AAE5203 AIRCRAFT DESIGN & CERTIFICATION

ME578 AIRCRAFT DESIGN

09 FLIGHT PERFORMANCE AND MECHANICS

Dr Zijian ZHANG, AAE

zijian92.zhang@polyu.edu.hk
Office: PQ507
 SYLLABUS
Week / Topic Tue. 18:30–21:20 at TU201

1. Introduction to Aircraft Design

2. Review of Fundamental Aerodynamics
3. Initial Sizing
4. Wing Design
5. Tail Design
6. Fuselage Design
7. Propulsion System
8. Landing Gear
9. Flight Performance & Mechanics
10. Airworthiness & Aircraft Certification
11. Other Types of Aircraft
12. Group Project Presentation (AAE5203)
13. Group Project Presentation (ME578) & Tutorials 2
OVERVIEW
 Flight mechanics is the study of aircraft’s translational motions.
 Flight dynamics is the science of air vehicle orientation and control in
three dimensions, e.g. the angles of rotation in three dimensions about the
vehicle's center of gravity, known as pitch, roll and yaw. Also, stability.
 Performance equations are derived from simple physics, mostly Newton.
 Airplane must meet design requirements such as stall, rate of climb, turn rate,
acceleration, and takeoff and landing distances.

3
OUTLINE

1. Equations of Motion
2. Steady Level Flight
3. Steady Climbing and Descending Flight
4. Level Turning Flight
5. Gliding Flight
6. Takeoff Analysis Learning Tips:
7. Landing Analysis ➢ Derivations
✓ Meanings of basic equations
✓ Aerodynamic requirements for certain flights

4
1. EQUATIONS OF MOTION

5
 ME578 Aircraft Design
1. EQUATIONS OF MOTION
Frame of Reference
 The first and one of the most important steps in all of mechanics is the definition of
the Reference Frame (or Coordinate system).
 Frame of Reference is the viewpoint from which a system is observed.
 Motion is relative to a reference frame.
 For aircraft or flight, there are various reference frame conventions, and their use
depend on the circumstances and the subject (mainly for convenient analysis).
1. Earth-fixed reference frame (positioning)
2. Body-fixed reference frame
3. Wind reference frame
4. Stability reference frame

6
 1. EQUATIONS OF MOTION
 Flight mechanics equations are written in a wind axis system, with the X
axis being in the velocity direction and Z axis being perpendicular and upwards.
• The climb angle 𝛾 is the angle between the X axis and the horizon.
• Thrust force inclination angle with respect to the body axis: ϕT
• Angle of attack α.

Z y
X
z

VV = V sin 
VH = V cos 
VV
G = tan  =
VH
7
 1. EQUATIONS OF MOTION
 Summing forces in the X and Z directions yields Eqs. (9.1) and (9.2):

(9.1)
(9.2)

8
 1. EQUATIONS OF MOTION
F x = T cos ( + T ) − D − W sin  = max
F z = T sin ( + T ) + L − W cos  = maz

 The resulting accelerations on the aircraft in the

X and Z directions are found from Newton
(𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎), determined by summing these forces
then dividing by the aircraft mass (𝑚 = 𝑊/𝑔).
 Eq. (9.3) defines the time rate of change in
aircraft weight as the specific fuel consumption
𝐶 times the thrust T. (9.3)
 For a propeller engine, Eq. (9.4) determines
the equivalent 𝐶 based upon the piston- (9.4) L03
engine definition of 𝐶𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 or 𝐶𝑏ℎ𝑝 , and Eq.
(9.5) determines the thrust of the propeller.
(9.5) L07
The shaft power in bhp

9
 1. EQUATIONS OF MOTION
 What makes the sizing and performance programs complicated is not the actual
calculation of the aircraft response to the forces at a given angle of attack and thrust
level. The complications arise in determining what the angle of attack and thrust level
should be to perform some maneuver.
 Angle of attack and lift are restricted by the maximum lift available.
 The thrust level is restricted to the available thrust, as obtained from a table of
installed engine thrust vs altitude and velocity (or Mach number).
 For example, the rate of climb varies with velocity. → What combination of velocity
and thrust setting will allow an airliner to climb to cruise altitude with the least fuel
consumption over the total mission? → This lecture.

10
 EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON ENGINE PERFORMANCE
 Air breathing engines’ power and thrust, and performance are highly sensitive to the
change in altitude (density). All power plants are rated by their static ground performance.
 For turbojet and turbofan engines, the power plant is rated by the maximum static thrust,
T0 on ground. At altitude, the available thrust is given as:
𝑇 𝜌∞ 𝜌∞ S.L.: sea level
= or 𝑇 = 𝑇0
𝑇0 𝜌𝑆.𝐿. 𝜌𝑆.𝐿. ∞: at altitude

 For turboprop engines, density effect is given by,

𝑛
𝑃 𝜌∞
= 𝑛 = 0.7
𝑃0 𝜌𝑆.𝐿.
 For naturally aspirated reciprocating piston engines, the power decreases proportionally
to decrease in air density.

𝑃 𝜌∞
=
𝑃0 𝜌𝑆.𝐿.
11
1. EQUATIONS OF MOTION
 A basic assumption of this lecture.
 For normal aircraft, the thrust force is nearly aligned with respect to the
wind axis under most flight conditions.

0
(9.1)
0
(9.2)
X
Z

(9.6)
(9.7)

Basic resultant force equations of this lecture.

12
2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT

13
2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
A quick review about aerodynamics (Lecture 2)

▪ Lift (9.6)
(9.7)
▪ Drag

▪ Dynamic pressure

▪ Drag coefficient for 3D wing

1
𝐾=
𝜋𝐴𝑒

Zero-lift drag Lift-induced drag Span efficiency factor

14
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
 If the aircraft is flying in unaccelerated (steady) level flight, then climb angle 𝛾 = 0, and
the sum of the forces must equal zero. This leads to the simplest versions of the
translational equations of motion.
(9.6) (9.8)
(9.7) (9.9)
✓ From Eq. (9.9), the velocity in level flight can be expressed as a function of wing loading,
lift coefficient, and air density
1 2 (9.10)
𝑞= 𝜌𝑉
2
✓ The actual 𝑇/𝑊 in level flight must be the inverse of the 𝐿/𝐷 at that flight condition.
✓ The 𝑇/𝑊 and 𝐿/𝐷 in level flight can be expressed in terms of the wing loading and
dynamic pressure by substituting Eq. (9.9) into Eq. (9.8), as follows:

(9.11)
15
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
2.1 Minimum Thrust Required for Level Flight
✓ From Eq. (9.11), it follows that the condition for minimum thrust or drag at a
given weight (equal to lift) is also the condition for maximum L/D.
✓ To find the velocity at which thrust is minimum and L/D is maximum, the derivative
with respect to velocity should be set to zero.

T 1 qCD0 W  K
= = +  (9.11)
W L / D (W / S )  S  q

𝜕(𝑇Τ𝑊 ሻ 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝐷0 𝑊 2𝐾
= − =0 (9.12)
𝜕𝑉 𝑊 Τ𝑆 𝑆 1 𝜌𝑉 3
2

2𝑊 𝐾
𝑉min 𝑇 or 𝐷 =
𝜌𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 (9.13)

A function of W 16
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
 Substituting 𝑉min 𝑇 into (9.9) yields the lift coefficient for minimum drag (= T) in level
flight. This optimal lift coefficient is only dependent upon the aerodynamic parameters.
1
L = W = qSCL = V 2 SCL (9.9)
2
𝐶𝐷0 (9.14)
𝐶𝐿,min 𝑇 or 𝐷 =
𝐾
2𝑊 𝐾
𝑉min 𝑇 or 𝐷 = (9.13)
𝜌𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 Not a function of W or V

 At any given weight, the aircraft can be flown at the optimal lift coefficient for minimum
drag by varying velocity or air density (altitude).

L W 1 W   1 
(9.9) CL = =  =   /  V 2  (9.9’)
qS S q  S   2 

17
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
 If the 𝐶𝐿,min 𝑇 is substituted back into the total drag D, the lift-induced-drag term will
equal the zero-lift drag term.
2
𝐶𝐷0  CD 
(9.14) 𝐶𝐿,min 𝑇 or 𝐷 = CDi = KCL2 = K  0
 = CD0
𝐾  K 
 
The minimum thrust required is achieved when the parasitic (profile, form)
drag equals the lift-induced drag. 𝐶 =𝐶 𝐷𝑖 𝐷0

 The total drag at the lift coefficient for minimum drag will then be exactly twice the
zero-lift drag.

(9.15)

 The above is also the condition for maximum L/D

𝐶𝐷0
𝐿 𝐶𝐿 𝐾 1
= = =
𝐷 max
𝐶𝐷 max
2𝐶𝐷0 2 𝐾 ⋅ 𝐶𝐷0
18
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
2.2 Minimum Power Required for Level Flight
 The conditions for minimum thrust and minimum power required are not the same.
Power is force times velocity, which in steady level flight equals the drag times the velocity.
1 3
𝑃 = 𝑇𝑉 = 𝐷𝑉 = 𝑞𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2 𝑉 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2 (9.16)
2
 Substituting the lift coefficient in level flight from Eq. (9.9’) yields Eq. (9.17).

W  1 2
CL =   
/ V  (9.9’)
S  2 

1 3 𝐾𝑊 2
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝐷0 + (9.17)
2 1
𝜌𝑉𝑆
2

19
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
 The velocity for flight on min. power is obtained by setting the derivative of Eq. (9.17)
to zero.
𝐶𝐷𝑖
2 1 2
𝜕𝑃 3 2 𝐾𝑊
= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝐷0 − = 3 ⋅ 𝐶𝐷0 − 𝐾 ⋅ 𝐶𝐿2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 = 0 (9.18)
𝜕𝑉 2 1 2 2
𝜌𝑉 𝑆
2

The aerodynamic requirement for

2𝑊 𝐾 meeting the Min. Power Required is:
𝑉min,P =
𝜌𝑆 3𝐶𝐷0 (9.19) 𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 3 ⋅ 𝐶𝐷0
A function of W
 Substituting this into Eq. (9.9) yields the lift coefficient for minimum power Eq. (9.20).
 Substituting this into Eq. (9.8) gives the drag at minimum power required [Eq. (9.21)]:

3𝐶𝐷0 (9.20)
(9.9) 𝐶𝐿, min,P =
𝐾

(9.8) 𝐷min,P = 𝑞𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 + 3𝐶𝐷0 (9.21)

20
STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT: MIN.T AND MIN.P COMPARISON
 Minimum Thrust  Minimum Power
Conditions: 𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝐶𝐷0 Conditions: 𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 3 ⋅ 𝐶𝐷0

2𝑊 𝐾 2𝑊 𝐾
𝑉min,T = 𝑉min,P =
𝜌𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 𝜌𝑆 3𝐶𝐷0

𝐶𝐷0 3𝐶𝐷0
𝐶𝐿, min,T = 𝐶𝐿, min,P =
𝐾 𝐾
𝐷min,T = 𝑞𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐶𝐷0 𝐷min,P = 𝑞𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 + 3𝐶𝐷0
PR

P
T= Tmin
V or
(L/D)max

V
Vmin PR Vmin TR 21
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
2.5 Range
 Before lifting off on an aircraft, we want to ensure that there is sufficient fuel
in the tank to cover the distance/time of the journey.
 The distance coverable for a given amount of fuel is the Range
 The length of time in cruise before running out of fuel is the Endurance
 The range of an aircraft is its velocity multiplied by the amount of time it can remain in
the air. Time in the air equals the amount of fuel carried divided by the rate at which
the fuel is burned. This in turn is the required thrust multiplied by the specific fuel
consumption.
R = V t t = Wfuel / (T  C )

 Unfortunately, the simple equation implied above is complicated by the fact that the
aircraft weight drops as fuel is burned. This changes the drag, which then changes the
thrust required. The net result is that the aircraft goes farther, but the calculation is
more difficult!
22
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
 However, the "instantaneous range" derivative can be calculated using the simple
relationship just described. This describes the additional distance the aircraft will travel
with the next incremental amount of fuel burned. This can also be expressed in terms
of the L/D and weight, as shown.
d𝑅 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉(𝐿Τ𝐷 ሻ
= = = (9.22)
d𝑊 −𝐶𝑇 −𝐶𝐷 −𝐶𝑊
 Integrating the instantaneous range with respect to the change in aircraft weight yields
the Breguet range equation. This integration assumes that the velocity, specific fuel
consumption, and L/D are approximately constant.
𝑤𝑖+1
𝑉(𝐿Τ𝐷 ሻ 𝑉𝐿 𝑊𝑖
𝑅=න 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑙𝑛 (9.23)
𝑤𝑖 −𝐶𝑊 𝐶𝐷 𝑊𝑖+1
 L/D = constant requires: CL = constant → reducing q as W reduces.
Because V = constant, the only way to reduce q is to reduce air density by climbing.
→ "cruise-climb".
W  W  1 2
CL =   / q =   
/ V  (9.9’)
S  S  2  23
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
 Unfortunately, the air traffic controllers don't want airplanes to be randomly
climbing during their flight. Instead, the pilot will request permission to climb several
times during the flight as fuel is burned off, thus forming the characteristic "stair-step"
cruise climb.

 It is possible to develop a rather messy range equation for the constant speed –
constant altitude assumption. → L/D is not constant as W reduces.
 However, the Breguet range equation can be applied with little loss of accuracy
even under these conditions by breaking the cruise legs into several shorter mission-
segments, using the appropriate L/D as W drops. This is also done for analyzing the
stair-step cruise climb, which is representative of actual flight operations.
24
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
2.5.1 Range Optimization – Jet
 The Breguet range equation can be applied equally well to jets or propeller aircraft.
However, the conditions for maximum range differ for jets and props because of
the effect of velocity on thrust for the propeller.
𝑉 𝐿 𝑊𝑖
𝑅= 𝑙𝑛 (9.23)
𝐶 𝐷 𝑊𝑖+1
 The terms in the Breguet range equation that do not involve the weight change. V/C
and L/D are the "range parameter" and are a measure of the cruising performance.
 For subsonic jet aircraft, the specific fuel consumption is approximately independent
of velocity, and the range parameter can be expanded as shown (using Eq. (9.9’)).
𝑉 𝐿 𝑉 𝐶𝐿 𝑉 𝐶𝐿 2 𝑊 Τ𝜌 𝑉𝑆
= = = (9.24)
𝐶 𝐷 𝐶 𝐶𝐷 𝐶 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2 𝐶𝐶𝐷0 + 4𝐾𝑊 2 𝐶 Τ 𝜌2 𝑉 4 𝑆 2

 The velocity for best range for a jet:  V L 

 =0
V  C D 
25
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
 The velocity for best range for a jet:
2𝑊 3𝐾
𝑉best range = (9.25)
𝜌𝑆 𝐶𝐷0

 The resulting lift coefficient and drag are given by:

𝐶𝐷0
𝐶𝐿 = (9.26)
best range 3𝐾

𝐶𝐷0
𝐷best range = 𝑞𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 + (9.27)
3

Maximum range for a jet aircraft occurs when the aircraft’s 1

𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝐶
aerodynamic configuration meets this above condition. 3 𝐷0

✓ These range optimization equations were based on the assumption that the range parameter V/C,
L/D does not vary with weight. Thus, Eqs.(9.25-9.27) are not exactly correct in the real world.
26
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
 Drag coefficients for best range or best L/D:

𝐶𝐷,best range = 1.33𝐶𝐷0 𝐶𝐷, min. 𝑇 or best 𝐿/𝐷 = 2𝐶𝐷0

 However, when maximizing range, the aircraft flies at a higher velocity (3−1=
31.6% faster), which increases the dynamic pressure and the actual drag magnitude.

2𝑊 3𝐾 2𝑊 𝐾
𝑉best range = 𝑉min 𝑇 or best 𝐿/𝐷 =
𝜌𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 𝜌𝑆 𝐶𝐷0

 As a result, the ratio between the drags at the best range velocity and the best L/D
velocity is determined as: Lecture 3

Dbest range 1.33 ( L / D )best range Dbest L / D 1

=  1.3162 = 1.154 = = = 0.866
Dbest L / D 2.0 ( L / D )best L / D Dbest range 1.154
For jets

27
2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
2.5.2 Range Optimization – Prop
 Substituting Eq. (9.4) into Eq. (9.23) yields the Breguet range equation for
propeller-powered aircraft [Eq. (9.28)].
p L  Wi  550 p L  Wi 
(9.4) R= ln  = ln  
C power D  Wi +1  Cbhp D  Wi +1 
𝑉 𝐿 𝑊𝑖
𝑅= 𝑙𝑛 (9.23) (9.28)
𝐶 𝐷 𝑊𝑖+1

 The velocity term seen in the jet range equation [Eq. (9.23)] has disappeared.
 Because all other terms are constant with respect to velocity, it follows that
propeller aircraft range will maximize by flying at the speed and lift coefficient
for maximum L/D. (Section 2.1, Pages 16-18).

28
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
Wf
2.6 Loiter Endurance E= ? L = W , L / D = constant, T = D
CT
 The amount of time an aircraft can remain in the air is simply its fuel capacity divided
by the rate of fuel consumption (thrust multiplied by specific fuel consumption). The
change in weight due to fuel consumption complicates the equation.
 The "instantaneous endurance" is the amount of time the aircraft will remain aloft
from the next increment of fuel burned. This can be expanded as shown to express
instantaneous endurance in terms of 𝐿/𝐷 and weight (level-flight relations).

d𝐸 1 1 𝐿
=− = (9.29)
d𝑊 𝐶𝑇 −𝐶𝑊 𝐷

 Integrating the instantaneous endurance will get total endurance 𝐸.

𝑊𝑖+1 𝑊𝑖
1 1 𝐿 𝐿 1 𝑊𝑖
𝐸=න d𝑊 = න d𝑊 = 𝓁𝑛 (9.30)
𝑊𝑖 −𝐶𝑇 𝑊𝑖+1 𝐶𝑊 𝐷 𝐷 𝐶 𝑊𝑖+1

Assumptions? 29
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
2.6.1 Loiter Optimization – Jet

𝐿 1 𝑊𝑖 (9.30)
𝐸= 𝓁𝑛
𝐷 𝐶 𝑊𝑖+1
 For jet aircraft the only term in the endurance equation that varies with velocity is
the 𝐿/𝐷. Therefore, the endurance for jet aircraft is maximized by maximizing the
𝑳/𝑫, as determined before (Section 2.1, Pages 16-18).

d𝑅 𝑉
= (9.22)
−d𝑊 𝐶𝑇

d𝐸 1
= (9.29)
−d𝑊 𝐶𝑇

30
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
2.6.2 Loiter Optimization – Prop
 Substituting Eq. (9.4) into Eq. (9.30) yields the endurance equation [Eq. (9.31)] for
propeller aircraft.
𝐿 1 𝑊𝑖  L  p   Wi   L   550 p   Wi 
𝐸= 𝓁𝑛 E =    ln   =     ln  
𝐷 𝐶 𝑊𝑖+1  D   C powerV   i +1   D   CbhpV
W   i +1 
W
(9.31)
 With V introducing, the condition for best prop loiter will not simply be the max. L/D.
 The velocity condition for maximum loiter time for a propeller aircraft is:

2W K
  L    2W / V 3 S  Vbest loiter = (9.32)
 =0 S
=
3CD0

V  DV  V  CD0 + ( 4 KW 2 /  2V 4 S 2 ) 
 
(
Dbest loiter = qS CD0 + 3CD0 ) (9.33)
Lecture 3
( L / D )best loiter
Dbest loiter
( )
2
4.0 1
=  1/ 3 = 1.154 = = 0.866
Dbest L / D 2.0 ( L / D )best L / D 1.154
31
 2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
2.7 Relationship Between Loiter and Cruise
 In preliminary design studies of derivative aircraft, the available loiter time of existing
aircraft is often needed for evaluation of their usability for other missions. There is a
simple relationship between range and endurance based on the Breguet range and loiter
equations.
 Given a known aircraft range and cruise speed, equivalent loiter time can be estimated
with reasonable accuracy by

(9.34)

2.8 Effects of Wind on Cruise and Loiter

 While the design mission for an aircraft often assumes zero wind, the real world is
usually not so cooperative.
 If you have a direct headwind that makes your groundspeed 10% lower than in no-wind
conditions, then your range during cruise for a certain amount of fuel will be 10% less.
If you have a tailwind, the cruise range is improved accordingly.
32
CLASS ATTENDANCE

6.1 Scan the QR code shared by instructor

by mobile device
6.2 Sign in with NetID and NetPassword
6.3 Take the attendance

Section Code:
203S01 → AAE5203 (MSc)
203S02 → AAE5203 (Undergrad)
578S01 → ME578 (MSc)

33
3. STEADY CLIMBING AND DESCENDING FLIGHT

34
3. STEADY CLIMBING AND DESCENDING
3.1 Climb Equations of Motion
 Rate of climb (RoC) is a vertical velocity, VV.
 Climb gradient 𝐺 is the ratio between vertical and horizontal distance (velocity)
traveled. This is approximately equal to the vertical climb rate divided by the aircraft
velocity or the sine of the climb angle 𝛾, when 𝛾 is small.
 With 𝛾 being not zero and assuming that thrust force is aligned with respect to the
wind axis, the sum of forces is:

(9.6)
(9.7)

VV = V sin 
 Climb: γ is positive;
VH = V cos 
 Descend: γ is negative. VV
G = tan  =
VH
35
3. STEADY CLIMBING AND DESCENDING
 Setting the sum of the forces to zero yields the steady climb equations:

𝑇 = 𝐷 + 𝑊 sin 𝛾 (9.36)
𝐿 = 𝑊 cos 𝛾 (9.37)

 Solving for climb angle in Eq. (9.36) produces Eq. (9.38). For normal climb angles [less
than 15 deg, cos(15deg) = 0.966], the cosine term is approximately one.

𝑇−𝐷 𝑇 cos 𝛾 𝑇 1
𝛾 = sin −1
= sin −1
− ≅ sin−1
− (9.38)
𝑊 𝑊 𝐿Τ𝐷 𝑊 𝐿Τ𝐷

 The rate of climb, or vertical velocity, is the velocity times the sine of the climb angle:

𝑇−𝐷 𝑇 1
RoC = 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑉 sin 𝛾 = 𝑉 ≅𝑉 − (9.39)
𝑊 𝑊 𝐿Τ𝐷

36
 3. STEADY CLIMBING AND DESCENDING
 The velocity for steady climbing flight can be derived from Eq. (9.37):

1
qSCL = V 2 SCL
2 2 𝑊
𝑉= cos 𝛾 (9.40)
(9.37) 𝐿 = 𝑊 cos 𝛾 𝜌𝐶𝐿 𝑆

 The thrust-to-weight ratio is no longer the inverse of the lift-to-drag ratio as was the
case for level flight. Solving Eq. (9.38) for T/W yields Eq. (9.41), the thrust-to-weight
ratio required for a steady climb at angle 𝛾.

𝑇−𝐷 𝑇 cos 𝛾 𝑇 1
𝛾 = sin −1
= sin−1
− ≅ sin−1
− (9.38)
𝑊 𝑊 𝐿Τ𝐷 𝑊 𝐿Τ𝐷

cos 𝛾 1 1 𝑉𝑣
𝑇Τ𝑊 = + sin 𝛾 ≅ + sin 𝛾 = + (9.41)
𝐿Τ𝐷 𝐿Τ𝐷 𝐿Τ𝐷 𝑉

(Lecture 7)
37
 3. STEADY CLIMBING AND DESCENDING
3.2 Graphical Method for Best Angle and Rate of Climb
 Two climb conditions especially concern the aircraft designer:
• Best rate of climb, which provides the maximum vertical velocity 𝑉𝑉 ;
• Best angle of climb, which provides a slightly lower vertical velocity but at a reduced
horizontal speed, so that the angle of climb 𝜸 is maximized. Therefore, the aircraft
gains more altitude for a given horizontal distance, important for clearing mountains!

𝑇−𝐷 𝑇 1
𝑉𝑣 = 𝑉 ≅𝑉 −
𝑊 𝑊 𝐿Τ𝐷

(9.39)

VV
tan  =
VH
VV
sin  =
V
38
 3. STEADY CLIMBING AND DESCENDING
3.3 Best Angle and Rate of Climb – Jet
 Analytical optimization of velocity for best angle and rate of climb can be messy. Graphical
analysis is more reliable but doesn't give an analytical feeling for the key variables.
 For a jet aircraft, the thrust is essentially constant with velocity, so Eq. (9.38) can be
directly maximized for the conditions for best climb angle. Because the T/W term is
constant with velocity, the velocity for best L/D should be used to maximize climb angle.

−1
𝑇 1
𝛾 ≅ sin − (9.38)
𝑊 𝐿Τ𝐷
 To determine the velocity for best rate of climb of a jet aircraft, Eq. (9.39) must be
maximized. Equation (9.42) is obtained from Eq. (9.39) by expanding the drag term and
assuming that 𝛾 is small enough that lift approximately equals weight:

𝑇−𝐷 𝑇 𝜌𝑉 3 𝐶𝐷0 2𝐾 𝑊
𝑉𝑣 = 𝑉 =𝑉 − − (9.42)
𝑊 𝑊 2(𝑊 𝑆Τ ሻ 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
39
(9.39)
 3. STEADY CLIMBING AND DESCENDING
 In Eq. (9.42), the derivative of the vertical velocity with respect to aircraft velocity is
set to zero and solved for velocity for best rate of climb.
𝜕𝑉𝑣 𝑇 3𝜌𝑉 2 𝐶𝐷0 2𝐾 𝑊
= − + =0
𝜕𝑉 𝑊 2(𝑊 Τ𝑆ሻ 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆

𝑊 Τ𝑆
𝑉best climb rate = 𝑇Τ𝑊 + 𝑇/𝑊 2 + 12𝐶𝐷0 𝐾 (9.43)
3𝜌𝐶𝐷0

 This climb optimization will only determine the velocity for the best rate of climb at
some altitude. It will not tell you what the complete climb profile should be to
minimize time to a given altitude.
 For many supersonic aircraft, minimizing total time to climb requires leveling off or
even diving as the aircraft accelerates through transonic speeds to minimize the time
spent at these high-drag conditions.
 Similar analysis can be applied to solve for the best angle and rate of climb for a
propeller aircraft.
40
4. LEVEL TURNING FLIGHT

41
 4. LEVEL TURNING FLIGHT
 In level turning flight, the lift of the wing is
canted so that the horizontal component of the
lift exerts the centripetal force required to turn.
 The total lift on the wing is 𝑛 times the aircraft
weight 𝑊, where 𝑛 is the load factor.
 Because the vertical component of lift must be
𝑊, the horizontal component of lift must be 𝑊
times 𝑛2 − 1.
 Turn rate 𝜓ሶ equals the radial acceleration
divided by the velocity.

𝑊 𝑛2 − 1 𝑔 𝑛2 − 1
𝜓ሶ = = (9.52)
(𝑊 Τ𝑔ሻ𝑉 𝑉

 𝜓ሶ is in radians per second, which must be

multiplied by 57.3 to get degrees per second.
42
 4. LEVEL TURNING FLIGHT 𝜓ሶ =
𝑔 𝑛2 − 1
(9.52)
𝑉
4.1 Instantaneous Turn Rate
 If the aircraft is allowed to slow down during the turn (instantaneous turn, balance
between T and D is not considered), the load factor 𝑛 will be limited only by the
maximum lift coefficient (not L/D or CL/CD) or structural strength of the aircraft.
 The intersection of the stall limit and the structural limit defines the corner speed,
which is the velocity for maximum instantaneous turn rate.
2
 C  1
Stall limit:  = g  L ,max   V 2 − 2
 2 (W S )  V

2
g nmax −1
Structural limit:  =
V

 For a typical fighter, corner speed is

about 300-350 kt {560-650 km/h}. In
a classical turning dogfight, opponents
will try to get to their own corner
speed as quickly as possible.
Turn rate and corner speed. 43
 4. LEVEL TURNING FLIGHT 𝜓ሶ =
𝑔 𝑛2 − 1
(9.52)
𝑉
4.2 Sustained Turn Rate
 In a sustained turn, the aircraft is not permitted to slow down or lose altitude during
the turn. In a sustained turn, T = D and L = nW.
 By assuming that the thrust axis is approximately aligned with the flight direction, the
sustained-turn load factor can be expressed as Eq. (9.53):
L T  L
n= =    (9.53)
W W   D 
 Maximizing T/W and L/D obtains the maximum sustained-turn load factor:

T  L
nmax =      (9.54)
 W  max  D  max
 The velocity to obtain the maximum sustained-turn load? (using the lift coefficient for
maximum L/D (i.e., 𝐾𝐶𝐿2 = 𝐶𝐷0 ), and setting lift equal to 𝑛 times 𝑊):

1 CD0
L= V 2 S = nmaxW (9.55)
2 K 44
 4. LEVEL TURNING FLIGHT
 Expanding the drag using (𝐶𝐿 = 𝑛𝑊/𝑞𝑆) and setting it equal to the thrust in Eq. (9.53),
the sustained load factor is expressed in terms of the basic aerodynamic coefficients
[Eq. (9.56)], which define the sustained turn-rate envelope for a given flight condition
(e.g., a given T).

T  L T   nW 

n=   =  
W   D  W (
  qS  CD0 + KCL2 ) 

 
 

T   nW 
=   2 
W     nW   
 qS  CD0 + K  qS   
     

𝑞 𝑇 𝑞𝐶𝐷0
𝑛= − (9.56) Turn rate and corner speed.
𝐾(𝑊 Τ𝑆ሻ 𝑊 𝑊 Τ𝑆

𝑔 𝑛2 − 1 with a given T
𝜓ሶ = (9.52)
𝑉 45
5. GLIDING FLIGHT

46
 5. GLIDING FLIGHT
 Gliding flight is similar to climbing flight with the thrust set to zero. The direction
of the gliding angle 𝛾 is assumed to be reversed from that used for climb.

𝐷 = 𝑊 sin 𝛾 (9.62) L
D
𝐿 = 𝑊 cos 𝛾 (9.63) Horizontal

𝐿 𝑊 cos 𝛾 1 1 V
= = ≅ (9.64)
𝐷 𝑊 sin 𝛾 tan 𝛾 𝛾 W

 The lift-to-drag ratio is the inverse of the tangent of the glide angle.
 In sailplane terminology, the "glide ratio" is the ratio between horizontal distance
traveled and altitude lost (1/ tan 𝛾) and is equal to the lift-to-drag ratio.
 A high-performance sailplane with a glide ratio of 40 will travel over seven
statute miles for every thousand feet of altitude lost.

47
 5. GLIDING FLIGHT
 To maximize range from a given altitude, the glide ratio (1/ tan 𝛾) should be
maximized. 𝐿 1
= (9.64)
𝐷 tan 𝛾
 This requires flying at the velocity for maximum L/D as found before in
minimizing 𝑇. The lift coefficient for maximum L/D is repeated (Section 2.1, Pages 16-18).

Conditions: 𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝐶𝐷0

2𝑊 𝐾 𝐶𝐷0
𝑉max 𝐿/𝐷 = 𝐶𝐿,max 𝐿/𝐷 =
𝜌𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 𝐾

𝐿 𝐶𝐿 1 1 𝜋𝐴𝑒 1
= = = 𝐾=
𝐷 𝐶𝐷 2 𝐾 ⋅ 𝐶𝐷0 2 𝐶𝐷0 𝜋𝐴𝑒
max max
48
 5. GLIDING FLIGHT
 The time a glider can remain in the air is determined by the “sink rate” the
vertical velocity 𝑉𝑣 , which is negative in this case. Sink rate is the aircraft velocity
times the sine of the glide angle. 1
L = V SC
2
L
2

𝑊 2 cos 𝛾
𝐿 = 𝑊 cos 𝛾 (9.63) 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑉 sin 𝛾 = sin 𝛾 (9.68)
𝑆 𝜌𝐶𝐿
 Equation (9.68) contains both sine and cosine terms. In Eq. (9.69), the sine of
the glide angle is expressed in cosine terms to allow substitution into Eq. (9.68),
as shown in Eq. (9.70). For typical small glide angles, the cosine term can be
ignored.
𝐿 1 cos 𝛾 𝐷 𝐶𝐷
= = (9.64) sin 𝛾 = cos 𝛾 = cos 𝛾 (9.69)
𝐷 tan 𝛾 sin 𝛾 𝐿 𝐶𝐿

𝑊 2 cos 3 𝛾 𝐶𝐷2 𝑊 2
𝑉𝑣 = ≅ (9.70)
𝑆 𝜌𝐶𝐿3 𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝐿3 Τ𝐶𝐷2
49
 5. GLIDING FLIGHT
 The lift coefficient for minimum sink rate (Vv) is solved for by
maximizing the term involving 𝐶𝐿 and 𝐶𝐷 . Note that this is also the lift
coefficient for minimum power required for level flight.
Conditions:
𝜕 𝐶𝐿3 𝜕 𝐶𝐿3
= 2 =0
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷2 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2 𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 3 ⋅ 𝐶𝐷0

3𝐶𝐷0 The velocity for minimum sink rate is

𝐶𝐿, min sink = 76% of the velocity for best glide ratio.
𝐾
𝐿 = 𝑊 cos 𝛾 ≅ 𝑊
2𝑊 𝐾 1 2𝑊 𝐾
𝑉min sink = = ∙ = 76% ∙ 𝑉max 𝐿/𝐷
𝜌𝑆 3𝐶𝐷0 3 𝜌𝑆 𝐶𝐷0

𝐿 3 3𝜋𝐴𝑒
= =
𝐷 min sink
16𝐾𝐶𝐷0 16𝐶𝐷0
50
 5. GLIDING FLIGHT
 A figure of sink rate versus velocity for sailplane, also known as a "speed-
polar", or "hodograph", can be used to graphically determine the velocities for
minimum sink rate and best glide ratio.

The velocity for minimum sink rate

is smaller (76%) than that for best
glide ratio.

Similar to climb analysis.

Sailplane sink rate.
51
7. TAKEOFF ANALYSIS

52
7. TAKEOFF ANALYSIS
 The segments of the takeoff analysis.

53
 7. TAKEOFF ANALYSIS
7.1 Ground Roll
 During the ground roll, the forces on the aircraft are the thrust, drag, and rolling
friction of the wheels, this last being expressed as a rolling-friction coefficient 𝜇 times
the weight on the wheels (𝑊 − 𝐿).
 A typical 𝜇 value for rolling resistance on a hard runway is 0.03.
 The resulting acceleration of the aircraft, can be expanded in terms of the aerodynamic
coefficients. This requires evaluating the lift and drag of the aircraft in ground effect
and with landing gear down and flaps in the takeoff position.
 The lift coefficient is based on the wing
angle of attack on the ground (measured to
the zero-lift angle) and is typically less than
0.1 unless large takeoff flaps are deployed.
g
a= T − D −  (W − L ) 
W
 T   
= g  −   + ( )
−CD0 − KCL2 +  CL V 2 
 W  2W / S  54
 7. TAKEOFF ANALYSIS
 The level ground-roll distance is determined by integrating velocity divided by
acceleration. 𝑉𝑇𝑂
𝑉 1 𝑉𝑇𝑂 1  T   
𝑆𝐺 = න 𝑑𝑉 = න 𝑑 𝑉2 a = g  −   + ( )
−CD0 − KCL2 + CL V 2 
𝑎 2 0 𝑎  W  2W / S 
0

 The takeoff velocity must be no less than 1.1 times the stall speed (by setting maximum
lift coefficient with the flaps in the takeoff position).
 The time to rotate to liftoff attitude depends mostly on the pilot (maximum elevator
deflection is rarely employed).

 A typical assumption for large aircraft is that

rotation takes 3 s. The acceleration is assumed
to be negligible over that short time interval,
so the rotation ground-roll distance 𝑆𝑅 is
approximated by 𝑆𝑅 = 3 ∗ 𝑉𝑇𝑂 .
 For small aircraft the rotational time is on the
order of 1 s, and 𝑆𝑅 = 𝑉𝑇𝑂 .

55
 7. TAKEOFF ANALYSIS
7.2 Transition
 During the transition from the moment of takeoff to a stabilized climb angle, the
aircraft follows a path that approximates a circular arc.
 During this time, it also accelerates from takeoff speed (1.1 𝑉stall ) to climb speed
(1.2 𝑉stall ). The average velocity during transition is therefore about VTR = 1.15 𝑉stall .
 The average lift coefficient during transition can be assumed to be about 90% of the
maximum lift coefficient with takeoff flaps. The average vertical acceleration in terms
of load factor [i.e., (n-1)*g] can then be found by:

1
𝐿 𝜌 1.15𝑉stall 2 𝑆 0.9𝐶𝐿max
𝑛= =2 ≅ 1.2
𝑊 1 2
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿max 𝑉stall
2

av = ( n − 1) g = 0.2 g

56
 7. TAKEOFF ANALYSIS
 The vertical load factor must also equal 1.0 plus the centripetal acceleration required to
cause the aircraft to follow the circular transition arc. → Radius of the transition arc.
2 2 2
𝑉TR 𝑉TR 𝑉TR
𝑛 = 1.0 + = 1.2 𝑅= =
𝑅𝑔 𝑔(𝑛 − 1ሻ 0.2𝑔
 The climb angle 𝛾 at the end of the transition is determined by:
𝑇−𝐷 𝑇 1
sin 𝛾climb = ≅ −
𝑊 𝑊 𝐿Τ𝐷
 𝛾climb is equal to the included angle of the transition arc,
so the horizontal distance traveled during transition is:
𝑇−𝐷 𝑇 1
𝑆TR = 𝑅 sin 𝛾climb =𝑅 ≅𝑅 −
𝑊 𝑊 𝐿Τ𝐷

 The altitude gained during transition is

determined from the geometry.

ℎTR = 𝑅 1 − cos 𝛾𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏

57
 7. TAKEOFF ANALYSIS
7.3 Climb
 Finally, the horizontal distance travelled during the climb to clear the obstacle height is:
ℎobstacle − ℎTR
𝑆𝑐 =
tan 𝛾climb

 The required obstacle clearance is 50 ft for military and small civil aircraft, and 35 ft
for commercial aircraft.

 If the obstacle height was cleared during

transition, then 𝑺𝒄 is zero.

SG + S R + STR + SC

Required field length

for takeoff

58
8. LANDING ANALYSIS

59
 8. LANDING ANALYSIS
Landing is much like taking off, only backward!
 The aircraft weight for landing analysis is specified in the design requirements
and ranges typically, from the takeoff value to about 85% of takeoff weight
(not the end-of-mission weight, in case of emergency that require land immediately after takeoff).

60
 8. LANDING ANALYSIS
8.1 Approach
 The approach begins with obstacle clearance over a 50-ft object. Approach speed 𝑉𝑎
is 1.3 𝑉stall (1.2 for military). The steepest approach angle can be calculated, with idle
thrust and drag with full flaps deflected. L
D
𝐷−𝑇 1 𝑇 T Horizontal
sin 𝛾𝑎 = ≅ −
𝑊 𝐿Τ𝐷 𝑊 a
 For transport aircraft the approach angle W
Va
should be no steeper than 3 deg, which
might require more than idle thrust.
 Approach distance is determined using
the flare height ℎ𝐹 .

ℎ − ℎ𝐹
𝑆𝑎 = obstacle
tan 𝛾𝑎

61
 8. LANDING ANALYSIS
8.2 Flare
 Flare is the reverse of takeoff transition and also approximates a circular path. The plane
transitions from descent at a stable approach angle, bringing up the nose and slowing
down until the airplane touches down with vertical velocity reduced to near zero.
 Touchdown speed is VTD = 1.15 𝑉stall (1.1 for military). The aircraft decelerates from 𝑉𝑎
= 1.3 𝑉stall (1.2 for military) to VTD during the flare.
 The average velocity during the flare 𝑉𝐹 is therefore 1.23 𝑉stall (1.15 for military). The
radius of the flare circular arc is found using 𝑉𝐹 , and where n = 1.2 for a typical aircraft.

𝑉𝐹2 𝑉𝐹2
𝑅= =
𝑔(𝑛 − 1ሻ 0.2𝑔

 The flare height and the horizontal

distance during flare can be found
similar to takeoff transition.
𝑆F = 𝑅 sin 𝛾𝑎
ℎF = 𝑅 1 − cos 𝛾𝑎 62
 1 0 1
𝑆𝐵 = න 𝑑 𝑉2
2 𝑉𝑇𝐷 𝑎
8. LANDING ANALYSIS  T   
a = g  −   + ( )
−CD0 − KCL2 + CL V 2 
 W  2W / S 
8.3 Ground Roll
 After touchdown, the aircraft rolls free for several seconds before the pilot applies
the brakes. The distance SFR is 𝑉𝑇𝐷 times the assumed delay (1-3 s).
 The braking distance SB is determined by the same equation used for takeoff ground
roll. The initial velocity is 𝑉𝑇𝐷 , and the final velocity is zero.
 The thrust term is the idle thrust. If a jet aircraft is equipped with thrust reversers,
the thrust will be a negative value approximately equal to 40 or 50% of maximum
forward thrust.
 However, the FARs do not permit use of
thrust reversing in meeting the
certification requirements; Thrust
reversers are added to airplanes for safety
and to save on brake wear, not to meet
FAA certification requirements.

Sa + S F + S FR + S B Required field length

for landing
63
OUTLINE
1. Equations of Motion
2. Steady Level Flight
3. Steady Climbing and Descending Flight
4. Level Turning Flight
5. Gliding Flight
6. Takeoff Analysis
Learning Tips:
7. Landing Analysis
➢ Derivations
✓ Physical meanings of basic equations
✓ Aerodynamic requirements for certain flights

64
SAMPLE QUESTIONS

65
Thank you !
Q&A ?