ACNUnit2Notes23 1

M.
Sc CS III – Advanced Computer Networks
UNIT – 2
Advanced Computer Networks
Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

M.Sc CS III – Advanced Computer Networks
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites are human-made satellites that work in such a way that the
satellite receives a signal from one point on earth, amplifies the signal and send it back
to another point earth using transponders. Thus, it creates the communication network
between the source that transmitted the signal and receiver.
Communication satellite or the artificial satellite can be considered as the repeater in

the sky that repeats the signals in order to extend the communication network and
cover a long distance.
You must be thinking why don’t we use the natural satellite such as Moon for
establishing the communication between sender and receiver. Well, the first constraint
is the distance, the natural satellites are so far that they can create a long delay in
transmitting the signal which will ultimately cause a delay in communication.
We also prefer artificial satellite over the natural satellite as we can install electronic
equipment on the artificial satellite to amplify the signal that regenerates the signal
weakened during travelling.
Transponder
A Transponder receives a signal from the source transmitter, amplifies it and reemits it
in another frequency thereby avoiding interference between incoming and outgoing
signal.
Footprint
As we all know that the satellites propagate signal wave in the line of sight. The satellite
receives the signal from source transmitter, amplifies it and rebroadcast it to the
receiver. The rebroadcasted signal aims at a particular area on the earth which we term
as a footprint. The signal power at the centre of the footprint is maximum and it
decreases gradually as we move out from the footprint.
Now, every communication satellite needs a path to travel around the earth which is
termed as ‘orbit’. Orbit can be equatorial, inclined and polar. To determine the orbital
period i.e. time required by the satellite to complete one trip around the earth we use
Kepler’s law:

Here, C is constant i.e. (1/100), unit of distance is in kilometres, the unit of the period is
in seconds.
The orbital period of a satellite is important while deciding where to locate the satellite.
But there is one more constraint i.e. Van Allen belts. This belt has a layer of highly
charged particles that are trapped due to the gravity of the earth. If you place any
satellite in this belt, then it would be destroyed into particles as it travels through the
belt.
Considering the factors above three regions have been identi ied where the satellite can
be placed safely. The igure below shows you the location of each kind of communication
satellite.

Depending upon the orbit location satellites can be classified into three types.
Types of Communication Satellite
1. Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)

2. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
3. Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
1. Geostationary Earth Orbit (Geostationary Satellites)
Geostationary satellite according to its name appears stationary to a viewer observing it

from the earth. This is because the geostationary satellite travels with the same angular
velocity as that of the earth.
The geostationary satellite lies in the geostationary orbit that is above 35,786 km above
the earth’s equator. The satellite appears to be stationary due to factors such as its
orbital speed, it’s the distance from the earth and the earth gravitational force. And thus,
there is an only one geostationary orbit.
But having only one satellite in the geostationary orbit doesn’t cover the view of the
entire earth as satellite propagates signal in line of sight and due to earth’s curve
structure, it is impossible to cover the entire globe. Therefore, we require three
geostationary satellite to cover the entire earth.
2. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO Satellites)
The MEO satellite lies in the orbit below the geostationary orbit. You can observe the
figure above as the MEO satellites lies between the two Van Allen belts. The speed of
MEO satellites is faster as compared to geostationary satellites and complete the entire
trip around the earth in just 6-7 hours.
As it is closer to the earth compared to GEO satellites it emits a smaller footprint.

Comparatively, it also requires less powerful transmitters due to the reduced distance
between the satellite and earth.
Due to their speed, they don’t appear stationary in the sky and hence they must be
tracked. The most popular example of a MEO satellite is GPS (Global Positioning
System). GPS is owned by the government of the United States and is operated by their
space force. The system includes 24 satellites that are used for navigation purpose over
land, sea and air. MEO satellites are not used for the telecommunication.
3. Low Earth Orbit (LEO Satellites)
LEO satellites lie in the lower altitude as compared to MEO. It travels in the polar orbit
at an altitude of 500 to 2000 km. As the LEO satellites much closer to earth they have a
smaller footprint compared to GEO and MEO, i.e. about 8000 km.

The LEO satellites are much faster than GEO’s and MEO’s they complete their trip
around the earth in 90 to 12 minutes. With this information, if we calculate the speed of
the LEO satellites it approximately 20,000 km to 25,000 km/hr. Their round-trip delay
is a few milliseconds which is acceptable for audio communication.
To form a complete network, the LEO satellites are organized in a constellation pattern.
The adjacent satellites in the network are connected to each other through the inter-
satellite link (ISLs), each satellite in the network act as a switch.
A mobile device communicates with the LEO satellite with the help of user mobile link
(UML) and the satellite communicates with an earth station using gateway link (GWL).
Further, we can divide the LEO system into three categories
1. Little LEO: Used for low data rate messaging and it operates on 1GHz.
2. Big LEO: It operates between 1 to 3 GHz its examples are Globalstar and Iridium
that provides services such as voice, data, navigation, paging and fax on land, air
and sea.
3. Broad LEO: Its services are similar to fibre optics its example is Teledesic, that
provides worldwide broadband internet service.
Advantage of Communication Satellite
The main advantage of communication satellite is that it provides communication on

the remote areas of the earth which are even undeveloped without investing on the
ground infrastructure.
So, this is how communication satellite works. We have also discussed three types of
communication satellite GEO, MEO and LEO. Communication satellite services attract
many applications.
Modulation
Modulation has defined as the process of combining an input signal m (t) and a frequency
carrier FC to produce an S (t) signal whose bandwidth is (usually) centred around FC. In
the case of digital data, the justification of the modulation must be clear: it is necessary
when there is only the possibility of analogue transmission, to convert the digital data
into analogues. However, when the data is analogue, the justification is not so apparent.
After all, voice signals are transmitted through telephone lines using their original
spectrum (this is called baseband transmission). There are two main reasons:
To carry out a more effective transmission, a higher frequency may require for unguided
media; it is practically impossible to transmit baseband signals since the size of the
antennas would have to be several kilometres in diameter.
Modulation allows multiplication by frequency division, a very important technique.

To convert analogue signals to digital and vice versa, several types of modulation are
required.
Analog to digital conversion
Sometimes it is necessary to digitise an analogue signal. For example, to send the human
voice over a long distance, it is necessary to digitise them since digital signals are less
vulnerable to noise. It is called analogue to digital conversion or digitisation of an
analogue signal. To carry it out, it is necessary to reduce the number of values, potentially
infinite in an analogue message, so that they can represent as a digital flow with minimal
loss of information. There are several methods for converting from analogue to digital.
There are three types of modulation, namely:
 Frequency Modulation
 Amplitude Modulation
 Phase Modulation
Amplitude Modulation

It is a kind of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier signal is changed in

proportion to the message signal while the phase and frequency are kept constant.
Phase Modulation
In this type of modulation, the phase of the carrier signal is altered according to the low
frequency of the message signal and hence it is called phase modulation.

Frequency Modulation
In this modulation the frequency of the carrier signal is altered in proportion to the
message signal while the phase and amplitude are kept constant is called frequency
modulation.
Modulation mechanisms can also be digital or analogue. An analogue modulation

scheme has an input wave that continuously changes like a sine wave, but it is a bit
more complicated when it comes to digital. The voice sample is considered at some rate
and then compressed into a bit (the stream of zeros and ones). This, in turn, is made
into a specific type of wave that is superimposed on the carrier.
Frequency modulation, commonly referred to as FM, is a common term that we hear in

our daily lives. Today, Frequency modulation is used widely in radio communication and
broadcasting. But have we wondered what it actually is or what is the technology and
mechanism behind FM? We will understand what frequency modulation is in this lesson
and also learn its mechanism as well as its applications.
Digital to analog conversion
The conversion from digital to analogue, or analogue digital modulation, is the process of
changing one of the characteristics of an analogue base signal into information based on
a digital signal (zeros and ones). For example, when data is transmitted from one
computer to another through a public telephone network, the original data is digital, but,

because telephone cables carry similar signals, it is necessary to convert that data. The
digital data must modulate on an analogue signal that has been manipulated to appear as
two different values corresponding to 0 and 1 binary. The figure shows the relationship
between the digital information, the digital to analogue modulation hardware and the
resulting analogue signal value.
Of the many existing mechanisms for analogue digital modulation, only the most useful
for data transmission will treat.
As seen in the previous topics, a sine wave defined by three characteristics: amplitude,
frequency and phase. When any of these characteristics are changed, the second version
of this wave created. If it said then that the original wave represents the binary 1, the
variation might represent the binary 0, or vice versa. Therefore, changing the appearance
of a pure electrical signal forward and backward can be used to represent digital data.
Any of the three characteristics mentioned can be altered in this way, giving us at least
three mechanisms to modulate digital data in analogue signals:
Amplitude shift modulation (ASK)
In this modulation, the power of the carrier signal is changed to represent binary 1 and
0. Both the frequency and the phase remain constant while the amplitude changes. What
voltage represents 1, and what voltage represents 0 is left for system designers. The
duration of the bit is the period that defines a bit. The peak signal amplitude during each
bit duration is constant, and its value depends on the bit (0 or 1). The transmission speed
using ASK limited by the physical characteristics of the transmission medium. The figure
shows a conceptual view of the ASK.
Frequency shift modulation (FSK)
In this type of modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal changes to represent binary
1 and 0. The frequency of the signal during the bit duration is constant, and its value
depends on a bit (0 or 1): both the peak amplitude and the phase remain constant. The
figure shows a conceptual view of the FSK.

FSK avoids most of the noise problems of the ASK. Because the receiving device is looking
for specific frequency changes in a certain number of periods, ignore the voltage peaks.
The factors that limit the FSK are the physical capabilities of the carrier.
Phase Shift Modulation (PSK)
In PSK modulation, the carrier phase changes to represent the binary 1 or 0. Both peak
amplitude and frequency remain constant while the phase changes. For example, if you
start with a phase of 0 degrees to represent a binary 0, you can change the phase to 180
degrees to send a binary 1. The phase of the signal during the duration of each bit is
constant, and its value depends on the bit (0 or 1). The figure gives a conceptual view of
PSK.

Multiplexing
The set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link is commonly referred to as Multiplexing. Multiplexing is done
by using the hardware that is called as Multiplexer(MUX).
The Multiplexer(MUX) mainly combines 'n' input lines in order to generate '1' output
line(this is simply many-to-one) on the sender side. And on the receiver side, this
stream is fed into the demultiplexer(DEMUX), which then separates the stream back to
its component transmission (this is one-to-many) and then directs them to their
corresponding lines.
The main aim of the multiplexing technique is to share scarce resources.
Let us understand with the help of a diagram given below to divide 1 link into n
channels:
In the above diagram, the word link refers to the physical path, and the word channel
simply refers to the portion of the link that carries a transmission between a given pair
of lines. Thus 1 link can have many channels.
History of the Multiplexing
In telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried by using a single wire.

Also, Multiplexing was originated in telegraphy in the 1870s. Now, this technique is
widely applied in communications. George Owen Squier in telephony was credited with
the development of telephone carrier multiplexing in the year 1910.
Need for the Multiplexing
As we have already told you that multiplexing is basically a set of techniques that mainly
allows the transmission of multiple signals simultaneously across a signals data link.
At the time when there is a need to transmit many signals from the sender side that
sends simultaneously then multiplexer is used to convert many signals into one so that
on the receiving end we can get them simultaneously.

As it is very expensive to send many signals differently and it also requires more wires
to send. Thus there is a need for multiplexing. Let us take an example of T.V cable
distributor who sends many channels through a single wire.
Advantages of Multiplexing
Given below are some advantages of using Multiplexing:
 With the help of multiplexing, more than one signal can be sent easily over a
single medium or link.
 Multiplexing helps in the effective utilization of the bandwidth of the medium.
Let us take a look at the given below figure to understand multiplexing vs no-
multiplexing:
Categories of Multiplexing
Let us take a look at the different categories of Multiplexing:
 Frequency-division multiplexing
 Wavelength-division multiplexing
 Time-division multiplexing

Let us discuss all the above-given categories one by one in the following sections.
1.Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Frequency-Divison Multiplexing i.e FDM is an analog technique.
 With this technique, signals having different frequencies are combined in a

composite signal and then transmitted on the link
 It is mainly applied at the time when the bandwidth of the link is greater
than the combined bandwidths of the signal to be transmitted.
 In this, each signal is of a different frequency.
 The channel is usually separated by the strips of unused bandwidth that is the
guard bands in order to prevent the signals from overlapping.
 In the case of frequency division multiplexing, suppose the input signal is in the
digital form then it must be converted to analog before giving it as the input to
the modulator.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
From the above diagram, in FDM the transmission path is divided into three parts and
each part mainly represents a channel that carries one transmission.
Advantages
Given below are some advantages of using FDM:
 The Simultaneous transmission of a large number of signals is done easily.

 The demodulation of FDM multiplexing is easy.

 There is no need for synchronization between the transmitter and receiver for
proper operation.
 In the case of slow narrowband fading, there is only one single channel that gets
affected.
Disadvantages
There are some drawbacks of using FDM:
 Communication channels must have a very large bandwidth.

 There occurs the problem of crosstalk while using FDM.
 In the case of wideband fading, all channels in the FDM gets affected.
 There is a need for a large number of filters and modulators.
Applications
The main applications of FDM are as follows:
 One of the main applications of FDM is that it is AM and FM radio broadcasting.

 Another application of FDM is that it is used in television broadcasting.
 FDM is also used by first-generation cellular telephones.
2.Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-Divison Multiplexing i.e WDM is an analog technique.
 This technique is similar to FDM.

 With the help of Wavelength Divison multiplexing different signals that include:
optical or light signals are transmitted through the Optical fiber.
 With the help of the WDM technique, the high data rate capability of optical fiber
cable gets utilized.
 With this technique, various light waves from different sources are combined
into a composite light signal and this signal is transmitted across the channel to
the receiver.
 On the receiver side, this composite light signal gets broken down into different
light waves with the help of Demultiplexer.
 The process of combining and splitting the light waves is done with the help of
Prism.
 This Prism helps to bend the beam of light on the basis of the angle of incidence
and frequency of light.
 In the WDM technique mainly the role of the multiplexer is played by the Prism
and it then combines the various optical signals in the order to form a composite
signal after that this composite signal is transmitted through an Optical fiber
cable.

The above Figure indicates Wavelength Divison Multiplexing
Let us take a look at the diagram given below where we will use prism for wavelength-
division multiplexing and demultiplexing.
Advantages
Given below are some advantages of using WDM:
 With the help of WDM, the full-duplex transmission is possible.

 WDM is easy to reconfigure.
 Various Signals can be transmitted simultaneously with the help of WDM.
 This technique is less expensive and the expansion of the system is easy.
 This technique provides high security.
 As we are using an optical fiber in WDM; also Optical components are more
reliable and they also provide high bandwidth.
Disadvantages
There are some drawbacks of using WDM:
 There is the use of optical equipment so cost increases.

 Utilization of bandwidth can be inefficient which causes difficulty in wavelength
tuning.
 The main concern in this technique is scalability.
3.Time-Division Multiplexing
Time-Divison multiplexing is a digital technique for multiplexing.
 In this technique, the channel/link is divided on the basis of time instead of

frequency.
 The total available time on the channel is divided between the different users on
the channel.

 A particular time interval is allotted to each user on the channel and it is known
as time slot/slice.
 In the time-division multiplexing, the data rate capacity should be much greater
than the data rate that is required by the sending and receiving device.
TDM is further categorized into two:
 Synchronous Time-Divison Multiplexing

 Asynchronous Time-Divison Multiplexing
1.Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
In Synchronous TDM, each of the Input connection has an allotment in the output even if
it is not sending the data.
 In this multiplexing, each device is given the same time slot in order to transmit
data over the link whether it has to send data to the receiver or not.
 Each device places data on the link whenever its time slot arrives Thus control is
given to each device turn by turn.
 In case if any devices do not have any data to send then in that case the time slot
for that device remains empty.
 In this multiplexing, if there are 'n' sending devices then simultaneously there
will be 'n' time slots which means one time slot for each device.
 Also, time slots are organized in the form of frames, where each frame consists of
one or more time slots.

Advantages
 This technique is easy to implement.

 The performance is guaranteed in using this technique.
Disadvantages
 If a user has no data to transmit in that case time slots will get wasted.
 In this multiplexing, the capacity of the transmission link must be always higher
than the total capacity of the input lines.
2.Asynchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
Another name of Asynchronous TDM is Statical Time Divison Multiplexing. In this time
slots are not fixed, rather time slots are allocated dynamically in order to improve the
efficiency of bandwidth.
 The total speed of all the Input lines can be greater than the capacity of the path.
 In this Multiplexing, there are n input lines and m slots; thus always (m<n).
 There is no concept of predefined slots rather than slots are allocated
dynamically on demand.
 In this multiplexing, the multiplexor mainly accepts the incoming input data and
then it creates a frame that contains only data without any empty slots.
 Each slot mainly contains the address part that is used to identify the source of
the input data.
 The number of frames in this multiplexing depends upon the statical analysis of
the number of input lines.

Thus in the above diagram, out of 6 only 4 devices are sending data that are 1,2,4,6. In
the above diagram, you can see that the data part contains the address in order to
determine the source of the data. Like A1(data along with its source).
Advantages
 In this multiplexing, there is an efficient use of the capacity of transmission.
Disadvantages
 In this Multiplexing, frames are of different sizes.

 There is a need for the buffer address information is also needed because there
are no separate slots assigned for each user.
 This technique does not provide a fixed waiting time guarantee.
PSTN
PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network and it provides the physical
infrastructure needed to make and receive phone calls (and carry data traffic) between
users.
Working
Telephone carriers that operate at international, national, and regional levels all created
a network of interconnecting cables. The interconnects are called ‘nodes’. When a user
picks up a phone and dials the digits, this sends the DTMF signals to the nodes so that
they know the intended destination of the phone call.
DTMF signal
DTMF stands for Dual tone multi-frequency and is the sounds that are generated by a
telephone when the numbers are pressed. When the user presses the numbers,
equipment in the nodes listens to the tones and understands their meaning by decoding

them into commands. The command will tell the node where to send the caller's voice
traffic.
PSTN connectivity
Originally, the PSTN network was built using copper wires but now the PSTN system is
almost completely digital in its core network making use of fiber optic cables, satellite
links, and high-tech switching centers. The topology of the PSTN network is incredibly
complex but can be simplified into a hierarchical configuration. Each end user's line
connects to a local exchange which then, in turn, connects to trunk exchanges and so on.
Add PSTN line to an IP-PBX
Yes. A PSTN and ISDN can be configured onto IP-PBX systems by means of an additional
piece of hardware called a gateway. These enable calling over a PSTN line by using
technology that converts the analog signal to digital traffic that can be handled by the
software PBX (Private Branch Exchange).
PSTN switch-off
Internationally, many national carriers have already started switching off the old copper
PSTN network including ISDN services. Carriers will no longer provide copper wire
services to business premises for the sole purpose of making and receiving voice calls.
This is due to the proliferation of Internet Protocol (IP) services like SIP trunks and
VoIP providers as they bring many additional benefits and advanced features.
PSTN Architecture

PSTNs are all about switching, which forms the backbone of traditional telephone
networks. When a call is made, switches create a wired connection between two
phones, maintaining it for as long as the call lasts.
Here are the four main elements that make up the PSTN architecture.
1. The local exchange: A local exchange – consisting of one or more exchanges –

connects subscribers to a PSTN line. Also known as a central office or a switching
exchange, a telephone exchange can have up to 10,000 lines. All phones are
connected to the local exchange in a specific area. The exchange identifies the
number dialed to route the call to the correct destination.
2. The tandem office: Also known as a junction network, a tandem office serves a
large geographic area with multiple local exchanges while managing switches
between local exchanges. Let’s say you dial the number of a client living in the
same city but in another suburb. In this case, your call routes to a tandem office
from your local exchange. The tandem office forwards the signal to the local
exchange closest to your client’s location.
3. The toll office: Every national long-distance switching takes place here. A toll
office is connected to all tandem offices. For instance, if you dial a branch of your
office in another city, your call will go through a toll office.
4. The international gateway: International gateways manage international call
switching, routing domestic calls to the appropriate countries.
Private Branch Exchange (PBX)

Large companies with 40 or more employees typically opt for a Private Branch
Exchange (PBX).
One of the types of PBX systems connects calls over the PSTN. Generally, PSTN is more
used in residential applications and PBX systems in business environments. It offers call
transfer, call conferencing, auto attendant, voicemail, call holding, and more business-
specific features.
Since a PBX comes with hubs, switches, phone adapters, routers, and several telephone
sets, it costs more. Most businesses use PBX phone systems because they’re easier to
use. However, installing and managing them is expensive. Actual costs may vary
depending on the number of features you want and the PBX’s complexity.
IP PBX phone systems rely on SIP Trunking for phone connectivity.
Switching
In this tutorial, we will be covering Switching one of the most important concepts of
Computer Networks.
As we know that a network is mainly a set of connecting devices. But when we have to
connect multiple devices in a network then there is a problem in connectivity and that is
how to connect them so that one-to-one communication becomes possible. The one
solution is to make a point-to-point connection between each pair of the device or a
point-to-point connection between the central device and every other device. But the
practical implementation of this solution is not possible at the time of large networks.

The better solution to this problem is Switching. Let us now move on to the concept of
switching and switched networks.
In computer networks, switching is one of the most important concepts.
The mechanism by which the exchange of information between different computer

networks and network segments happens is commonly referred to as Switching.
Switched Networks
A switched network basically consists of a series of interlinked nodes. These

interlinked nodes are known as switches.
 Thus in a switched network, connectivity is usually provided by making the use

of switches.
 Switches are those devices that are capable of creating temporary connections
between two or more devices that are linked to them.
 In this network, some switches are connected to the end system(like computer
systems or telephones) while other switches are used for routing.
 The network device switch is mainly a layer-2 device of the OSI model.
 Packet forwarding is done by the switch on the basis of the MAC address.
 Thus the Switch mainly transfers the data only to the device that has been
addressed (means having proper mac address). Because verification of
destination address is done by the switch in order to route the packet
appropriately.
Figure: Switched Network
In the above figure; A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H are end systems or we can say communicating

devices. And there are 4 switches labeled as 1,2,3,4. Also, you can see that each switch is
connected to multiple links.

The concept of switching is needed for the effective utilization of the bandwidth. Also
whenever two or more devices communicate with each other then there are many
chances for the occurrence of the collision of data packets in the network; switching is
the best solution for this problem.
Methods of Switching
In order to decide the best route for data transmission, a switching technique is used.
The switching techniques mainly connect the systems in such a way to make one-to-one
communication easier.
Given below are three methods used for switching or we can say there are three
switching techniques:
 Circuit Switching
 Packet Switching
 Message Switching
On the basis of the above-given techniques, switched networks are broadly classified as
follows:
We will cover the above-mentioned in our upcoming tutorials.
Advantages of Switched Networks
Given below are some benefits of switched networks:

 As switches help in creating collision domain for each connection in the

networks. Thus there are fewer chances of frame collision.
 There is an increase in the performance of networks by using switches.
 There is an increase in the available bandwidth on the network by using
switches.
 The workload on the individual PC gets reduced by using switches in the
network.
 There is a direct connection of the switch with the workstation.
Disadvantages of Switched Networks
There are some drawbacks of using switches :
 As we are using switches in the switched network, so the network becomes

expensive because switches are expensive.
 It is difficult to trace the connectivity issues in the network through a switch.
 There are chances for the occurrence of trouble in broadcast traffic.
 In order to handle multicast packets, proper design and configuration are
needed.
In this tutorial, we will be covering Circuit-Switched Networks in detail.
A network consists of a set of switches that are connected by the physical links
commonly known as Circuit-Switched Network.
 Whenever one device communicates with another device then a dedicated

communication path is established between them over the network.
 There is only a dedicated channel on each link used by each connection. Also,
each link can be easily divided into n channels by using the TDM(Time Division
Multiplexing)or FDM( Frequency Divison Multiplexing)technique.
 The Circuit Switching technique is mainly used in the public telephone
network for voice communication as well as for data communication.
 Data communication is less efficient than voice communication.
 The Circuit switching technique mainly takes place at the physical layer.
 In Circuit-switched networks, the data transfer mode mainly involves a
dedicated end-to-end connection. Until the end of the communication, this
dedicated path is maintained. After the communication is over the link is
released.

The figure shows a trivial circuit-switched Network
Phases in Circuit Switching
In order to transfer data using Circuit switching there is a need to establish a

circuit(these circuits can either be permanent or temporary) so that data transfer can
take place smoothly. Given below are three phases that are used in Circuit Switching for
actual communication:
 Setup Phase
 Data Transfer Phase
 Teardown Phase
1.Setup Phase
It is the first phase of the Circuit switching technique and in this, there is an
establishment of the circuit that simply means a dedicated link is established between
the sender and the receiver with the help of several switching centers or nodes.
2.Data Transfer Phase
After the establishment of the circuit, the connection is established which means that
data transfer can take place between sender and receiver.
3.Teardown Phase
On the completion of communication between the sender and receiver the circuit
disconnects. In order to disconnect a signal is sent either by the sender or receiver

One of the best examples of Circuit switching is a telephone. Suppose there are two
persons Person A and Person B; they both want to communicate with each other and
located at a distance far from each other.
Person A makes a call to Person B this phase is the setup phase of circuit switching.
After the establishment of the connection and after call pick up by Person B; they both
can communicate with each other. This is the data transfer phase of Circuit switching
Once the communication is complete one of them can cut the call or break the
connection. This is a teardown phase.
Circuit Switching can be further classified into two:
1. Space-Division Switching
2. Time-Division Switching
Let us cover the above given two types one by one.
1. Space-Division Switching
Space-Division switching is a technique of Circuit Switching where the paths in the

circuits are separated from each other spatially.
 This technology is used for analog as well as digital networks.

 In this following switches are used for the connection:
o Crossbar Switch: This switch contains n input lines and n output lines and
it has n2 intersection points
o Multistage Switch: The Multistage is made just by first splitting the
crossbar switches into smaller units and then interconnecting them. In
case of failure of one path, there is the possibility of another path.
 The speed of Space Division switching is high and it has a high capacity.
 Space division switching contains nonblocking switches.

2. Time-Division Switching
It is a digital switching technique. There is no need for crosspoints in this switching. In

Time-Division Switching, the incoming signals, as well as outgoing signals, are received
and re-transmitted in a different time slot.
 One of the main differences between space-division multiplexing and time-

division multiplexing is the sharing of Crosspoints. There are no Crosspoints
shared in space division switching, whereas crosspoints can be shared for
shorter periods in time-division multiplexing.
 The Time-Division switches are used by modern devices.
 In this technique, there is the use of time-division multiplexing inside the switch
and it is known as Time Slot Interchange(TSI).
Examples of Circuit Switched Networks
Given below are some examples of Circuit-Switched Networks:
 Public Switched Telephone Network(PSTN)

 Optical Mesh Network
 ISDN B-channel
 Circuit-Switched Data(CSD) and High-speed Circuit-Switched Data(HSCSD)
services in the cellular system like GSM
Advantages of Circuit Switching
Given below are some of the benefits of Circuit Switching:
1.Offers Dedicated Transmission
As there is a dedicated link between the sender and the receiver. Thus Circuit-Switched
network provides a guarantee of dedicated transmission.
2.No Delay in Transmission
There is a dedicated path between sender and receiver thus there are no chances for the
delay.
3. The Circuit Switching technique is best for long transmission because it facilitates a
dedicated link between sender and receiver.
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching
There are some drawbacks of Circuit Switching and these are as follows:
 One of the main disadvantages of Circuit switching is that as there is a dedicated

path between sender and receiver; thus this path is received for these two
particular devices and cannot be used by any other device.

 There is a need for more bandwidth as a dedicated path requires more

bandwidth.
 Utilization of resources is not done properly as resources are allocated to a
connection for the entire duration and thus became unavailable for all other
connections.
 It becomes inefficient in the case if the connection is established between sender
and receiver but there is no data transfer between them.
 Sometimes it takes a long time to establish the connection between sender and
receiver.
 As there is a dedicated path between sender and receiver; thus, this technique is
expensive.
In this tutorial, we will be covering the concept of Message-Switched Networks as well

as Message Switching in Computer Networks.
The Message-Switching Technique was mainly developed to act as an alternative to

circuit switching, this was before packet switching was introduced. Basically, the
message is a smaller unit.
 In the Message-Switching technique, the communication between end users is done

by sending and receiving the message, and this message includes the entire data to be
shared.
 In Message-Switching there is no dedicated path between the sender and receiver

like circuit switching.
 The sender and receiver are connected by way of several intermediate nodes which
helps and ensures proper data transfer between them.
 Message-Switched data networks are also known as hop-by-hop systems.
Characteristics of Message Switching
Given below are two characteristics of Message switching:
 Store and Forward

As we have already told you that the sender and the receiver are not directly
connected to each other. Thus intermediate nodes between sender and receiver
are, mainly responsible for transferring the message to the next node in the path.
Thus in order to transfer the message, intermediate nodes must have the storage
capacity because any message will only be delivered if the next node and the link
between them are available to connect otherwise this message will be stored
indefinitely. A store-and-forward switch thus forwards a message only if
sufficient resources are available and the next node is ready to accept the data.
The process continues till the data is delivered to the destination computer.
Hence, it is called store-&-forward property. The store-and-forward property
was earlier used in telegraph message switching centers.

 Message delivery: In the Message Switching the entire information is compiled

into a single message and then that message is transmitted from source to
destination. To successfully reach its destination each message must contain the
routing information in its header section.
Figure: Message Switching and Message-switched Network
Advantages of Message Switching
Given below are some advantages of using Message switching:
 In this Switching, data channels are shared among network devices.

 There is Management of traffic in an efficient way by assigning priorities to the
messages.
 There is an improvement in efficiency as a single channel can now be used for
transferring many messages.
 There is a reduction in network traffic congestion because in this technique we
are using store and forward property and also any switching node can store the
messages till the availability of the network.
 With the use of Message Switching, messages of unlimited size can be sent.
 It requires less bandwidth while broadcasting the messages; thus it consumes
less bandwidth than circuit switching.
 In Message switching, if the next node or link is not available then the current
node stores the message
Disadvantages of Message Switching
There are some drawbacks of using Message Switching and these are as follows:
 For the whole network, message switching requires a large capacity.

 This technique cannot be used for real-time applications because the storing of
messages causes delay.
 The message-switched networks are very slow in nature because the processing
takes place in each and every node and thus it may result in poor performance.
In this tutorial, we will be covering the concept of Packet Switching in Computer

Networks.
Packet Switching is a technique of switching in which the message is usually divided

into smaller pieces that are known as packets.
 Every packet contains a header that contains the knowledge of the destination.
With the help of this knowledge/information, these packets find the route.
 A unique number is given to each packet in order to identify them at the
receiving end.
 One of the biggest examples of the Packet-switched network is the Internet.
 The header of the Packet mainly comprises of two things: header and payload.
o where the header mainly contains the routing information.
o and the payload contains the data that is to be transferred.
 This switching is also based on the store and forward method.
 In the Packet Switched network, there is no resource reservation, and resources
are allocated on demand.
 As we know that each packet contains the information of source and destination
in their headers. Thus all packets can independently travel in the network.
 Packets related to the same file might take different paths and it mainly depends
upon the availability of the path. These packets will be then re-assembled at the
destination. It is the responsibility of the receiver node to re-arrange the
received packet in order to get the original data.
 The message of acknowledgment will be sent by the receiver if packets reach the
receiver in the correct order.
 In case of a missing packet or corrupted packet, the message will be sent by the
receiver to the sender to resend the message.
Figure: Packet Switching

Two different approaches used for Packet switching are as follows:
 Datagram Packet Switching

 Virtual Circuit Switching
Let us discuss these two approaches one by one:
Datagram Packet Switching
In Datagram Switching, the packet is commonly known as a datagram. Datagram

Packet switching is also known as Connectionless Packet Switching. In this technique,
each packet routed individually by network devices on the basis of the destination
address that is contained within each packet.
 Each packet is basically treated independently of all others.

 Datagram packet switching is done at the network layer.
 This is Connectionless packet switching because the packet switch does not keep
the information about the connection state.
 In the Datagram packet switching the path is not fixed.
 Routing decisions are taken by the intermediate nodes in order to forward the
packets.
 Thus all datagrams that belong to the same message may travel through different
paths in order to reach their destination.
 On the receiving node, all the packets are reassembled to get the message in the
original form.
 Due to lack of resources packets may also be lost or dropped.
 In most of the protocols, it is the responsibility of the upper-layer protocol to
reorder the datagrams or to ask for the lost datagrams before passing them on to
the application.
Virtual Circuit Switching
Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as Connection-Oriented Switching. This

switching contains the characteristics of circuit switching as well as datagram packet
switching. In this type of packet switching the data-packets are first assembled and then
sequentially numbered. Now they are ready to travel across a predefined route,
sequentially. The information about the address is not required here, because all the
data packets are sent in sequence.
 In addition to the data transfer phase, there are setup and teardown phases.
 The resource allocation is done during the setup phase like it is done in the
circuit-switched network or it can be done on demand like in datagram
networks.
 The data is in the form of packets like the datagram network and also each
packet carries the destination address in the header.
 Like the circuit-switched network, all packets in the Virtual network follows the
same path that is established during the connection.
 This switching is normally implemented in the data link layer.

Advantages of Packet Switching
Given below are some benefits of the Packet Switching:
 More efficient utilization of bandwidth.

 Latency in the transmission is minimum in packet switching.
 This technique is cheaper to implement and thus it is cost-effective.
 The same channel can be used by many users simultaneously.
 As there are improved protocols, thus packet switching is used by many
applications like Skype, WhatsApp, etc.
 The fault tolerance in this technique is more in case of any link down because
packets may follow different paths.
 This technique is more reliable than other techniques because it can easily detect
missing packets.
Disadvantages of Packet Switching
Some of the drawbacks of Packet Switching are as follows:
 This technique cannot be used by those applications that cannot afford more
delays like applications of high-quality voice calls.
 Protocols used in this technique are complex and thus their implementation cost
is high.
 In the case of an overloaded network, the packet may get lost or there might
occur delay which causes the loss of critical information.
 On the receiver's side sorting of the packets sent by the sender is required.
Error Detection in Computer Networks

Error is a condition when the receiver’s information does not match the sender’s
information. During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can introduce
errors in the binary bits traveling from sender to receiver. That means a 0 bit may
change to 1 or a 1 bit may change to 0.
Single-Bit Error
A single-bit error refers to a type of data transmission error that occurs when one bit
(i.e., a single binary digit) of a transmitted data unit is altered during transmission,
resulting in an incorrect or corrupted data unit.

Single-Bit Error
Multiple-Bit Error
A multiple-bit error is an error type that arises when more than one bit in a data
transmission is affected. Although multiple-bit errors are relatively rare when
compared to single-bit errors, they can still occur, particularly in high-noise or high-
interference digital environments.
Multiple-Bit Error
Burst Error
When several consecutive bits are flipped mistakenly in digital transmission, it creates a
burst error. This error causes a sequence of consecutive incorrect values.

Burst Error
To detect errors, a common technique is to introduce redundancy bits that provide

additional information. Various techniques for error detection include::
1. Simple Parity Check

2. Two-dimensional Parity Check
3. Checksum
4. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Error Detection Methods

Simple Parity Check
Simple-bit parity is a simple error detection method that involves adding an extra
bit to a data transmission. It works as:
 1 is added to the block if it contains an odd number of 1’s, and

 0 is added if it contains an even number of 1’s
This scheme makes the total number of 1’s even, that is why it is called even parity
checking.

Disadvantages
 Single Parity check is not able to detect even no. of bit error.
 For example, the Data to be transmitted is 101010. Codeword transmitted to
the receiver is 1010101 (we have used even parity).
Let’s assume that during transmission, two of the bits of code word lipped to
1111101.
On receiving the code word, the receiver inds the no. of ones to be even and
hence no error, which is a wrong assumption.
Two-dimensional Parity Check
Two-dimensional Parity check bits are calculated for each row, which is equivalent to
a simple parity check bit. Parity check bits are also calculated for all columns, then both
are sent along with the data. At the receiving end, these are compared with the parity
bits calculated on the received data.

Checksum
Checksum error detection is a method used to identify errors in transmitted data. The
process involves dividing the data into equally sized segments and using a 1’s
complement to calculate the sum of these segments. The calculated sum is then sent
along with the data to the receiver. At the receiver’s end, the same process is repeated
and if all zeroes are obtained in the sum, it means that the data is correct.
Checksum – Operation at Sender’s Side
 Firstly, the data is divided into k segments each of m bits.

 On the sender’s end, the segments are added using 1’s complement arithmetic to
get the sum. The sum is complemented to get the checksum.
 The checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.
Checksum – Operation at Receiver’s Side
 At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is complemented.
 If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise discarded.

Disadvantages
 If one or more bits of a segment are damaged and the corresponding bit or bits of
opposite value in a second segment are also damaged.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
 Unlike the checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based on binary
division.
 In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits, are
appended to the end of the data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes
exactly divisible by a second, predetermined binary number.
 At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at
this step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is
therefore accepted.
 A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and
therefore must be rejected.


Error Correction Method

Hamming Code
It is a technique developed by R.W. hamming. This can be applied to data units of any
length. This code mainly uses the relationship between data and redundancy bits.
The hamming code technique, which is an error-detection and error-correction

technique, was proposed by R.W. Hamming. Whenever a data packet is transmitted
over a network, there are possibilities that the data bits may get lost or damaged during
transmission.
Let's understand the Hamming code concept with an example:
Let's say you have received a 7-bit Hamming code which is 1011011.
First, let us talk about the redundant bits.
The redundant bits are some extra binary bits that are not part of the original data, but
they are generated & added to the original data bit. All this is done to ensure that the
data bits don't get damaged and if they do, we can recover them.
Now the question arises, how do we determine the number of redundant bits to be
added?
We use the formula, 2r >= m+r+1; where r = redundant bit & m = data bit.
From the formula we can make out that there are 4 data bits and 3 redundancy bits,
referring to the received 7-bit hamming code.
What is Parity Bit?
To proceed further we need to know about parity bit, which is a bit appended to the
data bits which ensures that the total number of 1's are even (even parity) or odd (odd
parity).
While checking the parity, if the total number of 1's are odd then write the value of
parity bit P1(or P2 etc.) as 1 (which means the error is there ) and if it is even then the
value of parity bit is 0 (which means no error).
Hamming Code in Error Detection
As we go through the example, the first step is to identify the bit position of the data &
all the bit positions which are powers of 2 are marked as parity bits (e.g. 1, 2, 4, 8, etc.).
The following image will help in visualizing the received hamming code of 7 bits.

First, we need to detect whether there are any errors in this received hamming code.
Step 1: For checking parity bit P1, use check one and skip one method, which means,
starting from P1 and then skip P2, take D3 then skip P4 then take D5, and then skip D6
and take D7, this way we will have the following bits,
As we can observe the total number of bits is odd so we will write the value of parity bit
as P1 = 1. This means the error is there.
Step 2: Check for P2 but while checking for P2, we will use the check two and skip two
methods, which will give us the following data bits. But remember since we are
checking for P2, so we have to start our count from P2 (P1 should not be considered).
As we can observe that the number of 1's are even, then we will write the value of P2 =
0. This means there is no error.
Step 3: Check for P4 but while checking for P4, we will use the check four and skip
four methods, which will give us the following data bits. But remember since we are
checking for P4, so we have started our count from P4(P1 & P2 should not be
considered).

As we can observe that the number of 1's is odd, then we will write the value of P4 = 1.
This means the error is there.
So, from the above parity analysis, P1 & P4 are not equal to 0, so we can clearly say that
the received hamming code has errors.
Hamming Code: Error Correction
Since we found that the received code has an error, so now we must correct them. To
correct the errors, use the following steps:
Now the error word E will be:
Now we have to determine the decimal value of this error word 101 which is 5 (22 *1 +
21 * 0 + 20 *1 = 5).
We get E = 5, which states that the error is in the fifth data bit. To correct it, just invert
the fifth data bit.
So the correct data will be:

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M.

Sc CS III – Advanced Computer Networks

Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

Communication satellite or the artificial satellite can be considered as the repeater in

Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

Types of Communication Satellite

1. Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)

1. Geostationary Earth Orbit (Geostationary Satellites)

Geostationary satellite according to its name appears stationary to a viewer observing it

2. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO Satellites)

As it is closer to the earth compared to GEO satellites it emits a smaller footprint.

3. Low Earth Orbit (LEO Satellites)

Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

Further, we can divide the LEO system into three categories

Advantage of Communication Satellite

The main advantage of communication satellite is that it provides communication on

Modulation allows multiplication by frequency division, a very important technique.

Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

Analog to digital conversion

There are three types of modulation, namely:

Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

It is a kind of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier signal is changed in

Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

Modulation mechanisms can also be digital or analogue. An analogue modulation

Frequency modulation, commonly referred to as FM, is a common term that we hear in

Digital to analog conversion

Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

Amplitude shift modulation (ASK)

Frequency shift modulation (FSK)

Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

Phase Shift Modulation (PSK)

Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

The main aim of the multiplexing technique is to share scarce resources.

History of the Multiplexing

In telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried by using a single wire.

Need for the Multiplexing

Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

Given below are some advantages of using Multiplexing:

Let us take a look at the different categories of Multiplexing:

Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

Frequency-Divison Multiplexing i.e FDM is an analog technique.

 With this technique, signals having different frequencies are combined in a

Frequency Division Multiplexing

Given below are some advantages of using FDM:

 The Simultaneous transmission of a large number of signals is done easily.

Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

 The demodulation of FDM multiplexing is easy.

There are some drawbacks of using FDM:

 Communication channels must have a very large bandwidth.

The main applications of FDM are as follows:

 One of the main applications of FDM is that it is AM and FM radio broadcasting.

Wavelength-Divison Multiplexing i.e WDM is an analog technique.

 This technique is similar to FDM.

Dr.M.C, AP/P, DCIS, AU

The above Figure indicates Wavelength Divison Multiplexing

Given below are some advantages of using WDM:

 With the help of WDM, the full-duplex transmission is possible.

There are some drawbacks of using WDM:

 There is the use of optical equipment so cost increases.

Time-Divison multiplexing is a digital technique for multiplexing.

 In this technique, the channel/link is divided on the basis of time instead of