Unit 2, Study Guide, Chemistry

2.11- Alkali Metals

Objectives:

1.) Understand how the similarities in the reactions of these elements with water provide
evidence for their recognition as a family of elements
2.) ​Understand how the differences between the reactions of these elements with air and
water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 1
3.) ​Use knowledge of trends in Group 1 to predict the properties of other alkali metals
4.) Explain the trend in reactivity in Group 1 in terms of electronic ​configuration

● They​​all​​react​​with​​oxygen​​to​​create​​an​​oxide.
● More​​bubbles​​with​​reaction​​with​​water​​=​​more​​vigorous​​reaction​​=​​more​​reactive alkali​​metal
● Reactivity​​increases​​down​​the​​group​​–​​therefore​​reactivity​​increases​​from​​lithium to​​potassium

Alkali Metals:

- The elements in Group 1 ( excluding hydrogen) of the Periodic table

Lithium (Li):

Sodium (Na):

Potassium (K):

Rubidium (Rb):

Caesium (Cs):

Francesium (Fr):
 Melting Point Boiling Point Density

Lithium (Li): 181 1342 0.53

Sodium (Na): 98 883 0.97

Potassium (K): 63 760 0.86

Rubidium (Rb): 39 686 1.53

Caesium (Cs): 29 669 1.88

- The melting and boiling points of the elements are very low for metals, and get lower as
you move down the group.
- Their densities tend to increase down the group, although not regularly. Lithium, sodium
and potassium are all less dense than water, and so will float onit.
- The metals are also very soft and are easily cut with a knife, becoming softer as you
move down the group. They are shiny and silver when freshly cut, but tarnish very
quickly on exposure to air.

They all react quickly with oxygen in the air to form oxides, and react rapidly with water to form
strongly alkaline solutions of the metal hydroxides. This is why the Group 1 metals are
commonly known as the alkali metals.

Similarities of Alkali Metals:

Similar chemical properties:

1.) they all react with water in the same way to form a hydroxide with the formula MOH
(e.g. LiOH, NaOH) and hydrogen (H2) so (2Li +2H2O= 2LiOH+H2)
2.) they react with oxygen to form an oxide with the formula M2O (Na2O, K2O)
3.) they react with halogens to form compounds with the formula MX (e.g. LiCI, KBr)
 4.) they form ionic compounds which contain an M+ ions (e.g. Na+, K+ )

All these metals react in the same way with water to produce a metal hydroxide and hydrogen:

The main difference between the reactions is how quickly they happen.

Reactivity:

All these metals are extremely reactive and get more reactive as you go down the group.
Reactivity increases because the atomic radius increases meaning there are more layers. So the
smaller the atom the stronger the attraction meaning that they have larger atoms moving down.

The differences between the reactions depend on how easily the outer electron of the metal is
lost in each case. That depends on how strongly it is attracted to the nucleus in the original
atom.

As we move down the group, the atoms have more shells of electrons and get bigger: a sodium
atom is bigger than a lithium atom and a potassium atom is bigger than a sodium atom. As the
atoms get bigger, the outer electron, which is the one lost in the reaction, is further from the
nucleus. Because it is further from the nucleus it is less strongly attracted by the nucleus and
therefore more easily lost.

More easily removed e– → Cation forms more easily → Reactivity increases

Color:

All Group 1 metal ions are colorless and they form colorless or white ionic compounds

Main Features (summarizing):

❖ are metals
❖ are soft with melting points and densities which are very low for metals
❖ have to be stored out of contact with air or water
❖ react rapidly with air to form coatings of the metal oxide
 ❖ react with water to produce an alkaline solution of the metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas
❖ increase in reactivity as you go down the group •
❖ form compounds in which the metal has a 1 + ion •
❖ have mainly white/ colorless compounds which dissolve to produce colorless solutions

2.12- Halogens
Objectives
1.) Know​​the​​colors,​​physical​​states​​(at​​room​​temperature)​​and​​trends​​in physical​​
properties​​of​​these​​elements
2.) Use​​knowledge​​of​​trends​​in​​Group​​7​​to​​predict​​the​​properties​​of​​other halogens
3.) Understand​​how​​displacement​​reactions​​involving​​halogens​​and​​halides provide​​
evidence​​for​​the​​trend​​in​​reactivity​​in​​Group​​7
4.) Explain​​the​​trend​​in​​reactivity​​in​​Group​​7​​in​​terms​​of electronic​​configurations

Halogens:

- Group 7 elements
- Non metallic
- Atomic molecules (ex. F2, Cl2 etc)

Fluorine (F):

Chlorine (Cl):

Iodine (I):

Astatine (At):

Physical state at room temp. Color

 F2 Gas yellow

Cl2 Gas Green

Br2 liquid Brown-red liquid,

orange/brown vapor

I2 Solid Gray solid, purple vapor

The melting and boiling points decrease down the group. The halogens are all covalent
molecular substances and the melting and boiling points increase as the relative molecular mass
increases. As the relative molecular mass increases, the intermolecular forces of attraction
become stronger and therefore more energy must be put in to overcome these stronger forces of
attraction.

Their melting and boiling points increase down the group. Increase in Mr → increase of
intermolecular forces of attraction → more energy must be put in to overcome them → larger
boiling and melting points down the group

Because the halogens are non-metals, they are poor conductors of heat and electricity.

Reactions of the Halogens:

1.) The halogens react with hydrogen to form hydrogen halides: hydrogen fluoride,
hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide. For example:

H2(g) + Br2(g) → 2HBr(g)

The hydrogen halides are all acidic, poisonous gases.

In common with all the compounds formed between the halogens and non-metals, the gases are
covalently bonded.

They are very soluble in water, reacting with it to produce solutions of acids.

For example, hydrochloric acid is a solution of hydrogen chloride in water

 2.) Halogens react with alkali metals to form salts

Displacement Reactions:

- We can use these displacement reactions to show that chlorine is more reactive than
bromine, which is more reactive than iodine.

If you add chlorine solution ('chlorine water') to colourless potassium bromide solution, the
solution becomes orange as bromine is formed:

2KBr(aq) + Cl2(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

potassium + chlorine →bromide potassium + bromine chloride

Chlorine is more reactive than bromine and has displaced the bromine from solution.

Reactivity:

loss of electrons= OXIDATION

gain of electrons = REDUCTION

More easily gained e– → Anion forms more easily → Reactivity increases

We can explain the reactivity of the halogens in terms of how readily they form negative ions.
When the halogens react (in these reactions) they form 1- ions by taking electrons away from
something else. A chlorine atom is smaller than a bromine atom, so when we add an electron to
the outer shell of a chlorine atom, we are adding it to a shell closer to the nucleus. If it is in a
shell closer to the nucleus it is more strongly attracted to the nucleus. The bromine atom is bigger
and so the outer electron is added to a shell further away from the nucleus, where it is not as
strongly attracted. Chlorine therefore has a stronger tendency to form a 1-ion than bromine, and a
chlorine atom will take an electron away from a bromide ion.

Main Features (summarizing):

❖ have diatomic molecules, X2 (e.g. F2, Cl2, Br2)

❖ go from gasses to liquid to solid as you move down the group: the melting points and
boiling points increase down the group
❖ have coloured poisonous vapors: the colors of the elements get darker down the group
❖ form compounds with the formula HX (e.g. HF, HCI, HBr) when reacted with hydrogen
and these dissolve in water to form acids
❖ form ionic salts with metals and covalent compounds with non-metals
❖ form x- (e.g. F-, c1-. Br-) ions in ionic compounds • become less reactive towards the
bottom of the group • will displace elements lower down the group from their salts.

2.13- Gases in the atmosphere

Objectives:

1.) know the approximate percentages by volume of the four most abundant gases in dry air
2.) understand how to determine the percentage by volume of oxygen in air using
experiments involving the reactions of metals (e.g. iron) and non-metals (e.g.
phosphorus) with air
3.) describe the combustion of elements in oxygen, including magnesium, hydrogen and
sulfur
4.) describe the formation of carbon dioxide from the thermal decomposition of metal
carbonates, including copper(II) carbonate
 5.) know that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and that increasing amounts in the
atmosphere may contribute to climate change
6.) practical: determine the approximate percentage by volume of oxygen in air using a
metal or a non-metal

Gasses in the atmosphere:

Gas Amount in Air (%) Amount in air (fraction)

Nitrogen 78.1 4/5

Oxygen 21.0 1/5

Argon 0.9

Carbon dioxide 0.04

How to determine the percentage by volume of oxygen in air:

Ex1

Ex 2
The Combustion:

Some elements burn in oxygen, these reactions are called combustion reactions.

Elements burn more brightly and rapidly in pure oxygen than in air because air only contains 21
% oxygen.

→ Burning Magnesium

Magnesium burns in oxygen with an extremely bright white flame to give a white, powdery ash
of magnesium oxide:

2Mg+O2 → 2MgO (basic oxide)

The white powder formed is not very soluble in water but a very small amount does dissolve to
form an alkaline solution:
MgO(s) + H2O(1) →Mg(OH)2(aq)
→ Burning Sulfur

Sulfur burns in oxygen with a blue flame. Poisonous, colorless sulfur dioxide gas is produced.

S+O2→SO2 (acidic oxide)

→ Burning Hydrogen

Hydrogen burns in oxygen with a pale blue flame.

The product is water:

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

If you ignite a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen it will explode. This is the basis of the
'squeaky pop' test for hydrogen

The Properties of Oxides (Describe the formation of carbon dioxide from the thermal
decomposition of metal carbonates, including copper(II) carbonate)

Metal Oxides

- Metal oxides are ionic compounds containing O2- ions.

- Metal oxides are usually basic oxides, which means that they react with acids to form
salts.
- Metal oxides are usually insoluble in water. Those metal oxides that are soluble in water
react with it to form alkaline solutions containing hydroxide (OH-) ions.

Non-Metal Oxides

- Non-metal oxides are covalent compounds.

- Non-metal oxides are usually acidic oxides, which react with alkalis/bases to form salts.
- Non-metal oxides are often soluble in water and react with it to form acidic solutions
containing hydrogen (H+) ions.

Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide is a colorless gas that is most easily made in the laboratory by the reaction
between dilute hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate in the form of marble chips:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H20(1)

Carbon dioxide can also be obtained when metal carbonates are heated strongly. Most carbonates
split to give the metal oxide and carbon dioxide when you heat them.

This is an example of thermal decomposition, breaking up something by heating it.

For example,

copper(II) carbonate is a green powder which decomposes on heating to produce black

copper(II) oxide:

CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + CO2(g)

Calcium carbonate doesn't decompose unless it is heated at quite high temperatures.

This is a commercially important reaction because it is used to convert limestone (calcium

carbonate) into quicklime (calcium oxide):

CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

So the results are CO2 (carbon dioxide)

The Greenhouse effect

Carbon dioxide is produced when fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) burn.

For instance, when coal, which is mostly carbon, burns in excess oxygen:

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

Climate Change might lead to

- polar ice caps could melt

- sea levels could rise
- there could be more extreme weather (such as floods, droughts and heat waves).
 2.14- Reactivity Series
1.) Understand how metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on their reactions
with:
■ water
■ dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid
2.) Understand how metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on their displacement
reactions between:
■ metals and metal oxides
■ metals and aqueous solutions of metal salts
3.) Know the order of reactivity of these metals: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium,
magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver, gold
4.) Know the conditions under which iron rusts
5.) Understand how the rusting of iron may be prevented by
■ barrier methods
■ galvanising
■ sacrificial protection
6.) Understand the terms:
■ oxidation
■ reduction
■ redox
■ oxidising agent
■ reducing agent
in terms of gain or loss of oxygen and loss or gain of electrons
7.) Investigate reactions between dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acids and metals (e.g.
magnesium, zinc and iron)
 - Any metal higher in the reactivity series will displace one lower down from a compound.

Oxidation and Reduction:

Oxidation is the gain of oxygen

Oxidation is the loss of electrons
Reduction is the gain of electrons
Reduction is the loss of oxygen
A redox reaction is one in which both reduction and oxidation are occurring. Oxidation and
reduction always occur together because if something loses oxygen, something else must gain it.

Oxidizing agents (= cause oxidation) get reduced.

Reducing agents (= cause reduction) get oxidized.

Displacement reactions involving metal oxides:

Mg(s) + CuO(s) → MgO(s) + Cu(s)

REACTIONS OF METALS WITH WATER

❖ Metals ABOVE hydrogen in the reactivity series

- React with water or steam to produce HYDROGEN

If the metal reacts with cold water, the metal hydroxide and hydrogen are formed.
metal + cold water →metal hydroxide + hydrogen

Cold water is H2O(l)

Metal hydroxide (NaOH)
Hydrogen (H2)

If the metal reacts with steam, the metal oxide and hydrogen are formed.
metal + steam → metal oxide + hydrogen
Steam is H2O(g)
Metal oxide (NaO)
Hydrogen (H2)

As you move down the reactivity series, the reactions become less and less vigorous.

❖ Metals BELOW hydrogen in the reactivity series

No reaction with either cold water or steam
These reactions are all exothermic (they give out heat).

2.15- Extraction and uses of metals

Most metals are found in the Earth's crust combined with other elements. The individual
compounds are called minerals.

An ore is a sample of rock that contains enough of a mineral for it to be worthwhile to extract the
metal. Most metals are extracted from ores found in the Earth's crust.

A few very unreactive metals, such as gold, are found native. That means that they exist
naturally as the uncombined element. Silver and copper are also sometimes found native,
although much more rarely.

To obtain the metal from the oxide, you have to remove the oxygen. Removal of oxygen is called
reduction. Metals exist as positive ions in their ionic compounds, and to produce the metal you
would have to add electrons to the positive ion. Addition of electrons is also called reduction.

Carbon is higher in the reactivity series than iron and will take the oxygen away from the iron
oxide. This is a redox reaction; the Fe20 3 is reduced to Fe in the reaction and the C is oxidised
to CO. In this reaction the carbon is the reducing agent, it reduces the iron(III) oxide.
The extraction of iron is carried out in a blast furnace. The process is a bit more complicated than
we have shown here. Other reactions also occur and the main reducing agent is actually carbon
monoxide: Fe20 3(s) + 3CO(g) -+ 2Fe(I) + 3C02(g)

An alloy is a mixture of a metal with, usually, other metals or carbon. For example, brass is a
mixture of copper and zinc, and steel is an alloy of iron with carbon.

Alloys are harder than the individual pure metals from which they are made. In an alloy, the
different metals/elements have slightly differently sized atoms. This breaks up the regular lattice
arrangement and makes it more difficult for Fig ure 15.6 A brass propeller. Brass is an alloy. the
layers of ions to slide over each other.

Mild steel is the name given to an alloy of iron containing up to about 0.25% of carbon. This
small amount of carbon increases the hardness and strength of the iron. Mild steel is a strong
material that can be easily hammered into various shapes (malleable) and drawn into wires
(ductile). It is used for (among other things) nails, car bodies, ship building, girders and bridges.

1.10- Electrolysis
Objectives
1.) Understand why covalent compounds do not conduct electricity.
2.) Understand why ionic compounds conduct electricity only when molten or in aqueous
solution.
3.) Know that anion and cation are terms used to refer to negative and positive ions,
respectively.
4.) Describe experiments to investigate electrolysis, using inert electrodes, of molten
compounds (including lead(ll) bromide) and aqueous solutions (including sodium
chloride, dilute sulfuric acid and copper(ll) sulfate) and to predict the products.
5.) Write ionic half-equations representing the reactions at the electrodes during electrolysis
and understand why these reactions are classified as oxidation or
reduction.

Practical: Investigate the electrolysis of aqueous solutions.

In order for things to conduct electricity:

- there must be charged particles present
 - These charged particles must be free to move
Charged particles will be either electrons or ions

Metals:

- Metals conduct electricity because the delocalised electrons are free to move (in a
lattice of positive ions)

Ionic Compounds:

- Ionic compounds don't conduct electricity when they are solid because the ions are held
tightly in position in the lattice - they are not free to move around
- When liquid (=molten) or aqueous (= dissolved in water), they conduct electricity
because the ions are free to move.

Covalent Compounds:

- Do not conduct electricity, except:

Graphite (C): delocalized electrons that are free to move
When they react with water (e.g. NH3 , HCl) producing ions that are free to move

NH3(g) + H2O(l) →NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

4.) Describe experiments to investigate electrolysis, using inert electrodes, of molten compounds
(including lead(ll) bromide) and aqueous solutions (including sodium chloride, dilute sulfuric
acid and copper(ll) sulfate) and to predict the products.

When metals conduct electricity you will not notice anything happening, except perhaps that the
metal gets hotter.
When you pass electricity through an ionic compound, either molten or in solution, a chemical
reaction occurs.

Electrolysis is a chemical change caused by passing an electric current through a compound

which is either molten or in solution.
An electrolyte is a liquid or solution that undergoes electrolysis (contain ions)
The electricity is passed into and out of the electrolyte through two electrodes.

Carbon is frequently used for electrodes because it conducts electricity and is chemically fairly
inert (this means that it does not react with things), it also has a high melting point, also has
free electrons

Electrodes:
- The positive electrode is called the anode
- The negative electrode is called the cathode
Remember PANIC

Remember anions negative, cations positive

Anions move toward the positive electrode (the anode) → oxidation
Cations move towards the negative electrode(the cathode) → reduction
Metals above zinc are usually produced by electrolysis (above carbon)

half equations of Molten Compounds!!!

Example 1:

If we look at the electrode equations in the electrolysis of lead(II) bromide,

We see that the lead(II) ions gain electrons at the cathode:

Pb2+ 2e- →Pb
Gain of electrons is reduction.
The lead(II) ions are reduced to lead atoms.

The bromide ions lose electrons at the anode:

2Br-→ Br2 + 2e-
Loss of electrons is oxidation.
Bromide ions are oxidized to bromine molecules.

What are some changes observed?

- Brown liquid (Br) at the anode

- Gray metal (Pb) at the cathode
Example 2:
Al2O3

Al3+ +3e- → Al
2O2-→ O2+4e-

Half equations of aqueous solutions!!

Example:
When molten sodium chloride is electrolysed, the products at the electrodes are:

anode: chlorine
cathode: sodium
When you electrolyse sodium chloride solution you do not get the same products as when you
electrolyse molten sodium chloride.
Although chlorine is still formed at the anode, hydrogen is produced at the cathode rather than
sodium. The hydrogen at the cathode comes from the water.

H2O(1) → H+(aq) + OH-(aq)

The solution contains Na+(aq) and H+(aq), and these are both attracted to the negative electrode
(cathode).

Hydrogen is less reactive than sodium so it is easier to add an electron to a hydrogen ion to form
a hydrogen atom. (discharge)

2H+(aq) + 2e→ H2(g)

Cl-(aq) and OH-(aq) are both attracted by the positive anode

You discharge Cl since it is a halide

2c1-(aq) →Cl2(g) + 2e
If the metal is high in the reactivity series, you get hydrogen produced at the cathode instead of
the metal.
• If the metal is below hydrogen in the reactivity series, you obtain the metal at the cathode.
• If you have solutions of halides (chlorides, bromides or iodides), you obtain the halogen
(chlorine, bromine or iodine) at the anode. With other common negative ions (sulfate, nitrate,
hydroxide), you obtain oxygen at the anode.