MODULE-2

Environmental Friendly and Cost Effective Building Technologies

2.1 Different substitute for wall construction
1. English bond
This is the most common and popular bond and is used in most of the structures. English bond
consist of alternative layers of headers and stretchers. This is considered to be the strongest bond.
Hence it is commonly used bond for the walls of all thicknesses. To break continuity of vertical joints
a brick is cut lengthwise into two halves and used in the beginning and end of a wall after first
header. This is called queen closer. Fig 2.1 shows typical one brick and one and half brick thick wall
with English bond.

Fig: 2.1: English bond

2. Flemish bond
This bond is also known as Dutch bond. In this type of bond, each course comprises of alternate
header and stretcher as shown in fig-2.2. Alternate courses start with stretcher and header. To break
the vertical joints queen closers are required, if a course starts with header. Every header is centrally
supported on the stretcher below it.
Flemish bonds may be further classified as
Single Flemish Bond
Single Flemish bond is comprised of double Flemish bond facing and English bond backing and
hearting in each course. This bond thus uses the strength of the English bond and appearance of
Flemish bond. However, this bond can be used for those walls having thickness at least equal to 1 ½
brick.

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Double Flemish Bond
In the double Flemish bond, each course presents the same appearance both in the front face as well
as in the back face. Alternate headers and stretcher are laid in each course. Because of this, double
Flemish bond presents better appearance than English bond. Fig. 2.2 shows the general elevation of
Flemish bond, for all the wall thicknesses.

Fig: 2.2: Flemish bond

3. Rat trap Bond
A ―Rat-Trap Bond‖ is a type of wall brick masonry bond in which bricks are laid on edge (i.e. the
height of each course in case of a brick size 230x110x75 mm, will be 110 mm plus mortar thickness)
such that the shinner and rowlock are visible on the face of masonry as shown below.

Fig: 2.3: Rat trap bond

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Architect Laurie Baker introduced it in Kerala in the 1970s and used it extensively for its lower
construction cost, reduced material requirement and better thermal efficiency than conventional
masonry wall, without compromising the strength of the wall. The purpose of using this type of
masonry bond is to reduce the number of bricks and mortar required as compared to the
English/Flemish bond because of the cavity formed in the wall. This gives the wall with an internal
cavity bridged by the rowlock. This is the major reason where virgin materials like brick clay and
cement can be considerably saved. This adds this technology to the list of Green building
technologies and sustainability for an appropriate option as against conventional solid brick wall
masonry. This cavity adds an added advantage as it adds a Green building feature of help maintain
improved thermal comfort and keep the interiors colder than outside and vice versa.
Advantages of Rat Trap Bond
1. The cavities in the masonry act as thermal insulators. Thus, the interiors remain cooler in summer
and warmer in winter.
2. Rat Trap masonry uses fewer bricks and mortar reducing the cost of masonry up to 30% when
compared with conventional brick masonry.
3. The number of bricks used in the construction of rat trap masonry is 470, whereas, in
conventional masonry, it is 550.
4. Walls constructed using rat trap masonry can be used as load-bearing as well as a thick partition
wall.
5. Rat-trap bond when kept exposed creates aesthetically pleasing wall surface and the cost of
plastering and painting may also be avoided.
6. As this type of masonry has 30% of cavities, the dead load of the structure is reduced which in
turn reduces the structure supporting members such as column and footing.
7. In case of more structural safety, reinforcement bars can be inserted through the cavity until the
foundation.
8. Many buildings that were constructed decades ago have proved that this type of walling
technology is durable and the maintenance costs are low.
Disadvantages of Rat Trap Bond
1. Due to the formation of cavities in the masonry, the building does not provide good sound
insulations.
2. Skilled labor is required to construct this type of masonry.
3. Frequent cleaning of external surface required if not plastered.
4. Special care and attention to be given while designing and constructing rat trap bond masonry.
4. Arches
An Arch is a structure constructed of wedge – shaped units (bricks or stone), jointed together with
mortar and spanning an opening to support the weight of the wall above it along with other super –

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imposed loads. Due to wedge – like form, the units support each other; the load tends to make them
compact and enables them to transmit the pressure downwards to their supports.

Key
Extrados

Spandril
Haunch
Rise
Intrados Voussoirs

Impost Impost Skew back

Springing Line
a a
Span

Pier Abutment
O

Centre

Fig: 2.4: Elements of Arch

The following technical terms are used in arch work

1. Intrados: This is the inner curve of an arch.

2. Soffit: It is the inner surface of an arch. Sometimes, intrados and soffit are used
synonymously.
3. Extrados: It is the outer curve of an arch.
4. Voussoirs: These are wedge – shaped units of masonry, forming an arch.
5. Crown: It is the highest part of extrados.
6. Key: It is the wedge- shaped unit fixed at the crown of the arch.
7. Spandril: This is a curved – triangular space formed between the extrados and the horizontal line
through the crown.
8. Skew back: This is the inclined or splayed surface or the abutment, which is so prepared to
receive the arch and from which the arch springs.
9. Springing points: These are the points from which the curve of the arch springs.
10. Springing line: It is an imaginary line joining the springing points of either end.
11. Springer: It is the first voussoir at springing level: it is immediately adjacent to the skewback.
12. Abutment: This is the end support of a arch.
13. Pier: This is an intermediate support of an arcade.
14. Arcade: It is a row of arches in continuation.
15. Haunch: It is the lower half of the arch between the crown and skew back.

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16. Ring: It is a circular course forming an arch. An arch may be made of one ring or more than one
ring.
17. Impost: It is the projecting course at the upper part of a pier or abutment to stress the springing
line.
18. Bed joints: These are the joints between the voussoir which radiate from the centre.
19. Centre or striking point: This is the geometrical centre point from where the arcs forming the
extrados, arch rings and intrados are described or struck.
20. Span: It is the clear horizontal distance between the supports.
21. Rise: It is the clear vertical distance between the highest point on the intrados and the springing
line.
22. Depth or Height: It is the perpendicular distance between the intrados and extrados.
23. Thickness (breadth of soffit): This is the horizontal distance, measured perpendicular to the front
and back faces of an arch.
Different types of arches

1. Flat Arch

A flat arch is the weakest type of arch and is commonly used in the building of lightweight
constructions. The intrados of a flat arch is flat, at a 60° horizontal angle, and functions as the base
of an equilateral triangle with the intrados. Extrados are straight and flat arches, in general, are often
employed for lightweights and spans of up to 11 inches.
2. Horseshoe Shape Arch

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The horseshoe shape arch is named so because of its form, which resembles a horseshoe and curves
more than a semicircle. It‘s most commonly used for architectural purposes.
3. Pointed Shape Arch

The pointed-shaped arches are also known as gothic arches. Two arcs of the circle meet at the tip of
the pointed shape arch, forming a triangle. Triangle components might be isosceles or equilateral.

4. Relieving Arch

The primary goal of the relieving arch is to provide more support. The concrete elements should be
sufficiently absorbed into the endpoints of this arch.
When it comes to relieving the arch, we may quickly repair the deteriorated wooden lintel without
harming the arch or the structure‘s integrity.
To offer extra strength, these types of arches are built on a wooden lintel or atop a flat arch. You may
easily replace a decaying wooden lintel with these arches without affecting the structure‘s stability.
5. Segmental Arch

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A segmented arch is one with a circular arc that is less than 180 degrees. The segmental arch is one
of the most durable types of arches, capable of withstanding significant thrust. The segmental arch
was initially created by the Romans. During the twentieth century, this form of purchase was
commonly used in the building of residential windows and doors.

6. Semi-Circular Arch

The thrust is carried to the supports in a vertical direction in this form of an arch, which resembles a
semi-circle. This occurs because the skewback in this arch is horizontal. It also has a point in the
middle that is exactly on the springing line.
The semi-circular arch, also known as the Roman arch, creates a half-circle and is termed a Roman
arch as it is a common element of all styles of Roman architecture.
7. Venetian Arch

A three-centered arch is exemplified by the Venetian brick arch. It‘s also known as a Queen Anne
arch, and it‘s a classic style with a poor structural foundation.
These types of ornamental arches are usually supported by architectural window posts or brick
pillars at the intersection of horizontal and semi-circular portions.
5 Cavity wall
• A wall constructed two leaves or skins with a space or cavity between them is called a cavity
wall.
• Cavity wall consists of double walls with a hollow space between them.

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• Cavity wall thickness of an outer wall and inner wall may be equal or the inner wall may be
thicker than the outer wall.
• Cavity wall hollow never exceeds 100mm and it is uniform through the height.
• The main purpose of constructing a cavity wall is to prevent the penetration of rain to the internal
surface of the wall. It is essential that cavity walls are not bridged in any way as this would
provide a passage of moisture.
• The masonry skins of a cavity wall can be brickwork, block work or similar. Different masonry
materials can be used on either side of the cavity. The cavity is initially empty but can be filled
with insulation by various methods.
• Cavity walls are more time consuming and therefore slightly more expensive to build than walls
with the two skins bonded together, but they provide better sound and heat insulation and most
importantly resistance to rain penetration.

Fig 2.5: cavity wall

Advantages of cavity wall construction
 Damp Prevention: cavity wall checks the prevention of dampness from outside to inside of the
building in the better way than a solid brick wall of the same thickness.
 Heat Insulation: since air is a bad conductor of heat, a cavity wall decreases the heat
transmission considerably hence it is easier to maintain uniform temperature inside the building.
 Sound Insulation: sound waves can travel faster in solid media than air, the cavity wall
constructions considerably dampen the external noise and inside the building, external
disturbances have little effect.
 Able to withstand a driving rain in all situations from penetrating to the inner wall.
 Economical: The construction cost of a cavity wall is about 20% less than the construction cost
of a solid wall having the same thickness.

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Disadvantage of cavity walls
 Requires a high standard of design and workmanship to produce a soundly construction wall
 Require good supervision during construction.
 The need to a vertical damp proof course to all openings
 Slightly higher cost than a standard one brick thick wall.
2.2 Ferro cement and Ferro concrete Constructions
FERRO CEMENT
Definition
Ferro-cement is a composite material consisting of cement-sand mortar (matrix) reinforced with
layers of small diameter wire meshes.
Ferro-cement is a special form of reinforced concrete. It differs from conventional reinforced
concrete primarily by the manner in which the reinforcement is arranged within the brittle matrix.
Since its behavior quite different from that of conventional reinforced concrete in performance,
strength and potential applications, it is classed as a separate material. Usually steel bars are also used
in addition to wire mesh, to form a steel skeleton, which helps in retaining the required shape of the
ferro cement components until the cement mortar hardens. A typical cross-section of ferro-cement
element is shown in fig.

Fig 2.6: Cross-section of typical ferro cement element

The wire mesh reinforcement will be uniformly distributed across the thickness of the element. This
helps in achieving improved mechanical properties like fracture, tensile and flexural strength, fatigue
and impact resistance. In addition, it also eliminates the use of form work particularly for complicated
shapes. Ferro-cement is used in thin walled structural elements where strength and rigidity are
developed through form and shape and hence they are lightweight. In view of this, ferro-cement is
ideally suited for prefabricated construction and in particular for housing applications in developed
countries. The success of ferro-cement in various terrestrial applications can be attributed to (i) ready

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availability of materials locally (ii) need of low level technology for its production (iii) better
utilization of available human resources and (iv) architectural flexibility.
History
The history of ferro-cement dates back to 1848, when joseph Louis Lombat started experimenting on
reinforcing mortar to make articles for which normally timber would have been used. Lombot had
made plant tubs, water tanks and rowing boats from this material, which he called ―ferciment‖ and
patented in 1852.

Fig 2.7: Joseph Louis Lombot with ferro-cement boat

In early 1940‘s, Italian engineer architect Dr. Pier Luigi Nervi resurrected the original idea of Lombot
and established the preliminary characteristics of ferro-cement through a series of tests. He also
pioneered the use of ferrocement in buildings by constructing a small storehouse and covering a
swimming pool with a 15m vault.
Ferro-cement can be considered as material with many paradoxes. This is because it possesses a
degree of toughness, ductility, strength, crack resistance and durability considerably greater than
other forms of reinforced concrete. It has been possible to achieve these improved properties in
structural components having a thickness of 25mm, which dimension is unthinkable in other forms of
concrete construction.
Materials
The materials used for ferro-cement are
1. Cement
Ordinary Portland cement that is commercially available in the market is satisfactory for ferro-
cement construction. However, other types of Portland cement can be used like sulphate resisting
cement for marine environment. Portland pozzolana cement has also been recommended for ferro-
cement as it provides good resistance to sulphate attack and also competitive in price compared with
OPC.

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2. Sand
Well-graded sand with particle size less than 4.75mm having fineness modulus between 2.5-3.0 is
suited for ferro-cement construction. As cover to reinforcing mesh is small and does not exceed 2-
3mm. the cement mortar covering the wire mesh has to be dense to prevent corrosion of
reinforcement. Hence grading of sand for mortar mixes becomes very important to get workable
cement mortar with low W/C.
3. Water
Water used for preparing cement-sand mortar should be potable and relatively free from organic
compounds. The proportion of cement-sand mix generally varies from 1:1.5 to1:3 and water-cement
ratio varies from 0.35 to 0.55
4. Wire mesh
One of the important constituent of ferro-cement is wire mesh reinforcement. These generally
consists of thin wires, (galvanized or ungalvanized) either woven or welded at the intersections. The
mechanical property of ferro-cement depends upon the type, quantity, orientation and strength
properties of mesh reinforcement. The different types of mesh reinforcement are.
(a) Hexagonal wire mesh : This is also known as chicken wire mesh is fabricated from cold drawn
wires of diameter varying from 22-26 guage and woven in to hexagonal patterns with mesh
opening varying from 10mm to 25mm. This is cheapest, easiest to handle and most commonly
used in ferro-cement construction.
(b) Woven wire mesh: This is fabricated by simple weaving the gakvanized wires in to desired grid
sizes without welding them at the intersections. The grids are generally square. The mesh wires
are not perfectly straight and some amount of waviness exists.
(c) Welded wire mesh: this is fabricated in rectangular or square pattern by perpendicular
intersecting wires (generally 2-3mm dia) made of low to medium tensile strength steel and
welded together at the intersections. This mesh is much stiffer than hexagonal or woven wire
mesh.
(d) Expanded Metal Mesh: This mesh is sometimes used in ferro-cement construction, is formed by
slitting thin guage sheets and expanding them in a direction perpendicular to the slits to produce
diamond shape openings. This meash has inherent advantages like good mechanical bond and
ease of placing

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 Fig 2.8: Different types of meshes
5. Skeletal Steel
As the name implies this generally used for making frame work of the structural component upon
which layers of wire mesh reinforcement are laid and also serve as spacer to wire mesh. The steel
rods are provided in both longitudinal and transverse directions. In general, mild steel rods of
galvanized iron wires of dia varying from 2mm to 6mm are used. Sometimes for structural purpose
HYSD bars are also employed.
6. Admixtures
Admixtures are additives, which are introduced in the cement sand mortar mix to modify the
properties of the mortar in its fresh and hardened state.
Construction Methods
Ferro-cement does not required skilled labor nor heavy capital investment on equipment to produce
them there are four major steps in ferro-cement construction, they are placing of reinforcement,
mixing of mortar, placing of mortar and curing.
Casting Techniques of Ferro-cement
There are 4 methods of casting techniques. They are
1. Hand Plastering
Paul and pama have developed three method of hand plastering
(i) One stage technique: consists of single application of mortar from outside to inside of mesh
and subsequently finishing off to a smooth surface before initial set take place.
(ii) Two-stage technique: In this process mortar is plastered from one side without fully
penetrating through all the mesh layers and the outer surface is finished smooth and cured.
Later the remaining portion is plastered with mortar. To assist in bond between the old and
new mortar, cement grout is applied before second stage plastering is carried out on the old
mortar. This technique is adopted when more than 5 layers of mesh is used.

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 (iii) Sectional plastering: while undertaking plastering of large ferrocement structures, it may be
preferable to plaster in sections using one stage technique, necessitating the need for
construction joints.
2. Semi-mechanized process
 This system is termed as semi mechanized process because the mould can be rotated to
facilitate the dashing of mortar.
 This system is better than the other as better compaction can be achieved.
 The advantage of this system is it does not require sophisticated equipment or electricity.
3. Centrifuging
 The centrifuging process is commonly adopted for the fabrication concrete cylindrical
units.
 Because of good compaction, the ferro-cement pipes casted by centrifuging can also be
used for pressure pipes
4. Guniting
 The process of guniting can be adopted for applying the mortar to wire mesh system.
 This process can be applied with experience gunman can give good compact and uniform
surface.
 This appears to be suitable process for mass production prefabricated units.
Properties of Ferro-cement
1. Thickness – 10 to 60mm.
2. Steel – 5 to 8%.
3. Steel cover – 1.5 to 5mm.
4. Ultimate Tensile Strength – 34.5 N/mm2
5. Allowable tensile strength - 10 N/mm2
6. Compressive strength- 27.5 to 60 N/mm2
7. It is a very durable, cheap and versatile material.
8. Less shrinkage and low weight.
9. High tensile strength and stiffness
Advantages of Ferro-cement
 Basic raw materials are readily available in most countries.
 Fabricated into any desired shape.
 Low labour skill required.
 Ease of construction, low weight and long lifetime.
 Low construction material cost.
 Better resistance against earthquake.

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Disadvantages of Ferro-cement
 Low shear strength and ductility.
 Susceptibility to stress rupture failure
 Corrosion of reinforcing material due to the incomplete coverage of metal by mortar.
 It is difficult t fasten the ferro-cement with bolt, screw, welding.
 Large numbers of labours are required.
Application of Ferro-cement

FERROCONCRETE
The elimination of wire mesh reinforcement and the use of coarse aggregates of size between 3mm to
6mm in cement mortar with thickness of within 20mm will lead to new material called
―Ferroconcrete‖. It is similar to the ferrocement.
It can be conveniently cast in thin sections using galvanized wire reinforcements of 2mm to
3mm dia depending on design requirement. The use of small size coarse aggregates permits a
reduction of cement content without sacrificing compressive strength. The mix proportion of
ferroconcrete generally of 1:2:2.

Fig 2.9: Ferroconcrete cross section roof unit

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2.3 Precast Member- Wall
Precast concrete walls are constructed by casting concrete in a reusable wall mold or form
which is then cured in a controlled environment, transported to the construction site and lifted
into place.

Fig. 2.10: Erection of Precast Concrete Wall.

Types of Precast Concrete Wall
1. Cladding or Curtain Walls
The cladding or curtain walls are the most widely used precast wall for building envelopes. They are
non-load bearing walls intended for the use to oppose the wind and encase the space. This type of
precast wall incorporates divider boards, window divider units, spandrels, mullions, and section
covers.
2. Load-bearing Wall
Load-bearing wall units oppose and exchange loads from different components and cannot be
removed or dismantled without influencing the quality or dependability of the building.
3. Shear Walls
Shear walls are utilized to give a parallel load opposing framework when joined with stomach
activity of the floor development. The viability of precast shear dividers is generally needy upon the
board-to-board associations.
Characteristics of Precast Concrete Walls
1. Thermal Resistance
The precast walls infer their warm execution attributes basically from the measure of protection set in
the depression or inside the reinforcement divider, which is ordinarily a metal stud divider.
2. Moisture Protection
The protection for the moisture in the precast walls is of high importance as the structural members
such as columns and beams are not structurally connected with the precast walls.

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3. Fire Safety
The precast walls are manufactured with concrete which has good fire-resistant material.
4. Acoustics
A precast wall with a veneer will give comparative execution with respect to sound transmission from
the outside to the inside of the building.
5. Durability
The durability parameter of the precast walls is the same as that of concrete. Anyhow, the durability
depends on the type of connections made with the structural member.
6. Maintainability
As the walls are manufactured with concrete, which does not need any maintenance. The connection,
sealants, anchorages, and accessories used in the precast walls need regular maintenance.
Precast Member- Beams
Precast concrete beams are horizontal structural components designed and manufactured to support
other structures. Precast concrete beams are an integral feature of many buildings today. They are
particularly suited to floor construction in houses, flats and commercial buildings and provide a low-
cost flooring solution.

Fig. 2.11: Erection of Precast Concrete Beam.

The cross-sections of a precast concrete beam will depend on its location within a structure, its
purpose and how it is connected to other members. The simplest will be rectangular, probably with
reinforcement links projecting out of the top around which in situ concrete can be cast.
Alternatively, beams may have projections, on one or both sides to support secondary members, such
as floor slabs or staircases, or to carry brickwork or cladding.
Typical sizes of beams: 400x300mm to 1000x600mm
Typical span-to-depth ratios: 10 to 20
Precast Member- Columns
Precast concrete columns are vertical load- bearing components used to transfer load to the
foundations. Columns can be fabricated in various shapes, sizes and colours. Precast concrete

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columns may be single or double storey height. The method of connection to the foundation and to
the column above will vary with manufacturer. Foundation connection may be via a base plate
connected to the column or by reinforcing bars projecting from the end of the column passing into
sleeves that are subsequently filled with grout. Precast Columns are most suited for industrial,
commercial and IT bay buildings where columns have thicker sections. Columns can either be pre-
casted on site if space permits, or they can be manufactured in our factory and transported to the site.

Fig. 2.12: Erection of Precast Columns.

Precast Member- Door and Window Frames
Precast Reinforced Concrete Door and Window Frames have been proposed as an alternative to
timber and steel door window frames. RCC frames are much more durable than both timber and steel
frames. Timber frames are susceptible to termite and fracture in case of high moisture, even steel is
susceptible to corrosion in high rainfall region. In this case RCC frames provide lifelong alternative
material which is durable in all weather conditions. Precast concrete door and window frames
comprise of separate RCC members corresponding to the sides of the opening. The horizontal
member joins with vertical members through interlocking profiles when installed at site. The
members are minimally reinforced using wire reinforcement. Being reinforced concrete, the top
member of the frame is also capable of acting as a lintel over a door or window. The profile of frames
is similar to wooden frames with the option of single and double rebates.

Fig. 2.13: Timber window and door frame

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Components of Pre-cast Door and Window frames
Pre-cast concrete Door & Window frames (IS code 6523-1983) are available in a knock-down state
with three and four pieces respectively. For Doors, two vertical Posts, one lintel member are fixed in
a proper position through interlocking grooves. For the window frame, an additional horizontal
element is provided at its base. With a cross-section of 4 x 2.5 inch; varied length between 5 – 7.5
feet can be manufactured. The frame uses nominal MS reinforcement, typically 4 mm bar and
concrete of grade M15 and provided with locking holes and hinge screw area casted within the
frames. The Technology provides uniform shape and size, which is at par with the wooden
alternative.

Fig. 2.14: Precast window and door frame

Technical specifications
 Size: Width - 4 inch x 2.5 inch with length – 2.5 feet to 7.5 feet
 Raw Material - OPC 43 grade cement, sand of fineness modulus
 Concrete mix - M15, the ratio of cement, sand and aggregate 1:2:4
 Reinforcement- Nominal MS reinforcement 5mm dia – 3 Nos. for main reinforcement.
Applicability
 Precast reinforced concrete door window frames are feasible in any weather conditions and any
building typology.
 This easy to install technology is even applicable for multi storey buildings. However, the
technology is best suited to attain for longevity and high durability of door window frames.
 RCC frames are best suited in regions with high rainfall – they don‘t require anti termite
treatment as required in wood or corrode as in case of metal frames.

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Precast Member- Water Tank
A water tank is a container for storing water.
Specification
• Grade of concrete- M45
• Grade of steel –Fe500
• Earth Pressure – (a) Light duty tank can take surcharge load of 1Ton\sq.m.
(b) Heavy duty tank can take a load of 40 Ton.
• No Uplift – Tank is designed for no uplift even at fully submerged conditions and even when tank is
empty.
• External Coating- Coal tar epoxy paint, which is good resistance in marine exposure and subsoil
conditions. Good chemical and abrasion and water resistance.
• Internal Coating- Water proofing.
Precast Member- Septic Tank
A septic tank is a buried, watertight tank designated and constructed to receive and partially treat raw
domestic sanitary wastewater. Heavy solids settle to the bottom of the tank while greases and lighter
solids float to the top. The solids stay in the tank while the wastewater is discharged to the drain field
for further treatment and dispersal.

Fig. 2.15: Septic tank

Precast septic tanks are strong, watertight and environmentally friendly, and ideal for any residential
waste management system. These precast septic tanks are produced to meet your required dimensions
and are easily installed at home as well.

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Materials
1. Aggregates - Aggregates shall comply with the requirements of IS: 383-2016. The nominal maximum size
of coarse aggregate shall not exceed 12.5 mm.
2. Water - The water used shall conform to the requirements specified in IS: 456-19787.
3. Pozzolanas - Pozzolanic materials conforming to relevant Indian Standards may be used for part
replacement of unblended cements or as an admixture.
4. Admixtures - Where admixtures are employed, they shall be used in such proportions as to have no harmful
effects on the setting, hardening, and durability of the concrete. The admixtures, when used, shall conform to
IS: 9103-1979.
5. Reinforcement: Steel wire or rod for reinforcement
6. Concrete - The concrete shall not be weaker than M 20 grade. The minimum cement content in concrete
shall be 400 kg/m3 and maximum water/cement ratio shall be 0.4.
2.4 Alternate Roofing System – FILLER SLAB
Filler slab roofs are solid reinforced concrete slabs with filler material in the tension zone by a filler
material. The filler material could be cheaper or cheaper & lighter. A number of alternative materials
can be thought of:
(A) Brick or Brick Panel,
(B) Mangalore Tile,
(C) Stabilized Mud Block,
(D) Concrete Waste etc.
 Size and shape of the filler material are governed by the factors like slab thickness, code guidelines on
spacing of reinforcement bars, desired ceiling finish, etc and has to be carefully selected.

 Quantity of concrete in the tension zone of the slab that can be replaced by a filler material depends upon
the shape of the filler material available and thickness of the slab. For example in a solid concrete slab of
125mm thickness, a filler block of 60-70mm thickness can be easily accommodated.

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 By using SMB block, 25% of the concrete can be replaced by a material, which costs 1/3 rd of the cost of
concrete. This means that 15-20% of the cost of concrete can be saved by this operation.

Construction of filler slabs

Construction steps for filler slab are as discussed below.
1. The filler material to be used must be waste materials which are available locally and lighter than
concrete.
2. The shuttering for slab is erected as for a conventional RCC slab.
3. A minimum bottom cover of 15 mm is kept after erecting the shuttering which forms a grid and
filler material can be placed centrally in each space of the grid. No filler material is provided in
bands of concrete along the edge of the slab.
4. The width of these concrete bands is normally minimum 300 mm. The reinforcement spacing in
these bands is smaller than spacing around the filler materials.
5. After all the filler materials have been placed any concealed electrical work etc., should be placed
in the spaces between the filler material and then concrete is placed between the filler materials
and top of it to achieve slab thickness.
6. Concrete vibrators must be avoided in bottom portion of slab as they may disturb the placement
of the filler materials. Manual tamping is advised.
The width of these concrete bands is normally minimum 300 mm. The reinforcement spacing in these
bands is smaller than spacing around the filler materials.

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 Fig 2.16: Typical cross section of filler slab roof
Alternate Roofing System – COMPOSITE BEAM & PANEL ROOF
Composite beam and panel roof is one such system wherein the beams and panels can be
prefabricated, and assembled into a roofing system with minimal formwork without the use of heavy
equipment.
It is expected that such roofs are lighter and structurally more efficient when compared to solid
reinforced concrete slab roofs/floors.
Concept
 The roofing system consists of panels and beams cast separately and assembled such that the
system behaves like a T beam.
 These type of roofing systems can be broadly grouped in to two categories: Flat panel roof and
curved panel or jack arch roof based on the shape/geometry of the panel.
 The figure shows typical cross sections of the two types of roofing configurations.

Fig 2.17: Typical cross section of flat panel roof

Fig 2.18: Typical cross section of curved panel roof

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 The panels and beams are cast separately and then assembled, there should be proper shear
connection between them to achieve composite action for the system to behave as an integral
structural unit.
 The flexibility of composite beam and panel roofs arises out of the fact that the materials for the
beams and the panels could be of two different materials, and the composite action between them
could be achieved by proper shear connectors..
 The absence of shear connection the panels will simply sit on the beam and the roofing system
will be structurally inefficient.

Fig 2.19: Partially cast R.C beam with shear connectors/stirrups

Fig 2.20: Reinforced brickwork flat panel

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 Fig 2.21: Casting of jack-arch brickwork or tile work panel

Fig. 2.22: Casting of jack-arch brickwork or tile work panel

Fig. 2.23: Casting of jack-arch brickwork panel

Construction Steps
• Casting of beams and panels and curing
• Positioning the beams into required spacing and providing temporary props.
• Placing the panels on the beams and mortaring the joints between the panels.
• Grouting the shear connectors jetting out of beams as well as panels.
• Tying nominal shrinkage reinforcement bars and spreading screed concrete
• Removal of temporary props after curing and finishing.

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore

2.5 Pre Engineered Buildings
Pre Engineered Buildings (PEB) is the buildings which are engineered at a factory and assembled
at site. Usually PEBs are steel structures. Built-up sections are fabricated at the factory to exact size,
transported to site and assembled at site with bolted connections. This type of Structural Concept is
generally used to build Industrial Buildings, Metro Stations, and Warehouses etc.

Components of Pre-engineered Buildings

Fig. 2.24: Components of Pre-engineered Buildings

1. Primary Frame
Primary frames consist of trusses, column or castellated beams, etc. these are built up of I-shaped
steel members. All the load of structure members passes to the base and consists of end wall frames.

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These end wall frames are either designed with rigid frames or with economic bearing frames. These
frames are reinforced with wind bracing and connecting bolts sometimes with anchor bolts.
2. Secondary Elements
Secondary elements are cold-formed structural members, available in different shapes like C, Z, etc.
commonly known as ―Purlins.‖ For overall structure stability, these purlins transfer force from one
frame to another. These purlins are resistant to corrosion, robust, lightweight and they are easy to
mount. Purlins come in various lengths and thicknesses.
3. Roof and wall panels
Some of the pre-engineered building components like roof and wall panels come in Tin shades and
curtain walls made of glass and roll-formed steel sheets. Some special roofing sheets are used to
minimize energy usage.
4. Sandwich Panels
These panels are made in three-layer, where one non-aluminum layer is placed in between two
aluminum sheets.
Some other components of sandwich panels are bolts, insulation, mezzanine floors, skylight sheets,
flashlights, cage ladders, cable trays, ducts, cranes, etc.

Difference between Pre-Engineered Building & Conventional Steel Building

Properties Pre-Engineered Building Conventional Building

An easy and quick design, as these The conventional building has

are framed sections and connection to be designed from scratch
Design
designs, and it is less time- with only fewer aids available
consuming. to engineers.

Construction with a Pre- Construction by the

Duration of
Engineered Building system conventional building method
Construction
usually takes 6 to 8 weeks. usually takes 20 to 26 weeks.

Simple and easy design and quick A large and heavy Foundation
Foundation construction as they are is required in a conventional
lightweight. building.

Rigid Heavy frames in

In Pre-engineered buildings, the
Seismic conventional building systems
lightweight frames offer higher
Resistance are less resistant to seismic
resistance to seismic forces.
forces.

Here future expansion may cost

Future Any expansion in the future is very
you more and it is more
Expansion easy and simple.
tedious.

Erection Time The erection procedure in a pre- In a Conventional building

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 and Cost engineered building system is very system, the time and the cost
quick, easy, and requires less cannot be estimated accurately,
equipment. but it is 20% more expensive
than PEB‘s. The process is very
slow and more equipment is
required.

The overall cost of the Pre-

Engineered Building will be 30% The conventional building cost
Overall Cost
lesser than the Conventional more
Building.

With the help of standard design

Special design must be done
details, an outstanding
Architecture for different projects, which
architectural design can be
results in high cost.
achieved.

Pre-engineered buildings are 30% In a conventional building, the

Structural
lighter in weight than conventional structural members are heavier
Weight
buildings. in weight.

Advantages of PEBs
1. Reduction in Construction Time: Buildings are typically delivered in just a few weeks after
approval of drawings. In India the use of pre-engineered buildings will reduce total construction
time of the project by at least 50%.
2. Lower Cost: Due to the systems approach, there is a significant saving in design, manufacturing
and on site erection cost.
3. Flexibility of Expansion: Buildings can be easily expanded in length by adding additional bays.
Also expansion in width and height is possible by pre designing for future expansion.
4. Larger Spans: Buildings can be supplied to around 80M clear spans.
5. Quality Control: As buildings are manufactured completely in the factory under controlled
conditions the quality is assured.
6. Low Maintenance: Buildings are supplied with high quality paint systems for cladding and steel
to suit ambient conditions at the site, which results in long durability and low maintenance costs.
7. Energy Efficient Roofing and Wall Systems: Buildings can be supplied with polyurethane
insulated panels or fiberglass blankets insulation to achieve required U values.
8. Architectural Versatility: Building can be supplied with various types of fascia‘s, canopies, and
curved eaves and are designed to receive precast concrete wall panels, curtain walls, block walls
and other wall systems.
9. Single Source Availability: As the complete building package is supplied by a single vendor,
compatibility of all the building components and accessories is assured. This is one of the major
benefits of the pre-engineered building systems.

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2.6 Contribution of NIRMITHI KENDRA towards environmental friendly and
cost effective building technologies
The Government of India had launched a National Network of Building Centers ( Nirmithi Kendras
or Nirman Kendras) which are one of the most effective grass root level technology transfer centres
for disseminating and propagating appropriate skills to the cutting edge level for transforming the
technological know-how through hands-on show-how skill formation systems.
These centres take care of the following features:
 Technology transfer from ‗lab‘ to ‗land‘
 Skill Up gradation and training Centre for the construction artisans on cost effective and disaster
resistant technologies.
 Building materials and component production centre using these technologies.
 Construction Centre using the trained work force and building material products manufactured at
the local level for various building construction like housed, schools, health centres, community
centres, etc.
 Housing guidance, information and counseling centre for the local population on all aspects of cost
effective and disaster resistant technologies.
Cost Effective Construction Technologies and Building Materials Promoted by the MNK
Foundation - 1. Arch foundation 2. Pile foundation 3. Random rubble stone masonry foundation
4. Block concreting to foundation 5. Size stone masonry foundation
Walling - 1. Soil cement blocks or stabilized mud blocks for masonry by using regular or
interlocking blocks, 2. Hollow concrete blocks for brick masonry, 3. Solid concrete blocks for brick
masonry 4. Rat trap bond masonry 5. Boulder block or ruble filler blocks for brick masonry
Roofing - 1. Filler slab roofing by using Mangalore tiles, bricks, cavity clay tiles, coconut shells or
filler materials 2. Jack arch roofing by using cavity clay tiles or wire cut bricks 3. Brick panel roofing
over RCC joists 4. Cadapah slabs roofing over RCC joists 5. Mangalore tiled roofing over steel angle
purlins and trusses 6. Ferro cement channel roofing 7. Brick vaults and domes 8. Micro concrete tiles
(MCR) roofing over steel purlins and trusses
Flooring - 1. Clay tiles flooring 2. Cadapah slab flooring 3. Combination of tandoor and cadapah
flooring 4. Ceramic tile flooring Joineries 1. RCC door and window frames 2. Pressed or angle iron
frames 3. Tyfac shutters 4. Coir board shutters 5. Cement particle board shutters 6. Corrugate steel
shutters 7. MS and GI sheet shutters

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 Table 1: Cost Effective and Disaster Resistant Technologies and Materials in comparison to
conventional options and extent of cost saving

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore

2.7 Contribution of COSTFORD towards environmental friendly and cost
effective building technologies
Centre of Science and Technology for Rural Development (COSTFORD) is a Thrissur city-based
organization that gives technological assistance to people in alternative building technology. The
organization strives to change the social, economic and political position of the poor by providing
low-cost and eco-friendly housing technology using participatory, transparent and gender-sensitive
processes. COSTFORD's headquarters are in Thrissur, and it operates from another 15 sub-centers,
14 in Kerala and 1 in Gurgaon. The organisation was founded Laurie Baker, British-born Indian
architect ; C. Achutha Menon, the former Chief Minister of Kerala; Dr K. N. Raj, an economist and
Dr T. R. Chandradutt. COSTFORD was registered as a non-profit voluntary organization in 1984 and
started its construction activities in 1986.
Construction Philosophy
COSTFORD believes the design and construction techniques used must be either indigenous to the
local architecture or a more refined form of it. It is because these techniques, methods, and use of
materials date back centuries and are most apt for that particular place. COSTFORD believe the
Gandhian principle "materials used for a construction of a house must be available within 5 miles
radius of it" forms the major founding stone of our attitude and construction techniques. All clients
and agencies receive customised attention to their site, aesthetic, and budgetary requirements guided
by COSTFORD's hallmark cost-effective, energy efficient approaches to creating the built
environment. Natural factors such as building orientation, wind direction, vegetation, drainage, and
contours of the land along with awareness of locally available materials are factored into project
programming.
Construction Materials and Technologies
1. Rubble masonry.
2. Rat trap bond
3. Lintels.
4. Arches.
5. Jalli walls.
6. Frameless doors and windows.
7. Filler slab
8. Bamboo construction.

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 Fig. 2.25: Glimpse of COSTFORD technologies

2.8 Contribution of HABITAT towards cost effective building technologies

HABITAT Founded in 1983, one of the largest housing programme in the Asia-Pacific region. They
are affiliated to Habitat for Humanity International — a global non-government organization present
in more than 70 countries. Habitat for Humanity was founded by Millard and Linda Fuller who
developed the concept of partnership housing with farmer and biblical scholar Clarence Jordan.
They are a non-profit organization building strength, stability and self-reliance through affordable
housing and sanitation facilities. Their vision is a world where everyone has a decent place to live.
A Habitat home is built around a family‘s needs using locally sourced high quality materials, and
sound construction methods. The quality of construction has to meet the government‘s building codes
and our own quality standards.
1. Spacious and well designed
Each person in the household has a usable covered floor area of no less than 3.5 meters (37.5 square
feet) or comprises a minimum of two rooms.

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2. Built to last
We employ construction methods and material specifications that provide durability. The homes are
built to provide safe refuge, especially in disaster prone areas.
3. Proximity to sanitation units
Communities have sufficient toilets nearby with suitable drainage facilities to provide easy access at
all times of the day and night.

Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Mysore