ENG. P.W.

MAINA

LEVELLING
1. INTRODUCTION

Levelling is a branch of survey, which deals with determination of elevation of points on the ground
surface and difference in elevation between ground points using levelling instruments (levels and
levelling staffs). Levelling may be carrying to making topographic maps or for the purses of controlling
civil engineering works. The following are the main Reasons for carrying out levelling operation:

a) To determine the difference in height (altitude) between two or more points

b) Determine the height of ground at a number of points
c) To set out level or horizontal surfaces such as slabs, foundations trenches, machine bases among
others
d) Plotting contours

2. TERMS USED IN LEVELLING

• Levelling: Operation of measuring vertical distances in order to determine difference in elevation.
• Elevation: A vertical distance above or below an arbitrary assumed level. This elevation is normal to
the plumb line
• A level surface: A surface that is parallel to the curvature of the earth surface.
• Horizontal line: A line in surveying taken as straight and tangential to the level surface. It is at right
angle to the perpendicular line.
• A level line: A line which is parallel to the mean surface of the sea.

• Vertical line: A line at any point which is normal to the level surface at that point.

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• Datum surface: A level surface (real or imaginary) used as a reference for levelling works.
• Ordinance datum (OD): This is the level surface at the sea which is used as reference point. This
level is taken as 0.000. It is the mean sea level as measured at Newlyn on Cornwall.
• Ordnance Bench mark (OBM): this is the mark made say on vertical surfaces such as walls of
substantial structures by ordnance surveyors
• Temporary Bench mark (TBM) :This is the datum above or below the ordnance datum that has been
transferred from OBM to the site or some convenient permanent feature or kerb stone in the
vicinity of the site. It is referred to as TBM and all the levels on the site are related to this level.
• Height of collimation (height of the instrument): This is the height of the line of collimation of the
levelling instrument above datum.
• Instrument station: the position where the levelling instrument is set while taking staff readings
(levels).
• Staff station: The position where the levelling staff is held while taking staff readings.
• Back sight (BS): This is the first staff reading taken after the levelling instrument has been set up.
• Fore sight reading (FS): This is the last staff reading taken immediately before moving the levelling
instrument to a new station. It is also the last staff reading at the end of levelling operation.
• Intermediate sight (IS): Any other reading taken between the back sight and fore sight readings.
• Change point: Position or point where the levelling staff is held when the instrument is being moved
from one position to another. It is therefore the position at which fore sight and back sight readings
are taken.
• Reduced level: This is the height of a point relative to the original starting datum of the survey,
• Flying levels: These are levels taken to check the accuracy of the survey after along levelling had
been made.The levelling operation is done from the end of the levelling point back to the datum
where the levelling stated. In this case, only back sight and foresight readings are necessary.

3. LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS

Levelling equipment include levels and levelling staffs. The equipment are fairly simple to use, strong
and accurate.

3.1 LEVELS

Main parts of a surveyor’s level are:

• Telescope with eyepiece, objective lens and focusing mechanism

• Bubble tube or stabilizer in case of a an automatic level
• Levelling head
• Tripod on which the instrument is mounted
3.1.1 TYPES OF LEVELS

The main types of levels in common use include dumpy level, tilting level and automatic level.

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a) Dumpy level
• The telescope of a dumpy is rigidly fixed to the tribrach or levelling table
• It has sensitive bubble attached to the top or side of the telescope to ensure horizontal line
of sight when the instrument is in adjustment and the bubble is in the middle.
• The foot screws are used in adjusting the levels

9. Diaphragm Adjusting Screws

1. Telescope 5. Longitudinal Bubble
10. Bubble Tube Adjusting Screws
2. Eie-Piece 6. Focusing Screws
11. Transverse Bubble Tube
3. Ray Shade 7. Foot Screws
12. Foot Plate
4. Objective End 8. Upper parallel Plate

b) Tilting levels
• The telescope is not rigidly fixed to the levelling table but it is pivoted about its
centre.
• It has a circular spirit level on the tribrach which allows appropriate levelling of the
instrument.
• The accurate levelling is achieved by means of tilting screw
• It may have foot screws or /and ball and socket arrangements

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c) Automatic
• The telescope of a dumpy is rigidly fixed to the tribrach or levelling table.
• A small spirit level approximate levelling
• Stabilizer ( inside the telescope) is used for final levelling (automatic levelling).

Advantages of automatic levels

• They are simple to use

• There is less chance of making mistakes
• The levelling operation is faster than for other levels thus resulting to great economy

Disadvantage

They are not suitable on sites where there is great vibrations e.g. due to pile driving.

Automatic level

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TRIPOD

- Used for mounting the level at a convenient height.

Tripod

3.2 Levelling staff

A levelling staff, also called levelling rod, is a graduated wooden or aluminium rod, graduates in
metres and decimals thereof. Levelling rods can be one piece, but many are sectional and can be
shortened for storage and transport or lengthened for use. Aluminium rods may adjust length by
telescoping sections inside each other, while wooden rod sections are attached to each other with
sliding connections or slip joints. There are many types of rods. One type is BS rod of which is
graduated in ‘E’ pattern. The smallest division in these staff is 10mm. Some rods are graduated on
only one side while others are marked on both sides. If marked on both sides, the markings can be
identical or, in some cases, can have imperial units on one side and metric on the other side.

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3.3 ADJUSTMENTS OF LEVELS

a) Temporary adjustments
b) Permanent adjustments
Permanent adjustments

These are adjustments that are carried out on regular bases say once a month on a busy site, to ensure
that the level gives accurate results.

TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF LEVELS

This is the procedure of setting up a levelling instrument and making it ready for use.

It involves the following steps:

i) Setting up the tripod

ii) Levelling the instrument
iii) Focusing the telescope and elimination of parallax

a) Setting up the tripod

Tripod stand is set on the ground firmly so that its top is at a convenient height. The tripod head
should be approximately leveled, then the level is fixed on its top.
Some instruments are provided with a less sensitive circular bubble on tribrach for this purpose.

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Precautions to be observed when handling the instrument

1. Before removing the instrument from the casing, check its position so that when placing it back
it will not give any problem.
2. Do not hold the instrument by the telescope or any other part but its main body should hold it
firmly.

b) Levelling the instrument

The procedure of accurate levelling with three levelling screw is as given below:

i) Loosen the clamp and turn the telescope until the bubble axis is parallel to the line joining any
two screws [Ref. Fig. 15.5 (a)].

ii) Turn the two screws inward or outward equally and simultaneously until bubble is centred.
iii) Turn the telescope t 90° so that it lies over the third screw [Fig. 15.4 (b)] and level the
instrument by operating the third screw.
iv) Turn back the telescope to its original position [Fig. 15.5 (a)] and check the bubble. Repeat steps
(ii) to (iv) until bubble is centred for both positions of the telescope.
v) Rotate the instrument through 180° and Check the levelling.

c) Focusing the telescope and elimination of parallax

Focusing is necessary to eliminate parallax while taking reading on the staff. The following two
steps are required in focusing:

ii) Focusing the eyepiece: Hold a sheet of white paper in front of telescope and rotate
eyepiece in or out until the cross hairs are seen sharp and distinct.
iii) Focusing the objective lens: The telescope is directed towards the staff and the focusing
screw is turned until the reading appears clear and sharp.

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4. PROCEDURE OF LEVELS
4.1 DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING

Differential levelling provides a means of accurately measuring height differences between points some
tens of meters apart. A level is set up on a tripod and levelled so that the line of sight is horizontal:

A graduated staff is held vertically over the first point and a reading made of the intersection of the
cross-hair with the image of the staff (backsight - b). The same (or an identical) staff is then held
vertically over the second point and a further reading made (foresight - f). The difference between the
two readings is the difference in height between the two points:

Difference in height, δ h = b - f
If ‘b’is greater than ‘f’ then δ h is positive (i.e. there is a rise in elevation in moving from the first to
the second point).

This process can be repeated - the level can be moved beyond the second point and the height
difference between the second and a third point measured by the same process. Further repetitions will
allow the height difference between widely separated points to be determined by accumulating the
height differences between (temporary) intermediate points. The distance from level to staff is dictated
by the steepness of the terrain and the clarity of the image viewed by the observer. Usually the
maximum sight length is restricted to 80-100m.

4.2 SERIAL LEVELLING

In this method, staff readings are taken on the staff held on series of ground points and the reduced
levels relative to the original starting are computed.

4.2.1 Procedure Of Serial Levelling

Set up the levelling instrument at Level position 1. (Refer to the figure below)

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i) Hold the staff on the Datum (RL+50 m) and take a reading. This will be a back sight, because
it is the first staff reading after the levelling instrument has been set up.
ii) Move the staff to A and take a reading. This will be an intermediate sight.
iii) Move the staff to B and take a reading. This also will be an intermediate sight.
iv) Move the staff to C and take a reading. This will be another intermediate sight.
v) Move the staff to D and take a reading. This will be a foresight; because after this reading
the level will be moved. (A change plate should be placed on the ground to maintain the
same level.)
vi) The distance between the stations should be measured and recorded in the distance column
on the field note - book.
vii) Set up the level at Level position 2, while the staff is still held at D on the change plate. Turn
the staff so that it faces the level and take a reading. This will be a back sight.
viii) Move the staff to E and take a reading. This will be an intermediate sight.
ix) Move the staff to F and take a reading. This will be a foresight; because this is the last staff-
reading taking at the end of survey work.

4.3 Booking and Reducing Levels

There are two methods of reducing levels
- Rise and fall method
- Height of collimation method
4.3.1 Rise and fall method
i) Back sights, intermediate sights and fore sight readings are entered in their
appropriate columns on different lines except that at change point the fore sight
and back sight readings are placed on the same line.
ii) The first reduced level is the height of the ordinance bench mark or any other
datum which has been used.

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iii) If the intermediate sight or fore sight reading is smaller than the immediately
preceding staff reading, this represent a rise and the difference between the two
readings is entered in the rise column.
iv) If the intermediate sight or fore sight reading is larger than the immediately
preceding staff reading, this represent a fall and the difference between the two
readings is entered in the fall column.
v) A rise is added to the immediately preceding reduced level entry to obtain the
reduced level of a station.
vi) A fall is subtracted from the immediately preceding reduced level entry to obtain
the reduced level of a station.

Checks: Sum of BS readings - Sum of FS readings = Sum of Rise – Sum of Fall = Last Reduced Level – First
Reduced Level

Example 1

The figure below show staff readings obtained during levelling exercise. Book the readings and reduce
the level by rise and fall method and apply the arithmetic checks.

Project: Proposed reconstruction of Jogoo Road

Surveyor:………………….
Date …………………………………………………………… Sheet No…………………..

BS I.S F.S Rise Fall R.L Dist.(m) Remarks

3.1 550.50m T.B.M R.L 550.50m A.D
2.8 0.3 550.80m a
2.4 0.4 551.20m b
2.5 2.2 0.2 551.40m C (CP)
3.0 0.5 550.90m d
2.6 0.4 551.30m e
2.0 0.6 551.90m f
∑ 5.6 ∑4.2 ∑ 1.9 ∑0.5 551.90m
- 4.2 - 0.5 -550.50m
1.4 1.4 1.4

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ARITHMETIC CHECKS

While all arithmetic calculations can be checked there is no assurance that errors in the field procedure
will be picked up. The arithmetic check proves only that the rise and fall is correctly recorded in the
appropriate rise & fall columns. To check the field procedure for errors the level traverse must be
closed. It is prudent to let another student check your reading to avoid a repetition of the level run.

If the arithmetic calculations are correct, the difference between the sum of the back sights and the sum
of the foresights will equal to the difference between the sum of the rises and the sum of the falls, and
the difference between the first and the final reduced level or vice versa.

NB: There are no arithmetic checks made on the intermediate sight calculations. Make sure you read
them carefully

4.3.2 Height of collimation method (height of instrument)

i. Booking of back sights, intermediate sights and foresight readings is the same as the rise and fall
method for back. There are no rise or fall columns, instead, it is replaced by height of collimation
column.
ii. The first reduced level entry is the height of the ordinance bench mark or any other datum
which has been used
iii. The first back sight reading which is taken on the staff held on the bench mark is added to the
first reduced level to give the height of collimation and the these three readings entries are
placed in the first line.
iv. The reduced level of a the station is obtained by subtracting the staff reading from the height of
collimation.
v. The height of collimation changes only when the leveling instrument is moved to a new position.
The new height of collimation is obtained by adding the back sight to the reduced level at the
change point.

Checks

Sum of BS readings - Sum of FS readings = Last Reduced Level – First Reduced Level

Note that there is no check on the accuracy of intermediate reduced levels and errors could go
undetected.

The rise and fall method may take a bit longer to complete, but a check on entries in all columns is
carried out. The reduced levels are easier to calculate with the height of collimation method, but errors
of intermediate reduced levels can go undetected. For this reason students should use the rise and fall
method for all leveling exercises

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Closed and open traverse

Always commence and finish a level run on a datum, benchmark or known reduced levels. This is what is
known as a closed level traverse, and will enable you to check the level run.

Example 2: Height of collimation method (height of instrument)

Back- Inter- Fore- Height of Reduced Distance Remarks

sight mediate sight collimation level
2.554 52.554 50.00 Datum RL+50 m
1.783 50.771 A

0.926 51.628 B

1.963 50591 C
1.305 3.587 50.272 48.967 D / change point 1
1.432 48.840 E
3.250 0.573 52.949 49.699 F / change point 2
1.925 51.024 G
3.015 0.496 55.468 52.453 H / change point 3
0.780 54.688 J
10.124 5.436 54.688
-5.436 -50.000
4.688 4.688

4.4 Reciprocal levelling

It is recommended that staff that sight distances should be kept short in order to reduce errors due to
refraction, curvature and collimation error in the instrument. However, this is not always possible when
levelling across a wide river or valley.

Procedure of reciprocal levelling

By means of reciprocal levelling, the need for applying curvature and refraction corrections may be
avoided

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Two similar instruments in correct adjustment are required. The true difference in level between point C
and D (H ) is obtained by the expression below.

∆H = (DA – CA)+( DB – CB )
2
Example
In levelling across a river, reciprocal leveling observations gave the following results for staffs held
vertically at X and Y from level stations A and B on each bank respectively:
Staff reading of C from A = 1.753m
Staff reading of C from B = 2.080m
Staff reading of D from A = 2.550m
Staff reading of D from B = 2.895m
If the RL of C is 90.370m AD, calculate the RL of station D.

Solution

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Staff reading of C from A ( CA)= 1.753m

Staff reading of C from B (CB) = 2.080m
Staff reading of D from A (DA) = 2.550m
Staff reading of D from B (DB) = 2.895m
RL of C is 90.370m AD, calculate the RL of station D
(DA – CA)+( DB – CB
True difference in level between C and D = H = )
2
True difference in level between C and D = ∆H (2.550 – 1.753)+( 2.895 – 2.080 )
= =
2

4.5 INVERTED STAFF LEVELLING

An inverted staff reading can be used to determine the reduced level of a point above the line of sight of
the instrument such as a ceiling, underside of a bridge, balcony etc. As the name suggests, the staff is
simply turned upside –down, the bottom placed against the point that the level is required, and then
read. An important difference between inverted staff readings and other types is that they are treated
as negative quantities, both in the booking of the readings and the reduction of the levels.

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4.6 ERRORS IN LEVELLING

Errors in levelling can be subdivided into three main categories:

- Gross errors or human errors

- Instrument or constant errors
- Accidental or random errors
4.6.1 Gross Errors

These are mistakes in the eyes of the observers. They may be due to carelessness, inexperience of
fatigue. Examples of gross errors include:

(i) Wrong staff reading

(ii) Using wrong cross hair
(iii) Wrong booking
(iv) Omitting a reading or wrong entry
(v) Spirit level not centred

These errors can be eliminated by double levelling i.e. to and from the stations.

4.6.2 Instrument Errors

These errors are due to instrument defects and will always be of the same sign. They include:

i. Non-verticality of levelling staff. This can be eliminated by fitting the staff with spirit level.
ii. Collimation errors in the instrument: this can be eliminated by making back sights and foresight
equal in length.
iii. Staff graduation errors: These errors are eliminated by taking care to ensure that the zero mark
of the strip coincides with the bottom of the staff and that various staff sections are properly
graduated.

4.6.3 Accidental Errors

These are due to physical and climatic conditions. They are usually small errors

They include:

i. Wind and temperature errors

ii. Hard and soft ground errors: this may cause the height of collimation to change. They can be
eliminated by making sure that the shoes of the tripod are firmly driven into the ground.
iii. Change point errors; these are eliminated by providing a change plate
iv. Human deficiency: These errors can be eliminated by only taking the correct reading and not
estimating.

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