fundamental modulation factor would be:
This is the modulation factor to which the receiver should respond after the
harmonic components are filtered.
The space modulated envelope indicated in Fig. 1.39 envelope of space modu-
lated RF wave showing apparent modulation, is applied to the input of the re-
ceiver (like that in ILS receiver). However, due to the filtering action in the audio
output circuit, the output of filter is the same as would be obtained by applying
a signal of less modulation percentages to the receiver input. This explains the
importance of, and the need for proper RF phasing between the carriers and
separately radiated sideband components. As the relative misphasing is in-
creased from 0° to 90°; the effective modulation at the fundamental audio fre-
quency decreases and ideally drops down to 0% at 90°. The Effects of mis-
phasing is further concluded as below:
i. The effective space modulation (msf) is reduced. 

ii. The composite envelope shape indicates the presence of even harmonic
(particularly rich in second harmonic) energies of the fundamental modu-
lating frequency, which would be found upon detection of wave.
iii. The phasor sum of Ec and ess varied in position on the phasor diagram
with respect to time would indicate the presence of phase modulation in
the composite waveform.
iv. The average envelope magnitude (D.C. average upon detection) would
increase.
These four results are always present when TSB component and carrier com-
ponent are combined at other than an in-phase (or 180° out-of-phase) condi-
tion. Optimum modulation occurs with minimum distortion when the sideband
component is combined in-phase with the carrier.
1.2.9.6. ILS Quadrature Phasing

A special case of misphasing is produced when the TSB component is com-
bined at ± 90° with respect to the carrier component. Special use is made of
this condition in ILS system phasing adjustments. Figure 1.41 shows a vector
diagram for the conditions of Ess, given a 90° phase shift. The instantaneous
TSB component ess will vary in magnitude as time progresses along audio
cycle. At the instants evaluated in Fig. 1.41 its tip will lie at points A, B, C, B' and
A' for corresponding positions of ωat equaling 30°, 60°, 90°, 120° and 150°
along the audio cycle and for corresponding positions of 210°, 240°, 270°, 300°
and 330° along the audio cycle ess will lie with its tip at points D, E, F, F' and D'
respectively.
Figure 1.41 Phasor conditions for ess with EtA, EtB 90° misphase.
The composite envelope values indicated by EtA, EtB etc., swing about the car-
rier vector Ec indicating that phase modulation is occurring. The sideband res-
ultant Ess is equal to OC at 90° of the audio modulating cycle and the overall
phasor resultant at this time is Etc. When Ess is in quadrature with Ec, there is
no effective modulation at the fundamental modulating frequency since the co-
sine projection of Ess is zero. In Fig. 1.42 the composite space modulated en-
velope is shown. Observe that instantaneous magnitude of the composite en-
velope is the phasor sum of Ec and ess phasors. 
Figure 1.42 Composite envelope for space-modulated RF wave ESS and Ec

quadrature phased.
Since the envelope magnitude is the phasor sum of Ec and ess, it can be seen
from the phasor diagram that the envelope magnitude will never become less
than Ec. The envelope will have magnitude equal to Ec at positions of 0°, 180°
and 360° along audio cycle. The modulated wave envelope now has two max-
imums, whereas the envelope of a modulated wave whose sideband is in-
phase with the carrier has one maximum. The quadrature waveform relation-
ship for the time of one modulating cycle is shown in Fig. 1.43. The carrier
voltage phasor is shown at a constant reference angle of 0° and the resultants
(R) of the upper (U) and lower (L) sideband voltages, which are the magnitude
of the instantaneous TSB amplitude phasor (or vector) are shown for each 45°
of one audio modulating cycle. Note that R is always at right angles to the car-
rier phasor. This is 'Quadrature' phase condition, a term meaning 'one-fourth of
360°'.
Figure 1.43 Quadrature waveform relationships.

It is noted that during the positive audio half cycle R is at 90° to the carrier
phasor while during the negative half cycle, it is at 270° to the carrier phasor. In
both cases R adds to Ec and produces the modulation envelope shown in the
phasor plots. The magnitude of envelope change is exaggerated here for the
clarity of the drawing. Although the varying envelope seems to indicate that
amplitude modulation is occurring, it may become deceptively true, as the
amplitude modulation is not occurring with the modulating frequency. When
each R phasor is added to the carrier phasor, the resultant phasors will show a
changing resultant phase. This process is called phase modulation. When R is
at 90° to carrier phase, the resultant phase will swing increasingly positive with
increase of R magnitude and when R is at 270° to carrier phase, the resultant
phase will swing negative in the same manner. Instead of a constant resultant
phase equal to the carrier as in AM, the resultant phase swings alternately pos-
itive and negative from the carrier phase. If the RF modulated wave envelope
shown in Fig. 1.43, were to be amplitude-detected by a suitable means, it
would be found that the major frequency now contributing to the modulation
would be the second harmonic of the original modulating frequency. Some
higher order harmonics are also present but these may be of negligible
magnitude.
The apparent modulation as seen by the second detector of a receiver with the
quadrature phasing condition in Fig. 1.41. Phasor conditions for ess with 90°
misphase would indicate the extent of the even harmonic components.

Due to the filtering action, the receiver deflection instrument does not respond
to this modulation factor, as the modulation is not with the desired modulating
frequency.
1.2.10. Mode of Emission

The International Telecommunications Union (I.T.U) Radio Regulations also
define and describe all forms of emission, used in modulation. The types of
emissions are basically divided into three main groups as per the modulations
in use:
i. Amplitude designated as 'A'
ii. Frequency or Phase designated as 'F'
iii. Pulse designated as 'P'
1. Amplitude 'A' with subscripts designator and its meaning are given below:
A0: Carrier carrying no modulation or information.
A1: Telegraphy: on-off, with no other type of modulation.
A2: Telegraphy: on-off, amplitude modulated tone.
A3: Telephony: Carrier with double sideband. This is the standard AM

used for broadcasting etc.
In order to distinguish the different forms of amplitude modulated wave

with Full Carrier, Suppressed Carrier, Single Sideband, Independent Side-
band (ISB), Vestigial Sideband (VSB) etc., designators which were
updated/re-designated by ITU Radio Regulation are used as given below:
a. A3E (Previously A3)
Double sideband with Full Carrier (DSB-FC)- this is standard AM used

for broadcasting etc.
b. R3E (Previously A3A)
Single Sideband Reduced Carrier (SSB-RC)- this is a pilot carrier sys-

tem. An attenuated carrier is reinserted into the SSB signal to facilit-
ate receiver tuning and demodulation. It is being steadily replaced by
J3E, on a worldwide basis except for so called maritime mobile dis-
tress frequencies 2182 kHz (also called as SOLAS- (Safety of Life at
Sea).
c. H3E (Previously A3H)
Single Sideband, Full Carrier (SSB-FC)- this could be used as a com-

patible AM broadcasting system, with A3E receivers (an ordinary AM
Receiver). Distortions of the order of 5% are felt when H3E transmis-
sion is received over A3E receivers.
d. J3E (Previously A3J)
Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSB-SC)- this is the system com-

monly referred as SSB. The carrier should be suppressed by at least
45 dB at the transmitter. This system was slow in development be-
cause highly stable oscillators were required, but with the introduction
of synthesizer driven receivers, this system also has developed to a
great extent now for radio communications. 
e. B8E (previously A3J)
Two Independent Sidebands (ISB) with a carrier is most commonly

attenuated or suppressed. This form of modulation is also known as
Independent-Sideband (ISB) emission. ISB is used extensively in HF
point-to-point communication systems for radiotelephony where more
than one channel is required.
f. C3F (Previously A5C)
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) used for Television video transmission sys-

tem in which a vestige i.e., a trace, of the unwanted sideband is trans-
mitted usually with a full carrier. It is used for video transmissions in
all the world's various TV systems to conserve bandwidth.
i. A4: Facsimile (slow-scan TV systems).
ii. A9B: Telephony or Telegraphy with independent sidebands.
For information to the reader, the other forms of emission i.e., frequency,
or phase, and pulse modulations are also introduced in this chapter.
2. Frequency or Phase modulated emissions
F1 : Telegraphy ; frequency shift keying.
F2 : Telegraphy ; on-off : frequency modulated tone.
F3 : Telephony ; frequency or phase modulated.
F4 : Facsimile
F5 : Television
F6: Telegraphy; four frequencies diplex.
3. Pulse Modulated Emissions
P0 : Radar (pulsed carrier without information)
P1D : Telegraphy ; on-off keying of pulsed carrier.
P2D : Telegraphy ; pulsed carrier, tone modulated.
P2E : Telegraphy ; pulse width, tone-modulated.
P2F : Telegraphy ; phase or position, tone-modulated.
P3D : Telephone ; amplitude modulated pulses.
P3E : Telephony ; pulse width modulated.
P3F : Telephony ; pulses ; phase or position modulated.
1.3. SINGLE SIDEBAND THEORY

When a carrier signal (fc) is amplitude modulated by a modulating signal (fm),
the resulting signal consists of three components, namely the original carrier
signal of frequency 'fc', the upper sideband signal of frequency (fc + fm) and the
lower sideband signal of frequency (fc – fm).
(1.60)
It is evident from the Equation (1.60) that the carrier component remains con-
stant in amplitude and frequency, in spite of change produced in the total amp-
litude of the modulated signal. It is also obvious that the two sidebands are ex-
act images of each other, since each is affected by changes in amplitude of the

modulating signal amplitude by the term . It is observed therefore that all
the information can be conveyed by the use of one sideband only. The carrier is
superfluous, and the other sideband is redundant. By using this technique,
channel bandwidth and power can be saved for transmitting the information.
By transmitting only one sideband, the receiver has to use product detector to
get back the information from the modulated signal. The product detector in
the receiver requires the characteristics of the original carrier i.e., the phase
and frequency. Without these characteristics the carrier signal so generated
locally in the receiver should be very precise to demodulate the original intelli-
gence. If the receiver lacks this quality, distortion would occur. Figure 1.44
shows the frequency spectrum of an AM wave for a single modulating
frequency.
Figure 1.44 Frequency spectrum of AM wave.
Also from the above spectrum it is obvious that the bandwidth of an AM signal
is twice the bandwidth of a SSB signal.
Figure 1.45 Frequency spectrum of modulated signals for a band of

modulating frequencies.
The advantage of using DSB-FC is of its relative simplicity of the transmitter

and receiver.

1.3.1. Information Content in SSB
In amplitude modulated signal the information or modulating signal is avail-
able in the instantaneous amplitude of the carrier signal whereas, this informa-
tion is available in the frequency of the SSB signal. For better understanding,
Equation (1.60) of AM signal can be referred. In this equation if the terms of
carrier and upper sideband components are removed, it represents a lower
sideband signal.
i.e.,
(1.61)
The information or modulating signal 'ωm' is available in the frequency of the

SSB signal as '(ωc–ωm)'. Moreover the instantaneous amplitude of a SSB sig-
nal doesn't change with respect to the instantaneous change in the modulating
signal as of an AM signal.
1.3.1.1. Requirement of Clarifier

In SSB communication, the recovery of the intelligence at the receiver is
achieved by heterodyning the received signal with a local oscillator signal. This
process is known as synchronous detection, which is synchronous (coherent)
with the carrier used at the transmitting end to generate the sideband. In this
process if the local oscillator carrier signal generated at the receiver has a fre-
quency offset of 'Δω' from the original carrier frequency and so be of the form
cos (ωc+ Δω)t, the intelligence recovered after detection would be cos (ωm +
Δω) t. The effect is the frequency of the recovered signal would differ from the
original intelligence by an error 'Δω'. The error so produced makes the intelli-
gence to be audible at a lower or higher pitch from the original intelligence. The
situation worsens when the harmonically related spectral components is trans-
mitted by SSB. These components would suffer the same frequency shift on
detection at the receiver and no more would maintain the harmonic relation
between each other. The overall result is a frequency offset between carriers
adversely affects the intelligibility of spoken communication and cannot be tol-
erated in connection with the music. Practically, an error of less than 30 Hz is
acceptable to the ear.
The need to keep the frequency-offset (Δf) between the carriers small normally
imposes severe restrictions on the frequency stabilities of the carrier signal
generators at both ends of the communication systems. It is also possible to
tune an SSB receiver and hence reduce the frequency offset. A clarifier circuit
is normally employed, which uses a voltage-controlled oscillator to reduce this
effect. By varying the bias voltage to this oscillator one can manually adjust the
frequency of the receiver carrier oscillator until the received signals sounds
'normal'. However, because of oscillator drift, such adjustments must be done
periodically.
1.3.1.2. Information Based on Frequency

In SSB communication should never be used when the information to be trans-
mitted is available in the frequency of the signal for example Selective Call
(SELCAL). Selcal equipment is used in HF transmission to call a particular sta-
tion by transmitting its code. The code is in the form of tone bursts of dual fre-
quencies, which is transmitted for a particular duration. The station whose
code matches with the transmitted code, accepts the call signal. In this case
the station has to be alerted receives the information, which is available in tone
frequencies.
These tone signals due to the inherent characteristics of SSB transmission

may undergo frequency shift at the receiver. If it happens the intelligence can-
not be recovered, and the very purpose of calling a station is defeated.

1.3.1.3. Information with Stepwise Discontinuity

SSB communication cannot be used when the information to be transmitted is
in the form of pulses, digital signals etc., which consists of step discontinuit-
ies. These step discontinuities i.e., the rising and falling edges in the modulat-
ing signal produce infinite peaks (horns) on the carrier signal amplitude on
modulation. The transmitter cannot handle the peak envelope power needed
for these infinite horns. The audio signal used in voice transmission also con-
sists of step discontinuities. To transmit these discontinuities the audio wave-
form is passed through a low-pass filter circuit to smooth out of any abrupt
transitions before modulation to avoid generation of horns in the modulated
signal.
1.3.1.4. Generation of SSB

To generate a SSB signal three main systems are used, namely- the filter
method, phase cancellation method, and the third method. They differ in each
other in the way of suppressing unwanted sideband. However, all the methods
use a balanced modulator to suppress the carrier. The Balanced Modulator
uses the non-linear portion of the characteristics of the active element in the
modulator to suppress the carrier and undesired sideband.
Figure 1.46 Class a transistor amplifier.
(a) Effect of Nonlinear Resistance on Added Signals
The relationship between voltage and current in a linear resistance is given by
(1.62)
where, b is some constant of proportionality. If the above equation refers to a

resistor, then b is obviously its conductance. If, on the other hand, the equation
is made to apply to the collector current and base voltage of a transistor, 'i' will
be the collector current, and 'v' will be the voltage applied to the base.
If the amplifier operates in class A, there will also be a DC component of col-

lector current of value 'a', which is not dependent on the signal voltage at the
base. Thus it may be written as

(1.63)
'a' is the DC component of the collector current, and 'b' is the transconductance
of the transistor. In a nonlinear resistance, the current is still to a certain extent
proportional to the applied voltage, but no longer directly as before. If a curve
of current versus voltage is plotted, as given in Fig. 1.47, it is found that there
is now some curvature in it. The previous linear relation seems to apply up to a
certain point, after which current increases more or less rapidly with voltage, as
shown in Fig. 1.47. Whether increase is more or less rapid depends on when
the device begins to saturate. Else some avalanche current multiplication also
takes place. Current now obviously becomes proportional not only to voltage
but to the square, cube and higher powers of voltage.
Figure 1.47 Characteristics of class A amplifier.
(b) Non-linear Resistance Characteristics.
This nonlinear relation is most conveniently expressed as
(1.64)
The initial portion of the graph is linear and it is simply that the coefficient 'c' is
much smaller than b. For example, a typical numerical equation might well be
something like in which case curvature is insignificant until 'v' equals at least 3.
Moreover, 'c' in 'practical nonlinear resistances is much greater than d, which is

in turn larger than the constants proceeding in the higher-power terms. In fact,
only the square term is large enough to be taken into consideration for most
applications, so that the equation can be written as
(1.65)
where 'a' and 'b' have the meanings previously given, and c is the coefficient of
non-linearity. Since the above equation is generally adequate in relating the out-
put current to the input voltage of a nonlinear resistance, it may now be applied
to the gate-voltage drain-current characteristic of a FET. If two voltages are ap-
plied simultaneously to the gate, then
(1.66)

The two signals applied to the base are sinusoidal, i.e., v1 = V1 sin ωct and v2 =
V2 sin ωmt, where ωc and ωm are the two angular velocities. Substituting the
above terms in Equation (1.66)
(1.67)
Using trigonometric expressions the above equation can be simplified as
(1.68)
where,
If the input signal frequencies of 'ωc' and 'ωm' are carrier and modulating sig-
nals, it is evident that, when these two signals are added in a non-linear device,
the output consists of various components like a DC component given by term
1, the input signal frequencies (term 2 and term 3), twice the frequencies of in-
put signals (term 4), the sum and difference frequencies (term 5 and term 6)
the USB and LSB.
1.3.1.5. The Balanced Modulator Operation

The circuit of Field Effect Transistor (FET) balanced modulator is shown in Fig.
1.48. The circuit utilizes the nonlinear principles just discussed. The modula-
tion voltage v2 is fed to the push-pull circuit as differential signal and the car-
rier voltage v2 in parallel as common-mode signal, to a pair of identical class-A
FET amplifiers. In the FET circuit, the carrier voltage is thus applied to the two
gates in phase; whereas the modulating voltage appears 180° out-of-phase at
the gates, since these are at the opposite ends of a center-tapped transformer.
Figure 1.48 FET balanced modulator.


The modulated output currents of the two FETs are combined, as shown in the
center-tapped primary of push-pull output transformer. They therefore, subtract
as indicated by the direction of the arrows. If the system is made completely
symmetrical the carrier frequency will be completely cancelled. No system can
of course be perfectly symmetrical in practice, so that the carrier will be heavily
suppressed rather can be completely removed (a 45-dB suppression is nor-
mally regarded as acceptable). The output of the balanced modulator thus con-
tains only two sidebands and some of the miscellaneous components which
are taken care of by tuning of the output transformers secondary winding.
Thus the final output consists of only two sidebands.
The final output of the balanced modulator can be derived mathematically. As

indicated, the input voltage will be 'v1 + v2' at the gate of T1 and 'v1 – v2' at the
gate of T2. If both the devices used are identical, then the proportionality con-
stants will be the same for both FETs and may be called a, b, and c as before.
The two drain currents, calculated as in the preceding section, will be
(1.69)
As previously indicated, the primary current is given by the difference between

the individual drain currents. Thus, the (v0) output
(1.70)
If the carrier voltage is represented by v1, which is 'Vcsin ωct' and the modulat-
ing voltage by v2, which is'Vmsinωmt' then by substituting these terms in the
above equation produces
(1.71)
The output voltage v0 is proportional to this primary current. If the constant of

proportionality is 'α', then
(1.72)
By equating the constants '2αbVm' and '2αcVmVc' in the above equation to 'P'
and 'Q' respectively, the equation becomes
(1.73)
It is evident from the above Equation (1.73) that 'P sinωmt' is the modulating
signal, 'Q cos (ωc – ωm) t' the LSB signal and 'Q cos (ωc+ωm) t' the USB signal.
Therefore the output of the balance modulator is consisting of modulating sig-
nal, upper sideband and lower sideband.
1.3.2. Filter System 

The filter system is the simplest of all the three methods used to suppress one
of the sidebands. The filter is at the output of the balanced modulator, which
filters the undesired sidebands. It may be mechanical, depending on the carrier
frequency and other requirements. The block diagram of an SSB transmitter
employing this method is shown in Fig. (1.49).
Figure 1.49 Filter method of sideband suppression.
The key circuits are balanced modulator and the sideband suppression filter.
the characteristic of the filter is such that it should have a flat passband and
extremely high attenuation outside the passband. In radio communication sys-
tems the voice frequencies range from 300 to 3400 Hz. If it is required to sup-
press the lower sideband and if the transmitting frequency is 'f ', then the low-
est frequency it must pass is 'f + 300' Hz whereas, the highest frequency that
must be fully attenuated is 'f – 300' Hz. Hence, the filter response must change
from 'zero' attenuation to full attenuation over a range of only 600 Hz. If the
transmitting frequency used is in the HF band and that too above 10 MHz, it is
virtually impossible to achieve the desired attenuation characteristics. It even
worsens if lower modulating signals are used. To obtain steep skirts the 'Q' of
the tuned circuits should be very high. The situation again worsens if the trans-
mitting frequency is raised. As filter will not perform for derive results due to
inherent limitation of the particular filter used in each circuit.
i. An LC filter can be used with a maximum RF of 100 kHz. On above fre-

quency the size of the filter becomes bulky, also the loss within the filter
increases, and the attenuation outside the passband will be insufficient. To
get the desired characteristics at higher frequencies crystal, ceramic or
mechanical filters can be used. Mechanical filters can be used up to 500
kHz or so and crystal or ceramic filters up to 20 MHz.
ii. The mechanical filter has the best all-around properties- it is small in size,
good bandpass, very good attenuation characteristics and an adequate
upper frequency limit.
iii. Crystal or ceramic filters may be cheaper, but are technically preferable
only at frequencies in excess of 1 MHz.
The disadvantage of these filters is, they have their maximum operating fre-
quency well below the usual transmitting frequencies.
To compensate for this limitation, Fig. 1.49 uses a balanced mixer. A balanced
mixer operation is the same as balanced modulator, except for the reason that
the sum frequency obtained at the output, is much farther from the crystal os-
cillator or synthesizer frequency (than the USB was from the carrier in the bal-
anced modulator) so that it can be selected with a tuned circuit. In this mixer,
the frequency from the crystal oscillator or synthesizer is added to the SSB sig-
nal from the filter, the frequency thus being raised to the value desired for the
transmission. However, if the required transmitting frequency is much higher
than the operating frequency of the sideband filter, more than one mixer stage
has to be used. To raise the output to the desired level the output of the bal-

anced mixer has to be fed to a chain of amplifiers. The amplifiers used should
be a linear i.e., Class-A, since the amplitude of SSB signal is variable and if fed
to Class-C amplifiers the signal would get distorted.
a. Advantages of the filter method system
i. Simpler system.
ii. Adequate sideband suppression about of 50 dB is possible in this

system.
iii. The use of sideband filters further attenuates the carrier component
at the output.
iv. The bandwidth is sufficiently flat and wide.
v. It is used in commercial applications with mechanical filters, except in

multi-channel equipments, crystal or even LC filters are used.
b. Disadvantages of the filter method system
i. The system becomes bulky due to the limitation in the operating fre-
quency of the filters. This can be possibly overcome by using mech-
anical filters.
ii. This system cannot generate SSB at high radio frequencies. To

achieve this, a number of mixer stages have to be incorporated.
1.3.3. Phase Shift Method

The phase shift method avoids using filters and instead makes use of two bal-
anced modulators and two phase-shifting networks to get the desired side-
band output. In Fig. 1.50, one of the modulators, M1 receives the carrier voltage
shifted by 90° and the modulating voltage, whereas the other M2 is fed the
modulating voltage shifted by 90° and the carrier voltage. Both the modulators
produce an output consisting only of sidebands. It can be shown by operation
of the circuit that the USB signal voltages from both the modulators lead the
carrier voltage by 90°, whereas the LSB from one modulator leads the carrier
voltage while the LSB from the other modulator lags the carrier voltage, result-
ing in complete cancellation of LSB signal.
Figure 1.50 SSB generation by phase-shift method.
The modulators used are exactly symmetric and balanced; the amplitude may
be ignored for the purpose of derivation, as it does not affect the result. One of
the modulator M1 is fed with the carrier signal shifted by 90° i.e., sin (ωct + 90°)
and the modulating signal sinωmt, whereas the other modulator M2 is fed with
the carrier signal as sinωct and the modulating signal as sin (ωm t + 90°). The
output of M1 will consist of sum and difference frequencies as shown below.

(1.74)
Similarly, the output of M2 contains
(1.75)
Adding the outputs of both the modulators we get the USB signal.
(1.76)
If the phase shift of carrier and modulating signal fed to one of the modulators
is kept at 90° and fed without shift to the other modulator, the final output con-
tains only LSB component.
a. Advantages
i. The system is not as bulky as filter method system.
ii. Simple switching can generate any desired sideband.
iii. The system can generate SSB at any frequency, which makes mixing
unnecessary.
iv. Low audio frequencies can be used for modulation.
b. Disadvantages
i. The operation of AF phase shift network over the entire audio band
does not maintain the same phase at all the frequencies, resulting in
improper sideband cancellation. Typical variation in phase shift
should be less than 1°.
ii. The system uses two balanced modulators.
iii. This system is not used for commercial applications but only used by
amateurs.
1.3.4. The 'Third' Method

The third method of generating SSB was developed by Weaver as a method of
retaining the advantages of the phase-shift method. By using this ability the
system can generate SSB at any frequency and can even use low audio fre-
quencies without the associated disadvantage of an AF phase shift network
required to operate over a large range of audio frequencies. The block diagram
shown Fig. 1.51 is identical to the phase shift method in the latter part. The
former part uses two more balanced modulators to generate an intermediate
SSB signal. These balanced modulators are fed with AF carrier f0, which is
fixed frequency in the middle of the audio band for example 1650 Hz.
Figure 1.51 Third method of SSB generation.

A phase shift is applied to this frequency only, and fed to this pair of balanced
modulators. The Low Pass Filter (LPF). at the output of balanced modulators
are used to ensure that proper sideband suppressed signal is fed to the final
balanced modulators.
a. Advantages
i. This system requires neither a sideband-suppression filter nor a wide-

band audio phase shift network; correct output can be maintained
simply without critical parts or adjustments.
ii. Low audio frequencies can be transmitted, and since the majority of
the circuitry is at AF, layout and component tolerances are not critical.
b. Disadvantages
i. Improper balance in low-frequency balanced modulators produces un-

desired whistle at the output.
ii. The system is more complicated than the others.
1.3.5. Pilot Carrier System

SSB-SC transmission requires excellent frequency stability on the part of both
transmitter and receiver. Any frequency shift, anywhere along the chain, which
the information must pass, will cause an equal frequency shift of received sig-
nals. This can be well understood by an example. Consider a system is trans-
mitting three signals at 200 Hz, 400 Hz and 800 Hz. Suppose a 40 Hz fre-
quency shift occurs in the transmitter, the received frequencies now would be
160 Hz, 360 Hz and 760 Hz respectively, but they do not maintain harmonic re-
lationship with each other. The result is obviously difficult to transmit good
quality music via SSB-SC. Speech will also be impaired (although it suffers less
than music) unless long-term stabilities of the order of 1 part in 107 (or better)
are attained.
Such frequency stability can be achieved in the transmitter equipment by em-

ploying good-quality temperature stabilized crystal oscillators. Receivers need
to be tunable over a wide frequency range definitely have to employ frequency
synthesizers to achieve this stability. It is difficult to achieve this stability in re-
ceivers, which use variable frequency oscillators. To overcome this problem a
technique is developed in which the transmitter system sends a pilot carrier
with the desired sideband. The block diagram of such a transmitter is very sim-
ilar to those already shown, with one difference that an attenuated carrier sig-
nal is added to the transmission after the unwanted sideband has been re-
moved. The carrier is normally reinserted at a level of 16 or 26 dB below, the
value would have had if it had not been suppressed in the first place, and it
provides reference signal to help demodulation in the receiver. Since the fre-
quency stability obtainable over long-term periods is with 1 part in 107, such
systems are widely employed in point-to-point radiotelephony. For high-density

traffic, short or long haul, different modulation techniques are employed
namely Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) and Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM).
1.3.5.1. Independent Sideband (ISB) System

Independent Sideband transmission is often employed in low or medium dens-
ity traffic situations whereas multiplexing techniques are used for high density
point-to-point communications. As shown in Fig. 1.52 an ISB transmission es-
sentially consists of SSB-SC with two SSB channels added to form two side-
bands around the reduced carrier. Each sideband is quite independent of the
other. It can simultaneously convey a totally different transmission on each of
the sidebands, like radiotelephony on USB and telegraphy on LSB. Each 6 kHz
channel is fed to its own balanced modulator. This balanced modulator also
receives the output of the common 100 kHz crystal oscillator. The carrier is
suppressed (by 45 dB or more) in the balanced modulator and the following fil-
ter. The main function of the filter is to suppress the unwanted sideband, as in
all other SSB systems. The difference in this system is one filter suppresses
the LSB and the other filter suppresses the USB.
Figure 1.52 Simplified block diagram of ISB.
The outputs of both the filters are then combined in the adder with the –26 dB
carrier, so that a low-frequency ISB signal exists at this point, along with a pilot
carrier. The output of the adder is fed to one input of mixer, while the other in-
put is fed from a crystal oscillator. The mixer output would contain a frequency,
which is raised to the standard value of 3.1 mHz. The balanced mixers are
used, to permit easier removal of unwanted frequencies by the output filter.
The signal that leaves the drive unit enters the main transmitter. Its frequency
is raised yet again, through mixing with the output of a crystal oscillator, or fre-
quency synthesizer to transmit the signal in the desired HF band. The resulting
RF ISB signal is then amplified by linear amplifiers, until it reaches the ultimate
level at point, it is fed to a fairly directional antenna for transmission. The typ-
ical power level at this point is generally between 10 and 60 kW peak. Since
each sideband has a bandwidth of 6 kHz, it can carry two 3 kHz voice circuits,
so that a total of four conversations may be transmitted simultaneously.

1.4. FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

FM is a system in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept con-
stant, while its frequency is varied by the modulating signal. Phase modulation
is a similar system in which theory and generation of FM is more complex to
think about and visualize than of AM. This is because FM involves minute fre-
quency variation of the carrier, whereas AM results in large-scale amplitude
variation of the carrier. FM is more difficult to treat mathematically and side-
band behavior is complex. Compared to amplitude modulation, FM has certain
advantages. Mainly, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) can be increased without
increasing transmitted power (but at the expense of an increase in frequency
bandwidth required); certain forms of interference at the receiver are more eas-
ily suppressed; and the modulation process can take place at a low-level power
stage in the transmitter, thus avoiding the need for large amounts of modulat-
ing power.
1.4.1. Basic Concept

By the definition of FM, the amount of carrier frequency is varied from its un-
modulated value, called the deviation, which is made proportional to the in-
stantaneous value of the modulating voltage. The rate of this frequency vari-
ation taking place is naturally equal to the modulating signal amplitude. As an
example of FM, all signals having the same amplitude will deviate the carrier
frequency by same amount, say 45 kHz, no matter what frequencies. Similarly,
all signals of the same frequency, say 2 kHz, will deviate the carrier at the same
rate of 2000 times per second, no matter what is individual amplitudes .The
amplitude of the frequency modulated wave remains constant at all times.
This is, in fact, the greatest single advantage of FM. The modulating signal
(em) is used to vary the carrier frequency and may be used to alter the capacit-
ance of the carrier frequency oscillator circuit.
From Fig. 1.53, it is seen that the instantaneous frequency f of the frequency
modulated wave is given by
(1.77)
k = proportionality constant
Vmcos ωmt = instantaneous modulating voltage (cosine being preferred for

simplicity in calculation)
Figure 1.53 Basic frequency modulation waveform.

The maximum deviation for this signal will occur when the 'cosine' term has its
maximum values, i.e., ± 1. Under this condition, the instantaneous frequency
will be
(1.78)
so that the maximum deviation Δf will be given by
(1.79)
The instantaneous amplitude of the FM signal will be given by a formula
(1.80)

where, F (ωc,ωm) is some function, as yet undetermined, of the carrier and
modulating frequencies. Where fc = unmodulated (or average) carrier fre-
quency. This function represents an angle and will be called as 'θ' for conveni-
ence. The problem now is to determine the instantaneous value (i.e., formula)
for this angle.
As Fig. 1.54 shows, θ is the angle traced out by the vector A in time T. If A were
rotating with a constant angular velocity, say, ω, this angle θ would be given by
ωT (in radians). In this instance, however, the angular velocity is anything but
constant. It is, in fact, governed by the formula for ω obtained from Equation
(1.79), that is, ω =ωc(1 +k Vm cos ωmt). In order to find θ, ω must be integrated
with respect to time instead of simply putting v =A sin ωt =A sin ωc(1 +k Vm
cos ωmt) t for the expression of the FM signal in direct analogy to AM. Thus
(1.81)
Figure 1.54 Frequency modulated vectors.
Considering the constant ϕ may be made equal to zero by appropriate choice

of reference axis.
(1.82)
The derivation utilized, in turn, the fact that ωc is constant, the formula f (x) cos
nxdx = and from Equation (1.82) kvmfc = df Thus
(1.83)
Attention is required to understand that had the FM been defined as


(1.84)
it would have been impossible to realize the instantaneous frequency over the
time domain because it would have been as
(1.85)
So |f(t)| → ∞ when t → ∞
It also reveals that the instantaneous frequency (angular) of a wave represen-

ted by 'sine' or 'cosine' only the time derivative of its argument (or angle) and is
not definitely equal to the quotient when the angle is divided by 't'. It becomes
equal to the quotient in the case of a pure sinusoid only because there the time
derivative of the angle is the coefficient of time and consequently the coeffi-
cient is not the function of the time.
1.4.2. FM Modulation Index

The modulation index for FM, mf, is defined as
(1.86)
The quantity mf is called modulation index or deviation ration. This quantity is

unitless. The is the maximum frequency deviation. It is propor-
tional to the amplitude of the modulating signal. Substituting the Equation

(1.86) into Equation (1.85), we obtain
(1.87)
It is important to note that as the modulating frequency decreases and the

modulating voltage amplitude (i.e. Δf) remains constant, the modulating index
increases. This will be the basis for disguising frequency modulation from
phase modulation. Note also that mf is the ratio of two frequencies, which are
measured in radians.
1.4.3. Phase Modulation

The radian frequency ωc is constant, given by derivatives of the angle θ (t). In
general these derivatives may not be constant. Now we may define as
the instantaneous frequency ωi which may vary with time. We may thus have a
relationship between the angle θ (t) and instantaneously frequency ωi.
(1.88)
It is easy to appreciate the possibility of transmission of information in f (t) by

varying the angle θ of a carrier. In such technique of modulation, where angle
of the carrier is varied by some manner with a modulating signal, the f (t) is

known as angle modulation. Two methods are commonly used in the angle
modulation i.e., phase modulation and frequency modulation. The angle θ (t) is
varied linearly with f (t), then
(1.89)
where, Kp is constant and the resulting form is called phase modulation. Thus
a signal A cos (ωct +θ0 +Kp f (t)) represents a phase modulation carrier. Note
that the instantaneous frequency ωi for a phase-modulated carrier is given by
(1.90)
Hence, in phase modulation the instantaneous frequency varies linearly with

the derivatives of the modulating signal, we have a frequency modulation. Thus
for a frequency modulated carrier the instantaneous frequency ωi is given by
(1.91)
and
(1.92)
and signal A cos (ωct + Kf ∫ f(t) dt) + θ0 represents a frequency modulated car-
rier. In phase modulation the angle is varied linearly with the modulating signal,
whereas in FM the angle varies linearly with the integral of the modulating sig-
nal. Indeed, if we integrate the modulating signal f(t) first and then allow it to
phase modulate the carrier, we get the frequency modulated wave. Actually
one of the methods of generating FM signals does integrated f(t) and uses it to
phase modulate the carrier. In fact, PM and FM are inseparable since any vari-
ation in the phase of the carrier results in the variation in the frequency and
vice-versa. It is therefore unnecessary to discuss both form of angle modula-
tion. We shall deal with FM alone but our discussion is equally valid for phase
modulation. It is observed that for angle modulation, the amplitude is always
constant. If the PM and FM signals are denoted by EPM(t) and EFM(t), respect-
ively, for clarity purpose then
(1.93)
and
(1.94)
where, f(t) is the message signal. In the Equations (1.94), the initial phaseθ0 is
assumed to be zero without loss of generality.
1.4.4. Frequency Deviation Associated

Parameters
The change in carrier frequency is called the frequency deviation. For a trans-
mitter with an assigned test frequency of 100 MHz deviated by ± 25 kHz, the
carrier changes frequency with modulation between the limits of 99.975 MHz

and 100.025 MHz. The total frequency change of 2 × 25 kHz = 50 kHz is called
the carrier swing.
A logical question at this time is, 'How far is the carrier frequency change ac-
ceptable?' There is no technical limit to the frequency change. A carrier oscil-
lator of 5 MHz could change down to zero cycles and up to two times of 5 MHz
(that is 10 MHz) without distorting the modulated signal. It is easy to see that a
deviation of ± 5 MHz (a carrier swing of 10 MHz) for one station would be an
undesirable waste of frequency spectrum. Moreover, if frequencies of all sta-
tions deviate down to zero cycles, they would have overlapping frequency
bands, and it would be impossible to separate them. Therefore the FCC (US),
WPC (India) and ITU (World) has set legal limits of deviation for each of the dif-
ferent services that use FM as the form of modulation. The deviation limits are
based on the quality of the intended transmission, where wider deviation usu-
ally results in higher fidelity. The deviation limit is the term used to express
100% modulation of the FM carrier signal.
1.4.5. Sideband Analysis in FM

The mathematical analysis shows that dealing with a frequency spectrum for a
frequency modulated wave may appear more difficult than the corresponding
amplitude-analysis. The spectrum for only a sinusoidally frequency modulated
wave Equation (1.83) is found to consist of a carrier component, and side fre-
quencies at harmonics of the modulating frequency, even though no harmon-
ics are present in the original modulating tone. The amplitude of the various
spectral components are given by mathematical function, known as Bessel
Function of the first kind, here denoted by Jn(mf), mf is the modulating index
and n is the order of side frequencies. Equation (1.84) may be expanded by ob-
serving that cos (mfsin ωmt) and sin (mfsin ωmt) are periodic and therefore can
be expanded as trigonometric Fourier series f0 =fm. Indeed, a well-known result
states that
(1.95)
and
(1.96)
Using this relation the expression for frequency modulated signal (tone modu-
lated) becomes
(1.97)
J0(mf) gives the amplitude of the carrier component. Bessel function is avail-
able in graphical form in Fig. 1.55. The observations are as follows.
Figure 1.55 Bessel function

1. FM has an infinite number of sideband, as well as the carrier. They are sep-
arated from the carrier by fm, 2fm, 3fm …, thus have a recurrence frequency
of fm.
2. Since each J coefficient represents the amplitude of a particular pair of

sidebands, these also eventually decrease, but only past a certain value of
n. The modulation index thus determines how many sideband components
have significant amplitudes.
3. The modulated wave is the sum of all components in the spectrum, and
these add up to give a constant amplitude waveform as shown in Fig.
1.55. Thedistinction that the modulated wave is not a sinusoid where as
the spectrum component at carrier frequency, i.e., the carrier component
(rather all spectrum components are sinusoids).
4. It is noted that for certain values of 'mf', the carrier amplitude goes to zero.
This serves to emphasize the point that it is the sinusoidal component of
the spectrum at carrier frequency, which goes to zero, not the modulated
carrier or modulated wave, which is non-sinusoidal. It varies from positive
to negative peak without change of amplitude while the instantaneous fre-
quency varies.
5. In AM, increased depth of modulation increases the sideband power, and

therefore the total sideband power. In FM, the total transmitted power al-
ways remains constant. With increased depth of modulation the required
bandwidth is increased and only the distribution of power amongst the fre-
quency components changes keeping the total power constant. To be
quite specific, what increases is the bandwidth required to transmit relat-
ively the undistorted signal. This is true because increased depth of modu-
lation means increased deviation, and therefore an increased modulation
index, so that the more distant sidebands acquire significant amplitudes.
6. As it is evident from Equation (1.97) the theoretical bandwidth required in

FM is infinite but in practice, the bandwidth has been calculated to allow
for all significant amplitudes of sideband components under the most ad-
verse conditions. This really means that to ensure with maximum devi-
ation by the highest modulating frequency.
7. Since the overall amplitude of the FM wave remains constant, it would be

very odd indeed if the amplitude of the carrier were not reduced and when
the amplitude of the various sideband is increased, or vice-versa.

8. It is possible for the carrier components of the FM wave to disappear com-
pletely. This happens for certain values of modulating index, called Eigen
values. Fig. 1.55 'Bessel Function' shows that these are approximately 2.4,
5.5, 8.6, 11.8, and so on. These disappearances of the carrier for specific
values of 'mf' form a handy basis for measuring deviation.
9. It is evident from the expression for the modulated wave, i.e., Equation
(1.97) that in FM the even sidebands more correctly even pair of side-
bands or even total sidebands are in-phase (RF), or out-of-phase (if the
signs of corresponding J coefficients are opposite to J0) with the carrier
and odd sidebands are in quadrature (leading or lagging that depends on
the relative signs like that even sidebands).
The Fourier series technique use to arrive at Equation (1.97) also can be ap-
plied to the case of FM with multitone signals. Suppose
where, f1 and f2 are not harmonically related.
The modulated wave can be written as (taking cosine carrier)
where
(1.98)
by expanding the terms like cos(mf sin ωt) and sin (mf sin ωt) with the help of
Fourier series expansions (which comprises here Bessel Function) and after
some routine manipulation we get the compact result as
(1.99)
This technique can be extended to include three or more number of non-har-

monic tones. The procedure is straightforward but definitely tedious. To inter-
pret Equation (1.99) in the frequency domain the spectral-line can be categor-
ized as four types.
1. The carrier line of amplitude Ac J0 (mf1) J0(mf2)
2. Sideband lines at fc ±nf1 due to one tone alone
3. Sideband lines at fc± mf2 due to other tone alone
4. Sideband lines at fc± nf1 ± mf2, which appears to be beat frequency modu-
lation at the sum and difference frequencies of the modulating tones and
their harmonics. The last category would not appear in linear modulation
where simple superposition of sideband line is applicable.
In Fig. 1.56 you see the curious property of double tone modulated sideband
lines when f2>> f1. Each sideband line at fc±mf2 looks like another FM carrier
with tone modulation of frequency f1. If the tone frequencies are harmonically
related, i.e., the modulating signal is periodic waveform (non-sinusoidal) the
ejϕ(t) becomes periodic (as ϕ is periodic) and ejϕ(t) can be expressed by Fourier
coefficients where

(1.100)
Figure 1.56 Double tone modulated sideband lines.
Consequently Ac | Cn| equals the magnitude of the spectral line at f =fc +nf0.
1.4.6. Bandwidth in FM
It is possible to evaluate the size of the carrier and each sideband for each spe-
cific or interesting value of modulating index. This is shown in Fig. 1.57. In
each case the spectra lines are spaced by fm, and the bandwidth B occupied by
the spectrum is to be
(1.101)
Figure 1.57 Spectrograms at different value of 'mf'

where, n is the highest order of sideband frequency for which the amplitude is
significant. It is observed that if the order of the sideband frequency is greater
than (mf + 1), the amplitude is not more than 5% of unmodulated carrier amp-
litude. Using this as a guide for bandwidth requirement, Equation (1.99) can be
written as
(1.102)
Using Equation (1.99),
To illustrate the significance of this, three examples will be considered.
EXAMPLE 11
EXAMPLE 12
EXAMPLE 13
Thus, although the modulation frequency changes from 0.1 kHz to 10 kHz, or
by a factor of 100:1, the bandwidth occupied by the spectrum alters very little
from 150 kHz to 170 kHz. These examples illustrate why frequency modulation
is sometimes referred to as a constant bandwidth system.
It is also observed that increased depth modulation means, increased devi-

ation, so does bandwidth as seen in Fig. 1.57(a), and also increasing in modu-
lating frequency increases the number of sidebands, though not necessarily
the bandwidth as shown in Fig. 1.57(b). Although the number of sideband
components is theoretically infinite, in practice a lot of higher sidebands have
insignificant relative amplitudes.
When the modulating signal comprises more than one frequency (or tone) the
superposition principle does not apply for frequency and phase modulation.
Therefore, it has been explained earlier, the frequency modulation (or phase
modulation, rather all angular modulation) is non-linear modulation process.
The reader may also note that the frequency and phase modulation are not the
only possible types of angular modulation; rather they are only two members of
a theoretically infinite set of angular modulations.
One member of this group is angular acceleration modulation in which the

second time derivative of ϕ is directly proportional to the signal variation. The
relation between the carrier phase change and the modulating signal may,
therefore, be expressed as
(1.103) 
where the modulation index will be inversely proportion to the square of the
modulating frequency. As a general form, for nth order angular modulation
will be the angular modulation to signal relationship. Where,
the nth order modulation index mn would be inversely proportion to the nth
power of the modulating frequency.
1.4.7. Narrow Band FM

The general expression for the FM carrier is given by Equation (1.94). The in-
stantaneous frequency ωi is given by
(1.104)
which is proportional to message signal f(t). The term Kf f(t) represents the de-
viation of the carrier frequency from its quiescent value ωc. The constant Kfis
considered small as the carrier frequency deviation is small due to narrow
band and we expect the spectrum of the FM signal to have a narrow band. If Kf
is large, the bandwidth is expected to be large correspondingly.
(1.105)
where, g(t) = ∫f(t)
It is interesting to observe that the AM carrier is
(1.106)
whereas the narrow band FM carrier is
(1.107)
Similarly, the narrowband PM carrier is
(1.108)
Each signal has a carrier term and the sidebands, in general observation of
Equations (1.106), (1.107)and (1.108) which are centered at ± ωc.
Figure 1.58 Block diagram of narrow-band phase signal using balanced

modulator.

Comparison of the spectrum of FM with AM brings out clearly the similarity
and difference between the two types of the modulation. In both types, there is
a carrier term and sideband component centered at ±ωc. The sideband spec-
trum for FM has a phase shift of 90° with respect to carrier, where as AM is in-
phase with the carrier. Thus, a narrow band FM signal occupies the same band-
width (2ωm) as the occupied by an AM signal. It should be remembered that
despite of apparent similarities in the AM and FM signals have very different
waveforms. In an AM signal, the frequency is constant and the amplitude var-
ies with times whereas in an FM signal the amplitude is constant and the fre-
quency varies with time.
1.4.8. Wideband FM
If the deviations in the carrier frequency are made large enough i.e., constant Kf
is chosen large enough so that the condition Kf.g(f) < 1 is not satisfied. The
analysis of FM signals becomes very important for a general modulation signal
f(t). Derivation of a precise expression for the bandwidth of an FM carrier for a
general modulating signal f(t) is not possible because FM is nonlinear modula-
tion. We shall first obtain the bandwidth of a FM carrier on a heuristic basis
and later verify this result for some signals. We shall now consider that 'W' is
bandwidth of carrier, is approximately given by
(1.109)
where, ωm is the bandwidth of f(t). Note that
(1.110)
Hence Kf|f(t)|max represents the maximum deviation in the carrier frequency. If

we denote the maximum deviation in the carrier frequency by Δωc, the band-
width W is given by
(1.111)
To derive this result, we approximate the message signal f(t) by a staircase sig-
nal. The signal f(t) is band limited to fm Hz. It is therefore reasonable to as-
sume the signal to be constant over a Nyquist sampling period seconds.
The spectrum of this pulse occupies the band ωi– 2ωm toωi+ 2ωm, where ωi is
the frequency of the sinusoidal pulse. In this case ωi = ωc+ kf f(tk) – 2ωm toωc+
kf f(tk) + 2ωm. It is evident that the spectrum of the entire FM will lie in the fre-
quency range ωc– kf |f(t)|max – 2ωm toωc +kf|f(t)|max + 2ωm and the bandwidth
W is given by
(1.112)
For wideband FM, the carrier frequency deviation Δωc >ωm and W ≈ 2 Δωc. We
therefore conclude that the bandwidth of an FM carrier is approximately twice
the carrier frequency deviation Δωc. If the carrier frequency ωc has maximum
deviation Δωc then the FM signal frequency varies from ωc– Δωc toωc+ Δωc.
One can estimate that such signal will contain frequency in this range and
bandwidth will be 2 W. The integral on the right hand side of Equation (1.113)
cannot be evaluated in the closed form but must be integrated by expanding

the integer and in the infinite series. This integer is denoted by Jn(mf), the
Bessel function of the first kind and nth order. The frequency modulation signal
can be expressed in term of Bessel function as follows
(1.113)
By taking the advantages of properties in equation we can express
(1.114)
It is evident from Equation (1.114) that the modulation signal f(t) of frequen-
cies gives sideband frequencies are (ωc±ωm), (ωc± 2ωm), (ωc± 3ωm), … etc.
However, it appears that an FM carrier contains components of infinite fre-
quencies and has an infinite bandwidth. In practice, however, the amplitude of
the spectral components of the higher frequencies become negligible and
hence almost all the energy of the FM carrier is contained in the spectral com-
ponents lying within a finite bandwidth. This can be observed that if mf < 1, only
J0(mf) and J1(mf) have any significant magnitudes. All the higher function
J2(mf),J3(mf) etc., are negligible. For this case only the carrier and the first or-
der side bands are of significance.
For mf= 2, the function J5(2),J6(2) etc., have negligible amplitude. Hence the
significant spectral components of an FM carrier for mf= 2 are ωc, (ωc±ωm),
(ωc± 2ωm),(ωc± 3ωm) etc., and (ωc± 2ωm). The bandwidth of the significant
sidebands in this case is 8ωm. As mf is increased further, higher order side-
band becomes significant. If we consider the significant sidebands to be those
which have an amplitude of at least 1% of the unmodulated carrier, then for all
significant Jn(mf) > 0.01. The number of significant sidebands for different val-
ues of 'mf' can be found from the plot of the Bessel functions Fig. 1.55. It can
be seen from these plots that Jn(mf) diminishes rapidly for n > mf. In general,
Jn(mf) is negligible for n > mf. This is particularly true for the values of mf> 1.
Thus for a wideband FM where the number of significant sidebands may be
considered to be the integral closet to 'mf ormf=n'. The total bandwidth W of
the FM carrier is evidently given by
(1.115)
But
Hence, actually W = 2(Δωc+ 2ωm) is more accurate expression that 2Δωc.
Hence we have
(1.116)
This rule gives good estimate for wideband FM. For narrowband FM where
Δωc <ωm, the bandwidth is approximately 2ωm. Hence bandwidth required for
the transmission of an FM signal is approximately twice the maximum fre-
quency deviation of the carrier. For wideband FM (mf> 1), the bandwidth re-
quired for transmission approaches 2Δω radian per second or 2Δf Hz. Since

increasing mf also increases Δωc proportion lately for the constant value of
ωm. Here ωm is held constant (fm= 5 kHz). If the spectra of an FM carrier of mf
= 1, 2, 4 and 10 and then the frequency deviation (Δfc) 5, 10, 25 and 50 kHz re-
spectively. Note that the bandwidth is approximately 2Δfc for higher value of
mf. For example consider the carrier frequency deviation Δωc is kept constant
and mf is varied by ωm. ωfc = 75 kHz andmfis varied from 10 to 5 varying fm 7.5
to 15 kHz. The bandwidth W is approximately 150 kHz.
1.4.9. Multiple Frequency Modulations

We shall now extend results obtained in the previous section to the case of
multiple frequencies. First only two frequencies will be considered. It can then
be generalized to any number of frequencies. Consider
(1.117)
(1.118)
Substituting Equation (1.117) in Equation (1.118) and
(1.119)
The maximum frequency deviation is obviously
(1.120)
where,
Also
(1.121)
The frequency modulating signals with two modulating signal is represented in

the form of Bessel function.
or
(1.122)
And

(1.123)
It is evident from this result that when f(t) is composed of two frequencies ω1
andω2, the spectrum of the FM signal contains sidebands (ωc ±nω1), (ωc
±kω2), corresponding to the frequencies ω1 andω2. In addition, there are cross-
modulation term (ωc ±nω1 ±kω2). Note that this behavior is contrast to observe
in AM. In AM each new frequency added to the modulating signal gives rise to
its own sideband only. There are no cross-modulation terms. For this reason
AM is called linear modulation, whereas FM is nonlinear modulation.
1.4.10. FM Signal for Small Modulation Index

For a small modulating index, FM closely exhibits linear behavior. Consider
again the case of modulation signal f(t) containing two frequency ω1 andω2.
The FM signal in this case is given in Equations (1.120) and (1.121). If m1
andm2 < 1 then forf(t),
(1.124)
(1.125)
Note that if f1(t) = a1 cosω1t andm1 < 1; Then
(1.126)
If f2(t) = a2 cos ω2t and m2 < 1; Then
(1.127)
It is easy to see that under the condition m1,m2 < 1, the sidebands due to mod-
ulating signal f1(t) + f2(t) are the sum of the sidebands due to f1(t) andf2(t) indi-
vidually. Hence, FM can be assumed to be a linear modulation for a small mod-
ulation index. The cross-modulation terms under this assumption can be
ignored.
1.4.11. Phase Modulation (PM)

In angle carries the bandwidth of the resultant signal is approximately twice
the maximum deviation of the carrier frequency. Thus if the deviation in the
carrier frequency is kept constant, the spectrum of the modulated signal has a
constant bandwidth. For FM signals the instantaneous frequency ωi is
(1.128)
The deviation of the carrier frequency is Δωc= akf and is independent of the fre-
quency ωm of the modulating signal. Hence for FM signals the bandwidth is
approximately 2Δωc= 2akf, regardless of the frequency of the modulating sig-
nal. For phase modulation, on the other hand,

(1.129)
and
(1.130)
It is evident from the above equation that the maximum deviation of the carrier
frequency in PM is not a constant but is given by aωmkp varies linearly with ωm,
i.e., the frequency of the modulating frequency. Hence the bandwidth required
for transmission of a PM carrier is not constant but depends strongly upon the
waveform of the modulating signal. In practice, however it is easier to generate
a PM signal than an FM signal. If we integrate the modulating signal first and
then allow it to phase modulated a carrier, we obtain an FM carrier. Hence in
many system the FM signals are generated by using PM generators which use
the integrated signal [∫f(t)dt] for phase modulation.
1.5. PULSE TRANSMISSION (GAUS-

SIAN PULSE)
Pulse transmission differs from analog transmission, as it is not concerned
with faithful reproduction of a message waveform but rather with detecting the
presence of pulse, resolving two or more closely spaced pulse, and measuring
the amplitude or time position. Telegraph and Radars (primary or secondary in-
cluding DME) system are examples where it is extensively used. This action ex-
amines the effect of limited bandwidth and additive noise on pulse transmis-
sion at baseband.
(a) Bandwidth requirements
Short pulses have large spectral widths, as we have seen in many observa-
tions. Reversing this observation, it can be said that given a system of fixed
bandwidth, there is a lower limit on the duration of pulses at the output i.e., a
maximum output pulse duration. Consequently, the maximum number of dis-
tinct output pulses resolved per unit time is limited by the system bandwidth.
To put the matter on a quantitative footing, let a rectangular pulse of duration τ
described as of amplitude A be the input to an ideal or nearly
ideal LPF with bandwidth B, unit gain, and zero time delay, so the transfer func-
tion of that filter becomes . Since the input spectrum X (f) =
Aτ sinc (fτ) has even symmetry, the inverse Fourier transform for the output
(1.131)
Which is still non-elementary integral requiring series evaluation and it is tedi-

ous. Fortunately, the result can be expressed in terms of the tabulated sine
integral

(1.132)
which gives Fig. 1.59 for three values of the product Bτ.
Figure 1.59 Rectangular pulse vs inverse fourier transform pulse output.
Despite the rather involved mathematics, the conclusions drawn from Fig. 1.59
are quite simple. We have already said that the spectral-width of rectangular
pulse is about . For B >> the output signal is almost undistorted
whereas for B << the output pulse is stretched and has a duration that de-
pends more on the filter bandwidth than on the input signal. As a rough but
useful estimate we can tell that the maximum number of recorded output
pulses per unit time is about . Besides the detection and resolu-
tion the location of the pulse (s) may also be required. It becomes more diffi-
cult for easily realizable pulses which rise slowly, causing the position of the
leading and trailing edges to be ambiguous and its measurement less certain.
The conventional rule about the uncertainty is stated in terms of rise-time
defined as the interval required for the pulse to go from zero to full amplitude
or from 10 to 90% of full amplitude. It is seen from Fig. 1.59 that the rise-time
of the filtered pulse is more for less bandwidth and therefore another rule of
thumb for the bandwidth requirement is .
(b) Pulse measurements in additive noise
A pulse (not necessarily rectangular) may be contaminated by additive noise

and passed through an LPF whose noise equivalent bandwidth and 3 dB band-
width are approximately equal (see Fig. 1.60). Thus, measurements of both the
pulse amplitude and position will be in error owing to the noise. Position meas-
urements usually are accomplished by noting the time of which the output
pulses exceeds some fixed level, say . Then as seen from Fig. 1.60, the time
position error Δt will be unavoidable and dependent on how large or small is

the bandwidth. Similarly the amplitude error will also exist. The quantitative
analysis, though largely intuitive and heuristic, shows that mean square amp-
litude rise-time errors suggests the bandwidth not to be less than or re-
spectively provided τ >> tr.
Figure 1.60 Pulse measurement with additive noise.

(c) Optimum Pulse Detection–Matched Filter
There exist an optimum receiving filter for detecting a pulse of known shape
x(t) contaminated by additive noise with known spectral density Gn(f). Such fil-
ters are known as matched filters, and are used extensively in radars and data
transmission system. The term matched means the transfer function (i.e.,
characteristics) of that filter is matched with that signal (pulse of known shape
i.e., known spectrum) to provide optimum output which is the maximum peak
signal to mean noise power ratio.
Consider the situation shown in Fig. 1.61, where the output pulse shape is un-
important but is desired to maximize its amplitude at some arbitrary time say
t0 and minimize the output noise. In absence of noise the peak output signal at
t =t0 is
(1.133)
(1.134)
(1.135)
where H (f) is only function at our disposal.
Figure 1.61 Block diagram of matched filter.

A small mathematical manipulation gives the result that the condition for the
above peak signal to mean noise power ratio being maximum, when
(1.136)
[1]
Voltage spectrual of input signal (in Fourier Transform)
where K is an arbitrary gain constant as is t0 and at that instant the ratio

becomes
(1.137)
The property of the matched filter can be visualized physically avoiding the in-
volvement with the mathematics as follows. Let us consider that the filter has
the property of providing frequency selective moving belts which is selecting
the speed of the belt for the particular spectral component of the input corres-
ponding to its frequency. The input pulse is having many spectral components
and each component will be given belt of such a speed that all the components
will be reaching the output at time by increasing the amplitude to its maximum
at that instant but obviously the shape cannot be remaining intact as it de-
pends on the relative timing of these components. The matched filter is some-
times, therefore called as dispersive filters.
1.6. PULSE MODULATION (PM)

The sampling theorem provides the theoretical basis for pulse modulation
techniques. Instead of transmitting the complete signal continuously, we need
to transmit the signal only at a finite number of instants. The information in the
sample can be transmitted by PM. This area of modulation can be easily under-
stood by Fourier series in a given time interval provided it satisfy the following
conditions.
i. it should be single valued throughout the range of time interval
ii. it should be absolutely integrable . The function need not necessarily be

periodic.
It must be carefully noted that the time interval, which the Fourier series to be
valid, must be specified.
(1.138)
Consider to find Fourier series of a single pulse shown in Fig. 1.62 and to de-
scribe pulse time interval –τ to +τ.

Figure 1.62 A single pulse.
In Fig. 1.62,
The solution of above case is in term of Fourier series given in Equation

(1.139) and produces a repetitive pulse train at fixed interval.
(1.139
In this case, we have considered a recitative pulse train which is shown in Fig.
1.63. The width of the pulse is τ and its period is T. The height of the pulse is
V.
(1.140)
Figure 1.63 A reiterative pulse train.

The frequency components present in the pulse trains are determined solely by
the repetition period, and pulse width has no effect on the value of frequency.
The pulse width does not affect the amplitudes of the various frequency
components.
1.6.1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

PAM is defined to modulate a repetitive pulse train in such way that the heights
of the modulated pulse train are linearly proportional to the instantaneous val-
ues of the modulating signal. The vm is the modulating signal, the instantan-
eous pulse height is V(t) is given by
(1.141)
where, k is constant, and V is the unmodulated pulse amplitude. Equation

(1.141) is a typical repetitive unmodulated pulse train f(t). Since the amplitude
of f(t) must now vary and its instantaneous modulating signal.
(1.142)
(1.143)
Note that instead of transmitting all values of vm we will transmitting only a few
samples and we are required to reconstruct the original vm, by using only these
few samples. Accordingly all samples must contain all information which is
contained in the original vm. Figure 1.64(d) is representing the PAM.
Figure 1.64 Waveforms in the various pulse modulation schemes.

1.6.2. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

PWM is defined as the widths of the various pulses of a recurrent pulse trains
are varied linearly with the instantaneous values of the modulating signal. If τ
is the unmodulated pulse width of the recurrent pulse train and it is replaced by
(1.144)
Substituting Equation (1.144) in place τ in Equation (1.140) we get the width

modulated pulse train fPWM(t)
(1.145) 
To simplify it further, we must assume a simple form for vm.
Substituting the vm value in Equation (1.145), the peak deviation in pulse width
is ± τ kAm. Hence after substituting the value of vm, the term inside of Equation
(1.145) consists of sum and difference frequency components of the type
(nω0 +mωm) for all m and n. Figure 1.64 (e) shows a pulse width modulation
trains fPWM(t). The first edge of the each pulse is fixed while the second edge is
moved to provide the variation in pulse width. The width of each pulse has
been determined by the value of vm at the time corresponding to the first edge
of this pulse. This is slightly different from PAM where top of the pulse follows
the value of V[1 + kvm] during its entire width. Whenever vm is negative the
width of the pulse is reduced and whenever it is positive, the width will increase
and it remains unchanged for vm= 0. In similar manner it is possible to define
reverse of PWM signal where the second edge is fixed and the first edge will
move for width variations. Another possible version is possible by changing the
position of both pulse edges for obtaining width variations.
1.6.3. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

Pulse Position Modulation is defined as the position of each pulse is varied
with respect to its unmodulated position the change in position being linearly
proportional to the instantaneous value of the modulating signal. If T is the un-
modulated pulse duration of the recurrent pulse train and it is modified by T(t)
which position will be influenced by vm as presented in Equation (1.146).
(1.146)
(1.147)
Substituting Equation (1.147) in place T in Equation (1.140) we get the width

modulated pulse train fPPM(t)
(1.148)
To simplify it further, we must assume a simple form for vm.
(1.149)
where, nθ(t) is the instantaneous phase angle of the harmonics, now
where, ωmis the instantaneous pulse rate in radians/sec, after position shift is

(1.150)
Hence
(1.151)
Substituting value of Equation (1.149) in Equation (1.151) to get Equation

(1.152)
(1.152)
Substituting Equation (1.152) in Equation (1.148)
(1.153)
To extract the message component from Equation (1.153), we see that the
only way to pass it through low pass filter of bandwidth ωm, where ωm is the
highest and this is message bandwidth. Hence we conclude that the demodu-
lator of PPM system is also a LPF as in the case of PWM. The message output
is
(1.154)
In practice it is found that in order to keep the harmonic distortion and the side-
band distortion within tolerable limits the maximum change in the pulse period
should not exceed 40% of the unmodulated pulse period.
Now the change in period is related to the shift in the pulse position. Thus if t0
is the peak shift in pulse position, then the minimum pulse period will be (T –
2t0) and the maximum pulse period will be (T + 2t0). Hence for tolerable har-
monics and sideband distortion,
1.6.4. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Another very important mode of pulse modulation is PCM. In this system each
sample value of f(t) is transmitted as a coded form by the pattern of pulses.
The signal f(t) to be transmitted is sampled and each sample is approximated 
to the nearest allowable level spaced 0.1 volts apart or less or more depending
upon application requirements. Each voltage level is now represented by a cer-
tain pattern of pulses. Thus, instead of transmitting the individual samples, the
corresponding pulse pattern is transmitted. A block diagram of PCM is shown
in Fig. 1.65.
Figure 1.65 Block diagram of PCM system.
In PCM, the input signal vm of bandwidth ωm= 2πfm is sampled, then quantized
and finally coded. The sampler is nothing but PAM and hence produces fPAM(t)
where the pulse rate must be > 2fm. The quantizer input-output characteristics
are presented in Fig. 1.66. It is noted that fPAM(t) are sample of vm while fPCM(t)
are the quantized samples of vm. Since we are interested in the positive values
of fPAM(t) the quantizer operates on only positive inputs. Figure 1.66 shows
that in quantizing fPAM(t), we are producing only a fixed number of possible
voltage levels while fPAM(t) could have any value in a continuous range. Thus
all values of fPAM(t) for which get converted to a single value after quantization.
In general, if
(1.155)
Figure 1.66 Quantizer characteristics of PCM.

and the quantizer output fPCM(t) will be arithmetic mean of 'na' and '(n + 1)a',
i.e.,
(1.156)
The output of the quantizer is coded. Naturally the output fPCM(t) will consist of
samples whose values are restricted to Equation (1.156). These quantized
samples are now fed to the coder. The coder is a device which converts each
quantized sample into a sequence of 1, 0 pulses shown in Figs. 1.67 and 1.68.
The process is called binary coding and each pulse is called binary digit.
Figure 1.67 PCM coder
Figure 1.68 Coder waveform
Note carefully that all the pluses at the coder output corresponding to each
samples must be accommodated in time T allowed for this sample, this time
being equal to the sampling period used in the samplers. Coding is done very
simply way. All we have to do is to convert the decimal height of the quantized
samples to the binary form. Consider Fig. 1.69 where sequence of the pulses
is shown. There are five pulses marked 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. The number 1 represent
20, number 1 represent 21, number 3 represent 22, number four represent 23
and number 5 represent 24. Thus all the pulses combined represent the
decimal number
Figure 1.69 Binary coding.

We can represent all decimal numbers from zero to 31 with 5 digit sequence of
pulses.
For example if we want to represent say 13, we shall have the fifth and second
pulse absent, and our calculation shows that the decimal equivalent of the re-
maining three pulses is shown in Fig. 1.69 (b). Similarly we can represent any
number between 0 and 31 by an appropriate combination of the 1, 0 pulses. If
we are using five pulses means using five digit codes. Similarly any combina-
tion of the pulses can be to generate the required level of digital output. We
have seen that all the 32 voltage levels with five digit code including zero as a
levels can be presented. In general with an 'n' digit code, we can represent '2n'
different levels.
The coder output is in the form of the sequence of 1,0 pulses, is transmitted
through the two wire channel and modulated a carrier by using c(t) as the mod-
ulating signal and then used the ionospheric channel for transmission. The re-
ceiver input consist of c(t), with superimpose noise. The decision device de-
cides whether its input is zero or one. Thus it is decision device which determ-
ines whether a 0 or 1 was transmitted. The output of the decision device will
consist of sequences of 1, 0 pulses, as were produced by coder are fed to de-
coder. Decoder is a device which converts the coded input to the correspond-
ing quantized samples. The quantized samples are fed to a dequantizer whose
function is the reciprocal of the quantizer. It is impossible to build a dequant-
izer of the type that we have considered, since any quantized samples of
height can corresponds to an infinite number of possible unquant-
ized values of fPAM(t) in the range of na ≤fPAM(t) ≤ (n + 1)a. For a moment if we

assume such a hypothetical circuit, then output is exactly equal to fPAM(t). A
LPF of bandwidth 0 – ωm, then exactly reproduce vm at its output.
The advantage in PCM is offset by its property and being more immune to
noise interference. To receive a PCM signal all that is required to know whether
the pulse is preset or absent, regardless of the amplitude and shape of the
pulse. Thus any external interference which may tend to introduce distortion in
the height or width of the pulses has no influence whatsoever on PCM signals.
1.7. Summary
This chapter deals on various 'Modulation Techniques' used in communication
engineering. For some of the techniques explanations are available in the refer-
ence books of graduate level, but some are not, especially about space modu-
lation in aviation application. In this chapter, provides special attention on
'space modulation' technique which is only occurring in the space if RF signals
are in requisite phase, and it has been discussed in detail. Even modulating two
or more frequencies has been also deliberated in depth. Other modulation
techniques like FM, PM, angle modulation and pulse modulation basic under-
standing has been discussed.

1.8. Objective Questions

1. To achieve 30% space modulation of the carrier energy by the side bands
the approximate power ratio of the two should be:
a. 10 : 1
b. 20 : 1
c. 30 : 1
d. 40 : 1
2. The percentage of modulation in an AM signal when the carrier power is

100 watts and the sideband power is 4.5 watts
a. 20
b. 25
c. 30
d. 35
3. If carrier of 100% modulated AM wave is suppressed the % power saving

will be
a. 50
b. 150
c. 100
d. 66.66
4. Indicate the false statement. Modulation is used
a. Reduce the bandwidth used
b. Separate differing transmission
c. Ensure that intelligence may be transmitted over long distance
d. Allow the use of practicable antenna
5. At VHF frequencies the type of noise which affects most is
a. Man made noise
b. Atmospheric noise
c. Cosmic noise
d. Internal noise
6. The following statements are not related to space modulation
a. The sidebands and carriers are mixed in the transmitter within equip-
ment and then transmitted to the space.
b. The sidebands and carriers are mixed into space with desired phase
to achieve the requisite waveform and then transmitted to the space
c. The sidebands are generated into space to get the requisite waveform
and then transmitted.
d. None of the above
7. Why space modulation is used in ground navigational equipment?
a. Combination of sidebands and carrier into space is prerequisite
b. Combination of sidebands and carrier into space with appropriate

phase relationship is prerequisite.

c. (a) and (b) are prerequisite for space modulation
8. Frequency Modulation has
a. Finite sidebands
b. Infinite sidebands
c. Limited sidebands
9. Angle modulation is combination of
a. AM and FM
b. FM and PM
c. PM and AM
d. AM, FM and PM
10. Pulse Modulations are
a. PWM
b. PAM
c. PPM
d. PCM
e. All of the above
1.9. Descriptive Questions

1. A radio telephone transmitter in the unmodulated state has a carrier out-
put of 10 kW and can be modulated to maximum of 80% by single fre-
quency tone before overloading at the peaks of modulation. To what value
can the carrier power be increased if a limit of 50% modulation is
imposed?
2. A wireless transmitter radiates 4 kW with an unmodulated carrier wave 5.2

kW. When the carrier wave undergoes a sinusoidal variation of amplitude.
Calculate the percentage modulation employed?
3. A DSB-SC signal given by
where, ω1 is the carrier frequency. It is decided to change the carrier fre-

quency from ω1 to ω2. Show that the balanced modulator can be used to
accomplished this by feeding f(t) cos ω2t and A cos ω2t at appropriate
location and using suitable filters. Assume A ≥ | f(t)|.
4. The modulation signal f(t) = A cos 1000 ωt. Sketch the corresponding
DSB-SC and SSB-SC signal for the carrier frequency 10 kHz . Sketch the
AM signal for the modulation index 0.80.
5. A distorted form of a sinusoidal wave cos3ωct is available. To get the DSB-

SC signal, modulating signal f(t) is multiplied by the distorted carrier wave-
form. How can the desired modulated signal f(t) cos ωct to obtained from
product?
6. Consider an AM signal

where, the message signal frequency fm= 5 kHz and the carrier frequency
fc= 100 kHz. The constant A = 20. Can this signal be demodulated by the
envelop detector? What will be the output of the envelop detector? Find
the frequency spectrum of the envelop detector output?
7. The modulation signal f(t) is given by
Find the expression for the corresponding SSB-DC when the carrier fre-
quency is 10 kHz?
8. Find the output of the phase shifter, if input signal is A cos (ωct + θ)?
9. A 100 MHz carrier is frequency-modulated by the sinusoidal signal of 10

kHz, so that the maximum frequency deviation is 1 MHz. Determine the
appropriate bandwidth of the FM carrier. Now find the bandwidth of the
FM carrier, if the modulation signal amplitude is doubled. Determine the
bandwidth of the FM carrier if the frequency of the modulating signal is
also doubled?
10. An angle modulated wave is describe by an equation
Find that:
i. The power of the modulating signal
ii. The maximum frequency deviation
iii. The maximum phase deviation
iv. The bandwidth of the signal
Will be able to determine whether this is a frequency modulated carrier or

a phase modulated carrier?
[1] X*(f) conjugate of X(f)
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Airport Ground Navigation

Table of Contents Figures (69) Tables (1)

1.1. THE NEED

i. Modulation for Ease of Radiation

orbitant size of antenna of several hundred kilometers long will be re-

ii. Reduces Noise and Interference

iii. Frequency Assignment

The selection of any one station is possible in radio or TV because each

It is required to send a number of signals simultaneously between the

v. Overcome Equipment Limitations

All the communication system design is usually constrained by the limita-

In brief, a modulation is the systematic alteration of one waveform called the

1.1.1. Categorization of Modulation

An alternative way is to classify modulation as 'analog' or 'digital' (coded) mod-

Let us now consider linear and non-linear processes in brief:

Figure 1.1 Linear circuit.

 Open in new tab (/mhe-lookup/tab-link/ch01fig01/6076385)

In brief, principle of superposition is applicable in linear systems, but is not ap-

i.e., these (addition and multiplication) are linear operations

Similarly, if the above principle is applied to a modulation circuit with number

Therefore, the amplitude modulation is a process of linear modulation where

Therefore, it is one type of non-linear operation where the principle of super-

1.1.2. Types of CW Modulation

a. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

b. Frequency Modulation (FM)

c. Phase Modulation (PM)

1.2. AMPLITUDE MODULATION

We can define communication as the process of transferring information (or

However, what is 'information'? This term is commonly used to mean know-

When will the sun rise?

Where will it rain?

Where will the cyclone hit?

Quantitatively, the self-information contained in a message A where PA is the

a. IA should be zero if PA tends to 1, i.e., for certain events

c. IA > IB if PA < PB, A and B are two different messages

d. IAB = IA + IB if PAB = PA PB if A and B are statistically independent.

(ii) Amplitude modulation and carrier

Figure 1.2 (a) Carrier waveform, (b) Amplitude modulation waveform.

 Open in new tab (/mhe-lookup/tab-link/ch01fig02/6076385)

Figure 1.3 (a) is a phasor representation of v(t) as a vector in the complex

Figure 1.3 Phasor presentation of Fig. 1.2.

 Open in new tab (/mhe-lookup/tab-link/ch01fig03/6076385)

Rewriting Equation (1.6) as follows

This description is called quadrature carrier description of the above signal as

, keeping the carrier cos ωct. This is referred as tone modulation. At

1.2.2. Carrier and Modulating Signal

1.2.3. A.M. Spectra and Power Relations

De-moiver's representation of Equation (1.10) into Equation (1.11)

where,Am is constant amplitude and is modulating frequency. The

De-moiver's representation of Equation (1.12) into Equation (1.13)

 Open in new tab (/mhe-lookup/tab-link/ch01fig04/6076385)

A frequency-translated signal, is generated by summing the product of base-

that then Equation (1.17) becomes

 Open in new tab (/mhe-lookup/tab-link/ch01fig05/6076385)

1.2.3.1. Amplitude Modulation Index