What is Anthropology?

Anthropology is the study of what makes us human. Anthropologists take a broad approach to
understanding the many different aspects of the human experience, which we call holism. They
consider the past, through archaeology, to see how human groups lived hundreds or thousands of
years ago and what was important to them. They consider what makes up our biological bodies and
genetics, as well as our bones, diet, and health. Anthropologists also compare humans with other
animals (most often, other primates like monkeys and chimpanzees) to see what we have in
common with them and what makes us unique. Even though nearly all humans need the same
things to survive, like food, water, and companionship, the ways people meet these needs can be
very different.

Cultural variation refers to the differences in social behaviors that different cultures exhibit around
the world. What may be considered good etiquette in one culture may be considered bad etiquette in
another. There are many differences between the various cultures across the planet. These
differences include the way people interact, what they wear and what they eat. Many cultural
differences can be explained by the environment and resources of the region.

Anthropology is the comprehensive study of human development, culture, and change throughout
the world, past and present. The comprehensiveness of anthropology stems from its emphasis on
context, reflected in the perspectives offered by the discipline’s four fields.

Fields of Anthropology

1. Biological Anthropology
Biological (or physical) anthropologists carry out systematic studies of the non-cultural
aspects of humans and near-humans. Non-cultural refers to all of those biological
characteristics that are genetically inherited in contrast to learned. Near-human is a
category that includes monkeys, apes, and the other primates as well as our fossil ancestors.
The primary interest of most biological anthropologists today is human evolution--they want
to learn how our ancestors changed through time to become what we are today. Biological
anthropologists also are interested in understanding the mechanisms of evolution and
genetic inheritance as well as human variation and adaptations to different environmental
stresses, such as those found at high altitudes and in environments that have temperature
extremes.

2. Cultural Anthropology
Cultural (or socio-cultural) anthropologists are interested in learning about the cultural
aspects of human societies all over the world. They usually focus their research on such
things as the social and political organizations, marriage patterns and kinship systems,
subsistence and economic patterns, and religious beliefs of different societies. Most cultural
anthropologists study contemporary societies rather than ancient ones.

3. Linguistic Anthropology
Linguistic anthropologists study the human communication process. They focus their
research on understanding such phenomena as the physiology of speech, the structure and
function of languages, social and cultural influences on speech and writing, nonverbal
communication, how languages developed over time, and how they differ from each other.

4. Archaeology
Archaeologists are interested in recovering the prehistory and early history of societies and
their cultures. They systematically uncover the evidence by excavating, dating, and
analyzing the material remains left by people in the past. Archaeologists are essentially
detectives who search through many thousands of pieces of fragmentary pots and other
artifacts as well as environmental data in order to reconstruct ancient life ways. In a sense,
this makes archaeology the cultural anthropology of the past. Archaeology is also related to
biological anthropology in its use of the same methods in excavating and analyzing human
skeletal remains found in archaeological sites.
SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology’s subject matter is
diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the divisions of race and
social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social stability to radical change in
whole societies. Unifying the study of these diverse subjects of study is sociology’s purpose of
understanding how human action and consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding
cultural and social structures.

The differences among the individuals on the basis of social characteristics and qualities are known
as social differences. Social differences are the complex differences and they include class, race,
culture, age, ability, sex etc. Social differences can create discrimination among the individuals on
the basis of their social characteristics. For example, if in a society, individuals with high status are
given more respect and importance as compare to the poor or homeless people then it is a social
difference. Social differences can create a lot of problems in a society because discrimination always
result in inequality, inferiority complex and other social problems

Sociology is the systematic study of social behavior and human groups. It focuses primarily on the
influence of social relationships upon people’s attitudes and behavior and on how societies are
established and change. Hence, social institutions are the major spheres of social life or societal
subsystems, organized to meet human needs. Social stratification is a system by which a society
ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. The 3 commonly recognized systems of stratification are
estate, caste and class.

As such “sociology in this context is a science which attempts the interpretative under-standing of
social action in order to arrive at a casual explanation of its causes and effects.” Sociology studies
the functioning of a society focusing on its development and structure.

What is the purpose of Sociology?

Sociology is a vast area of study, with hundreds of officially recognized sub fields which examine
human thought, actions, structures, and systems. Virtually every type and purpose of human
thought and activity and action is studied in one field of sociology or another. Human action and
thought are on one side of the equation. The cultural and social structures that people have around
them are on the other side of the equation. Sociology’s purpose is to understand how the cultural
and social structures shape

human action and thought; and, conversely, how human action and thought shape cultural and
social structures.

The purpose of sociology is to study at all levels of human thought and activity, from the individual
and personal level to the global level. Human thought about race, romance, friend, family or foe is
studied at the interpersonal level, where the surrounding social structure, family structure,
community and legal system shape their beliefs and attitudes, and eventually determine what is
and is not allowed under the law. Furthermore, sociology can be to study in order to classify,
quantify, identify, and perform functions that are very anthropological in their construct in
observing societies in the whole.

Finally, the ultimate purpose of Sociology is to formulate a discipline of thought and methodology
that leads to objective, comprehensive, effective, honest, and critical thinking when observing and
describing human thought, interaction, systems, structures, and action.

Dynamics of Culture in the goals of Anthropology and Sociology

Culture is dynamic and thus complex. Culture is fluid rather than static, which means that
culture changes all the time, every day, in subtle and tangible ways. Because humans communicate
and express their cultural systems in a variety of ways, it can be hard to pinpoint exactly what
cultural dynamics are at play.
 Anthropology is the study of humans and the ways they live. Sociology studies the ways groups of
people interact with each other and how their behavior is influenced by social structures, categories
(rage, gender, sexuality), and institutions.

While both fields study human behavior, the debate between anthropology versus sociology is a
matter of perspectives. Anthropology examines culture more at the micro-level of the individual,
which the anthropologist generally takes as an example of the larger culture. In addition,
anthropology hones in on the cultural specificities of a given group or community. Sociology, on the
other hand, tends to look at the bigger picture, often studying institutions (educational, political,
religious), organizations, political movements, and the power relations of different groups with each
other.

Political Science
Political science is that branch of the social sciences that studies the state, politics, and
government. Political Science deals extensively with the analysis of political systems, the theoretical
and practical applications to politics, and the examination of political behavior. The Greek thinker,
Aristotle, defined political science as the study of the state. Many political scientists view themselves
as being engaged in fleshing out the connections between political events and conditions, and by
this understanding they hope to construct a system of general principles that posit the way the
world of politics works.

Political science is not a standalone field and it intersects many other branches like sociology,
economics, history, anthropology, public policy among others. Political scientists are much sought
after these days because of the changing landscape of politics across the world and since the society
wants to understand how the political world works, they need someone to explain the nuances of
the political economy. Any casual perusal of the newspapers and the television channels reveals
that political scientists are at the forefront of debates and discussions for their knowledge and
expertise.

Scope of Political Science

The scope of political science is vast and experts have divided the field of political science into five
sub-disciplines that are political theory, public administration, comparative politics, international
relations, and public law. The study of the matters concerning the allocation and distribution as
well as the transfer of power is one of the main preoccupations of political scientists. The success or
otherwise of the governance structures is gauged by political scientists who examine the
multifaceted and multi-layered factors at work that contribute to good or bad governance. The scope
of the political scientists has now been broadened to include the realm of the study of the
democratic elections across the world. In other words, with the explosion in the political systems all
over the world, political scientists, and their scope of study has been considerably enhanced

The Importance of Political Science

The importance of political science lies in the fact that all of us live within political systems and we
are affected by the changes in the global political economy. With the advent of globalization, there
has been a concomitant rise in the interest taken by the people of the world in understanding the
political systems of other countries. Hence, political scientists become valued and important as they
provide the lens through which we can understand the global political economy.

Political ideology

A political ideology is a set of ideas, beliefs, values, and opinions, exhibiting a recurring pattern,
that competes deliberately as well as unintentionally over providing plans of action for public policy
making in an attempt to justify, explain, contest, or change the social and political arrangements
and processes of a political community. The concept of ideology is subject to partly incompatible
conceptual interpretations. The Marxist tradition views it pejoratively as distorted consciousness,
reflecting an exploitative material reality, that can be overcome through unmasking; or, more
recently, as a fictitious narrative necessary to maintaining the social order. Non-Marxist approaches
split into three perspectives.

The first sees ideology as abstract, closed and doctrinaire, largely impervious to empirical evidence
and superimposed on a society.
 The second sees ideology as a series of empirically ascertainable attitudes towards political issues
that can be explored by means of behavioral methods.

The third views ideologies as indispensable mapping devices of cultural symbols and political
concepts that constitute a crucial resource for understanding and shaping sociopolitical life. They
compete over the ‘correct’ and legitimate meanings of political words and ideas, and by means of
that control, over the high ground of politics.

Types of Political ideologies and styles of Government

1. Absolutism- System where the rulers have unlimited control.

2. Anarchism- Society without government, laws, police or other authority. A system of self-
control.

3. Aristocracy- The privilege of social class whose members possess a disproportionately large
percentage of society's wealth, prestige and political influence.

4. Autocracy- Supreme political power is in the hands of one person whose decisions are
unregulated.
5. Communism- Extreme left-wing ideology based on the revolutionary socialist
teachings of Marx. Collective ownership and a planned economy. Each should work
to their capability and receive according to their needs.

6. Conservatism- Governmental system where the existing institutions are maintained,

emphasising free-enterprise and minimal governmental intervention.

7. Democracy- Government by the people, usually through elected representatives.

8. Dictatorship- Government by a single person with absolute control over the resources of the
state.